BI 2060 V081 IMPACTS FROM DISTURBANCES, POLLUTION, AND CLIMATE CHANGE Kaiser part three; Impacts Chapter 15: Conservation CONSERVATION Includes: Conservation

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IMPACTS FROM DISTURBANCES, POLLUTION, AND CLIMATE CHANGE

Kaiser part three; ImpactsChapter 15: Conservation

CONSERVATION

Includes:

Conservation of climate, landscape types, plant and animal societies, biotopes, species, populations and genes

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Chapter 15 subdivision

1 Introduction

2 Why conserve?

3 What to conserve

4 Economics of conservation

5 Conservation policy and legislation

6 Conservation in action

7 The future

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Chapter 15: The motivation for concervationIn 1768, only 27 years after it was discovered, Steller’s sea cow (Hydrodamalis gigas), a large, defendless mammal feeding on seaweed, had been hunted to extinction by human hunters. Its distribution range was limited to the coastal areas of the Kamchatska island.

The north Atlantic right whales (Eubalaena glacialis) was driven to the fringe of extinction by commercial whaling at the 18th and 19th century. Today, their total number is only about 300. Big, old fish specimens of all sorts become increasingly rear after decades of over-exploitation and destruction of marine habitats by land reclamation, pollution and construction.

Does it matter, and do we care?

Readers of this book probably do, but for the most of the increasing world population, the next meal is of more concern. In the treatment of cases concerning conservation and sustainable development, a marine ecologist is engaged on a large and complex arena, where practice and politics are affected by moral, culture, politics and economy. At the same time it is a very challenging and rewarding arena, where science plays a pivotal role for judging the sustainability of human activities, in the prioritation og conservation tasks, and in supporting the development of sustainable politics, management and conservation policy.

http://nn.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fil:Hydrodamalis_gigas_drawing.png

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INTRODUCTION

In the previous chapters we have seen how pollution, fisheries and aquaculture, together with climate change have affected and continue to affect the marine environment. These factor are only a small part of the possible antropogenic effects.In many cases, human activities are not sustainable; they threaten species, habitatsand ecosystems and the recreational values they represent. Applied marine ecology is a source of scientific facts to identify, when and where there is a need for action to preserve, both by judging the sustainability of the activities, and by developing methods to reduce non-sustainable activities.

At least in the political meaning of the word, conservation contributes to sustainabledevelopment, where the idea is that the needs of future generations shall not be compromised by our choises and actions today.

In this chapter the ethical and economical fundaments for marine conservation istreated, together with the question of how conservation tasks can be identifiedand prioritized.

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The natural environment sets limits for modern development and resource utiliza-tion, and these limits are affected by e.g. man-made climate changes. Some of the goals for preservation is legally founded (protection of endangered species, the right to pure water), but there are also strong ethical and economical reasons for milieu preservation. These will obviously vary with personal perseptions and situations.The conservation of biodiversity has been a main goal for modern conservationwork; it is easily understood and has not been very controversial.

A common definition of biodiversity is:”… the variation among living organisms of all sorts, inter alia terrestric, marine, the variation among living organisms of all sorts, inter alia terrestric, marine, and other aquatic ecosystems and the biological complexes they are parts of; and other aquatic ecosystems and the biological complexes they are parts of; this includes diversity within species, among species and in ecosystemsthis includes diversity within species, among species and in ecosystems” (The bio-Diversity Commission 2002 (cf Box 15.1 in the textbook”.

The arguments for this definition are:1. Man has a moral and ethical responsibility for life on earth2. Living organisms enriche our lives 3. Ecosystem values are the results of there being a large number of species 4. It is the diversity of species which enables ecosystems to adapt to changes in the milieu, and is a source of raw materlals which serves man.

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WHY CONSERVE?

Marine protection plans have been easier to get support for in cases when the protec-tion of the marine milieu also are economically beneficial; it is a source for both food,income and work, particularly in the poor parts of the world. For the industry, marineorganisms are also a source for valuable polysaccharids like agar and alginate. For bioprospecting, the marine environment has become more and more interesting.However, these facts do not mean that economic arguments have been easier toidentify than the ethical.

Man in the 21th century is very specialized to function under the current milieu regime.Various characteristics of the current milieu give protection against natural dangers; coral reefs protect against storms, vegetation and oceans regulate CO2 levels, the

oceans are resipients of vaste, etc. In many countries, recreation in pristine natureis an important economic income source as well a source of quality of life.

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HOW TO DECIDE WHAT IS WORTHY OF CONSERVATION?So far, the activity relating to protection and conservation of marine ecosystems have been a relatively defensive ”pointing finger” role, with warnings against dangers and reduction of de facto damage. Even if many countries have signed tractates which emphasize the so-called ”precautionary principle”, this important principle has not gained any tradition yet. Even in highly developed industrial countries like Norway, the protection of jobs and local societies are often stronger arguments than the preservation of nature. Special interest groups which protest against sanctuaries or catch-stop for a fish species can often count on the support from politicians.

It appears to be a rather general principle in our days, that economy and applied ecology only in few cases have a common goal; in most cases they will play antagonistic roles. Examples of this are easy to find:

• Quota recommendation from fishery scientists are almost always exceeded• Law propositions for protection of water drainages which threaten local • community economic interests will usually not pass • Oil activity in sensitive spawning areas are carried out despite protests• Earth gas powerstations are built without CO2 cleansing • It is not of interest to place any restrictions on the aquaculture industry despite the• knowledge of damage to natural populations and the decimation of fish species • used as feed for the farmed fisk.

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It is hardly realistic to believe that the controverse between economy and preservation will change appreciably in the times of modern market economy. There will be a need for compromises, and a priority list of important tasks relatedto sustainability. At the global level international decisions related to the handling of the danger of global warming have high priority (cf the Kyoto treaty). At regional and local level, the question of allocation of limited resources for conservation be important, together with the priority of specific tasks. Making priority list can be adifficult task, because many cases can wake irrational and emotional storms through media exposuremedia exposure. There are some charismatic species (like the big cats, the salmon, birds and reptiles) which often release most concern although the threats to entire habitats and plant/animal society are ecologically much more serious.Probably, conservation will never be an entirely rational process as long as so much emotion is involved.

World Conservation Union (IUCN) is maintaining a socalled ”red listred list” of species, whichis meant to be a easily understood classification system for species with a high riskof extinction. The work involved includes all described animal species, and manymarine fish and mammals are already on the list, also Norwegian species.

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HABITAT CONSERVATIONplays an increasingly important role in the marine environment, and there is anincreasing tendency of defining and implementing protected marine areasprotected marine areas. So far it has not been possible to establish any large geographic marine reserves, so that species such as whales are still managed on a stock-to-stock basis.

The prosess of establishing marine reserves involves:1. A description of the qualities of one or more areas2. An evaluation of the qualities against a set of criteria3. Application of methods for ranking the areas

The criteria may include:1. The rareness of the species, size of the area, representability and pristinity of it, cultural qualities, and vulnerabilty. Combining two or more areas in a network with free migration corridors between them can give synergistic effects.2. Whether it is practically possible (i.e. politically) to achieve3. Whether the desirable effect are actually and sufficiently effectively achieved (pollution, e.g., has often effects far beyond local areas)

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ECONOMICAL ASPECTS OF CONCERVATION

Economical development based on the utilization of natural resources often hashidden costs in the form of pollution, stock declines, bycatch, and loss of biologicaldiversity. These effects usually are not included in the calculation of costsThese effects usually are not included in the calculation of costs, neither by the authoroties nor by entrepreneurs who earn money on the utilization.Such a system cannot be characterized as sustainable, and will probably not last long.Marine fisheries are examples of how short-term economical motives lead to a non-sustainable regime, even when one knows that a sustainable regime would give ahigher long-term output for man. The system, as it workd today, have no incentivesfor the single person to waive taking out much today in order to harvest double as much in a few years. Longsightedness is not inbuilt in todays thinking and economicalrealities.

The texbook (page 498 and Fig. 15.1) treats this problem in more detail ("Discounting the future"). In short, the reasoning is that if fishing hard for a short period and then place the income on a bank account for five years, gives a higher total outcome than fishing less today in order to preserve the productivity of the stock and take out more in a five years period, the single person would choose the first alternative. However, detailed studies have shown that when all factors are taken into account in such calculations, it is the shortsighted perspective which are least profitable.

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CONCERVATION POLITICS AND LEGISLATION

Anthropogenic effects on the marine environment are the effects of individuals,local societies, cities and nations. The impact is affected by regulations and incentives from governments, social pressure, conscience and market forces.

In the end, it is the attitude of peopleattitude of people which has the greatest potensialfor changing an unwanted development. Attitudes can be influenced by education, economical incentives, legislation or military power. In a broad sence, one can say that conservation work is a choise between a top-down and a bottom-up approach, or a blend of those two.

Australia and New Zealand are examples of nation which have umplemented an unusually "green" policy for use of the marine environment. Education and influence already on the primary school level are effective in shaping attitudes. Excursions to aquaria and nature have increased both the knowledge level and the interest among young people relative to the use of the marine environment many places in the world. For example, the Monterey Bay Aquarium has been a big success (http://www.mbayaq.org/).

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CONTROLLING INTRODUCED SPECIES

To introduce alien species into well established ecosystems has sometimes bee planned, usually for the purpose of creating a new resource for economy or recreation. Actually, this was a very common practice a late as after the second world war, but is mostly abandoned as a management strategy today. Other introductions can be unplanned, for example the uncontrolled spread of plants and animals by ballast-water from tankers. Species introduced this way have usually become pest-organisms in their new habitats, and have lead to clogging of harbours and shallow waters, and reduction of the local marine flora and fauna as a result. In general, introductions have unpredictable consequencesIn general, introductions have unpredictable consequences. Established ecosystemes are maintained by dynamic balances between species, and the introduction of a new species with new characteristics and preferences can lead to cascade effectscascade effects resulting in changed and usually less diverse animal societies (cf IDH hypothesis in Ch.14).

Escape of exotic species from captivity (zoological gardens, fish farming facilities) is also a recognosed problem in the context of biodiversity concervation.



INTRODUCTIONS & TRANSFERS I

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A useful web-site showing the status of introductions and transfers is: http://dogfish.mit.edu/website/invasives/viewer.htm



INTRODUCTIONS & TRANSFERS II

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INTRODUCTIONS & TRANSFERS III

ICES (The International Council forthe Exploration of the Sea) gives out a blue-book with recommendations about how the members countries should relate themselves to intro-ductions and transfers of marine organisms.

One of the problem areas which is relevant is the unintended transfers of organisms by ballast water. Such organisms have often become pest-organisms in their new habitats, which often can be in a totally different part of the world than where they came from.



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INTRODUCTIONS & TRANSFERS IV

ICES has a "Working Group" of experts; WGITMO (Working Group on the Introduction and Transfer of Marine Organisms), which annually treats questions from ICES regarding recommendations for the management in the member states concerning introductions and transfers of marine organisms.

WGITMO, like other Working Groupsi ICES, delivers annual reports (see faximiliy of the Report in 2003 to the left).



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An adequate legislation for a policy which meets the demands for conservation of the environment depends in the end on the attitude of single personsthe attitude of single persons. Attitudes are shaped early in life, and an engaged teaching with popularised teams from naturehas been used with great success many places in the world. The childen are thelegislators of the future. Below; example from the Monterey Bay Aquarium.

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In most cases, marine ecosystems are not confined by country bordersIn most cases, marine ecosystems are not confined by country borders, and inter-national regulations and legislations become necessary. A range of initiatives havebeen taken. In Europe, this has crystallized in ICZM (Integrated Coastal ZoneManagement), where the different and often crossing interest og different acteursin the coastal zones can be weighted in an objected and unifying way. EU has asked its member countries to come up with national strategies for coastalzone management. The request is based on 8 principles:

1. a broad general perspective1. a broad general perspective2. a longterm perspective based on the precautionary principle2. a longterm perspective based on the precautionary principle3. an adaptive management3. an adaptive management4. local peculiarities and differences4. local peculiarities and differences5. to work in accordance with natural processes and economical capacity5. to work in accordance with natural processes and economical capacity6. to involve all parts in the process6. to involve all parts in the process7. support and involvement from the central authorities and local administration 7. support and involvement from the central authorities and local administration 8. a combination of remedies to simplify co-operation between administrative 8. a combination of remedies to simplify co-operation between administrative sectorssectors

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PRACTICAL CONSERVATION WORK

Some examples on how an active conservation policy have resulted in practical rsults are:

EIAEIA (Environmental Impact Assessment), a compulsatory forehand assessment of natur impact planned for the marine milieu.

EcolabellingEcolabelling: Product marking which enables consuments to make milieu choises, and which urge the industry to take part voluntary in sustainable development.

Marine reservesMarine reserves (Marine Protected Areas): The declaration of geographical areas where fishing and other forms of exploitation is forbidden.

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The reasoning behind marine reserves (no-take areas, boxes) or sanctuaries is that at least a part of a stock and in a part of itslife history, shall be left in peace for exploi-tation and other disturbances.

The most vulnerable life stages for disturbanceare often in connection with reproduction and in early life stages.

It is often desirable also to let some areas forfeeding and ongrowth be left undisturbed. This would contribute to the preservation ofthe genetic composition of a stock, which is probably changed by the use of size-selectivefishin gear (trawl, nets).

MARINE RESERVES

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THE FUTUREAny concurrent conservation action takes place in marine surroundings which already has been changed by human activities. One of the biggest obstacles for a successful conservation is the massive change that has already taken place in marine habitats and species, and the fact that one has to repair instead of having a proactive approach.

However, there has been a change in attitude and a new understanding for marine conservation, and many governments have committed themselves internationally to work for a sustainable development and approach to environmental questions. Not many examples of practical implementations exist so far, but some promising examples of marine preserves exist. It is a dilemma that while it is the rich part of the world that has the economic power to do this, it is the poor part which sits on the threatened resources. The perspectives are therefore not entirely positive, unless the international society commits itself to support and subsidize ecosystem friendly management also in the poor parts of the world.

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Chapter 15 Summarized

• Conservation means a sustainable management of the marine milieu. Sustainable management demands action to preserve or create an environment which do not threaten the welfare and quality of life for our descenders.

• National and international treaties express will to move against a sustainable development, but this needs to be incorporated in national legislation and international agreements.

• There are ethical, ecological, and economical reasons for conservation, but short-term economical motives lead to non-sustainable management.

• There are considerable practical problems in reshaping national political aspirations to practical actions.

• A sustainable development includes not only biological and ecological considerations, but also an assessment of what consequences a conservation action will have for local economical, social and cultural structures.

• Conservation actions will concern species, habitats, and ecosystems, and will involve many levels of ecologicl and administrative organisation. The success will depend on the general welfare and cultural values in the society.

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BI 2060 V081 IMPACTS FROM DISTURBANCES, POLLUTION, AND CLIMATE CHANGE Kaiser part three; Impacts Chapter 15: Conservation CONSERVATION Includes: Conservation