Beyond national culture:implications of cultural dynamics

for consumer researchC. Samuel Craig and Susan P. Douglas

Stern School of Business, New York University, New York, USA

Abstract

Purpose To develop a more thorough understanding of culture in a rapidly changing globalenvironment.

Design/methodology/approach The recent literature dealing with ways in which culturaldynamics are influencing the nature and meaning of culture are examined. Different perspectives ofculture related to three key components of culture, intangibles, material culture and communication,are explored. Based on this, directions for research on the content of culture are discussed as well ashow it should be approached.

Findings Culture is becoming increasingly deterritorialized and penetrated by elements from othercultures. This is resulting in cultural contamination, cultural pluralism and hybridization. It hasbecome more difficult to study culture as it is becoming diffuse. At the same time, it is becoming moreimportant to study it because of its pervasive influence on consumer behavior.

Research limitations/implications Given that culture is no longer a phenomenon defined byand isolated to a particular locale, research on culture must carefully specify the role of culture, definethe appropriate unit of analysis, isolate confounding influences and expand the range of contexts.

Originality/value The parallel trends of globalization and multiculturalism make it increasinglyimportant to develop a deeper understanding of culture and its various manifestations. For progress tobe made, research designs must account for this complexity and span multiple contexts to establishthe generality of findings. This will result in improved knowledge of culture and its role in moldingconsumption behavior.

Keywords Cross-cultural studies, National cultures, Globalization, Consumer behaviour

Paper type Conceptual paper

IntroductionCulture has a profound influence on all aspects of human behavior. Its impact may besubtle or pronounced, direct or oblique, enduring or ephemeral. It is so entwined withall facets of human existence that it is often difficult to determine how and in whatways its impact is manifested. Adding to the complexity of understanding the impactof culture is its inherently dynamic nature. Cultural influences change and cultureevolves as political, social, economic and technological forces reshape the culturallandscape (Usunier and Lee, 2005). Given the rapid pace of change, it becomesincreasingly imperative to take into account the dynamic character of culture and tounderstand the way the composition of culture is being transformed by global forces.

Expanding networks of inter-personal and mass communications, spawned by thegrowth of satellite communication links, the internet and voice/data networks havealtered traditionally static territorially based notions of culture (Hermans and Kempen,1998) and resulted in greater interchange and linkages between cultural entities.

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Received June 2005Revised November 2005Accepted November 2005

International Marketing ReviewVol. 23 No. 3, 2006pp. 322-342q Emerald Group Publishing Limited0265-1335DOI 10.1108/02651330610670479

Members of different cultural groupings are moving from one country to another,bringing with them their interests, values, and distinctive behavior patterns andintermingling with others, thus further clouding the spatial and social boundaries ofculture (Andreasen, 1990). This results in cultural interpenetration, i.e. the penetrationof one culture by another. As a result, it becomes increasingly difficult to identify theethnie core of a culture due to cultural contamination. Greater commingling andfusion of elements of different cultures at the same time dilutes, enriches, and altersindividual cultures.

The purpose of this paper is to develop a more thorough understanding of culturaldynamics and the different ways in which new sources of cultural influence arepermeating and changing society. Emphasis is placed on examining the components ofculture and providing a conceptual overview of the key forces impacting and changingculture. Its metamorphosis from a set of socially independent and geographicallyisolated units to a more complex, multi-level, intertwined, and evolving organism isexamined. This is based on examining previous literature in marketing and relatedfields, notably global sociology. First, different concepts of culture in marketingare explored. Then ways in which cultural dynamics are influencing the nature ofculture are examined. Based on this, some directions for research on the contentof culture are discussed as well as how it should be approached.

Culture and marketingCulture is a pervasive influence which underlies all facets of social behavior andinteraction. It is evident in the values and norms that govern society. It is embodied inthe objects used in everyday life and in modes of communication in society. Thecomplexity of culture is reflected in the multitude of definitions of culture. Krober andKluckholn (1952) in their classic review of culture in the Peabody papers listed over 160different definitions of culture, and were sufficiently dissatisfied with all of them to adda one more (161) of their own. Of all these definitions, perhaps the most widely acceptedis that given by Tylor (1881) who described culture as that complex whole whichincludes knowledge, belief, art, morals, law, custom and any other capabilities andhabits acquired by man as a member of society, or as later synthesized by Herskovits(1955) as the manmade part of the environment i.e. what distinguishes humansfrom other species.

Consumer researchers have largely followed this view of culture. McCracken (1986)adopts an all encompassing view of culture defining it as the lens through which theindividual views phenomena. As such it determines how individuals perceive andinterpret phenomena, provides the blueprint of human activity, determines theco-ordinates of social action and productive activity and specifies the behaviors andobjects that issue from both. This view follows closely the interpretative perspective ofscholars such as Clifford (1988), Geertz (1973) and Marcus (1999) and their view ofculture as interpretation of meaning in a culturally constituted world.

This represents a different view of culture from that recently discussed by Leunget al., (2005) which views culture as a multi-layered construct existing at differentlevels, global, national, organizational and group cultures, which encompass theindividual. Attention is focused on aggregate social and group processes, andparticularly the extent to which these are converging or diverging across countries,rather than on the individual, which is the heart of consumer culture. Emphasis is

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placed on the intersection of these aggregate levels and the factors, which facilitatecultural change. Individual characteristics are viewed as a moderating influence ratherthan the heart of the investigation as is the case in consumer research. Further, thecurrent epoch is viewed as one of partial globalization rather than of culturalconvergence.

The framework adopted here is based on that developed by Sojka and Tansuhaj(1995) who group research in marketing on culture into three major streams:

(1) abstract or intangible elements of culture such as values and belief systems;

(2) material aspects of culture, such as artifacts, symbols and rites; and

(3) the communication links which bind and perpetuate a cultural system.

Each of these perspectives is rooted in a different research tradition. As such eachprovides a unique and distinct perspective and insights into a facet of culture.

In the past, these three elements have often been discussed independently orattention has focused on a single element. They are, however, closely intertwined(Figure 1). Communication provides a means of transmitting the intangible aspects ofculture, such as values and beliefs from one person to another or from one generation toanother. This communication process is inherently dynamic and at the same timecontinually evolving. Artifacts ranging from religious icons to shoes or clothing, mayalso be an expression of intangible beliefs, and at the same time designate membershipin a particular culture.

The interdependence of the three elements is evident in the lifestyles of teensthroughout the world. They are exposed to media advertising as well as movies, musicand magazines, communicating shared values such as individualism, independenceand self-reliance. Items of apparel such as jeans, athletic shoes, baseball caps, jewelry,and watches, symbolize their membership in this global culture. At the same time,communications, such as advertising or magazines, both reflect and influence culturalvalues. For example, Nike advertising targeted at teens in the US emphasizes sportsand stresses individualistic values and competitiveness core values of US teenculture. The same advertising aimed at teens in collectivist societies that emphasizerelations and interaction with others, suggests and instills new values and may

Figure 1.Components of culture

LANGUAGE AND COMMUNICATION SYSTEMS

MATERIAL CULTURE AND ARTIFACTS

VALUES AND BELIEF SYSTEMS

CULTURE

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gradually change core beliefs to resemble those of their peers in the western world.This is not to suggest that all teens are subject to western influence, but the impact, tovarying degrees, is apparent throughout the world.

Values and belief systemsThe intangible elements of culture incorporate the dominant societal values and beliefsystems that characterize a society or culture and guide the patterning of behavior inthat society. Here, it is important to consider the layering of beliefs and value-systems aswell as their scope or relevance to a particular behavior or consumption situation.Value-systems can be examined at the level of the society, specific groups ororganizations within society, as well as at the level of the individual (i.e. personal values).Equally, values may be general value orientations, relating, for example, to time,behavior towards others, concepts of self or alternatively relative to specific areas ordomains of life, e.g. work and leisure, relations to others, or to specific consumption orpurchase situations, i.e. a gift, a consumer durable, a family purchase, or for ones self.

Attention has been focused on cultural intangibles at the societal level and theirimpact on individual behavior. However, there are numerous other intangibles thatimpact individual consumption patterns and ways of behaving. These include, forexample, ideals and aspirations, role norms and gender ideology, cultural myths,metaphors and signs. While complex and difficult to compare across cultures due totheir subjective and existential nature, these are nonetheless key elements of culturethat determine the patterning of daily life and behavior of consumers.

At the aggregate or societal level, a dominant stream of research has focused onidentifying value-orientations in society. In their classic study, Kluckholm andStrodtbeck (1961) identified four value orientations: mans relation to nature, timedimension, personal activity and mans relation to others. Particularly, influential hasbeen the schema of national culture developed by Hofstede (2001) based on anextensive study of work related goals and value patterns of managers in a largemulti-national company. He initially identified four dimensions: power distance, oracceptance of inequality in power in society; Individualism, or emphasis on self-interestand immediate family vs collective goals; uncertainty avoidance or societys tendencyto cope with unstructured situations by developing strict codes of behavior; andmasculinity vs femininity or the extent to which society values goals perceived asmasculine such as competition vs goals perceived as feminine such as nurturing.A fifth dimension, long- vs short-term orientation, was subsequently added when thestudy was extended to Asia based on a study of Chinese values. This revealed anotherdimension opposing long- to short-term aspects of Confucian thinking, persistence andthrift to personal stability and respect for tradition. These five dimensions arepostulated to represent the collective patterning of the mind, and to constitutefundamental value orientations that underlie differences in managerial practices,organizational patterns and decision-making. This has also been widely used inmarketing to characterize the national culture of different countries and as anindependent variable to explain or understand cross-national differences (Clark, 1990;Nakata and Sivakumar, 1996; Shimp and Sharma, 1987).

An alternative schema, grounded in Rokeachs value survey, was developed bySchwarz (1992). Schwarz grouped values into value types according to the underlyingmotivational goals. Reasoning that the same basic human values would be found in all

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cultures, he developed measures of each value and examined their existence in anumber of countries (Schwarz and Bilsky, 1996). This has also been widely used inmarketing and consumer behavior (Steenkamp et al., 1999).

At the societal level, these value types were grouped into three cultural dimensions,conservatism vs autonomy, hierarchy vs egalitarianism, and mastery vs harmony.While Schwarz viewed his approach as distinctly different from that of Hofstede, thereare some strong underlying similarities. The first two dimensions closely resemble theindividualism-collectivism and the power distance value-orientations while masteryvs harmony parallel Hofstedes masculinity/feminity dimensions. The similaritiesbetween the two value schemas provide further support for their validity as dominantvalue structures, which exist across societies.

Cultural orientation has been the central construct used in psychology and othersocial sciences (Oysermann et al., 2002) to understand and define culture (Aaker andMaheswaran, 1997; Aaker, 2000). This perspective, grounded in psychology, hasfocused on examining cognition and cognitive processes and the universality ofmodels and conceptual frameworks developed in one society or culture in another.Countries are selected as exemplars of either individualist or collectivist societiesand cognitive processes or behavior patterns of respondents in two or more countriescompared. A key objective is to determine whether cognitive processes and constructstypically identified in an individualist society such as the USA, can be generalized tocollectivist societies such as Hong Kong, Taiwan or Japan. In marketing, culturalorientation has been studied primarily in relation to marketing communications andcognitive processes. Differences have been found between individualist and collectivistsocieties in relation to the influence of consensus information on product evaluation(Aaker and Maheswaran, 1997), information content in advertising (Hong et al., 1987),emotional appeals in advertising (Aaker and Williams, 1998), and in the accessibility ordiagnosticity of persuasion appeals (Aaker, 2000). These studies suggest the existenceof major differences in the salience of appeals between individualist and collectivistsocieties, notably related to the importance of the individual relative to the group.

While cultural value orientations tap a central dimension of cultural variation andprovide a highly parsimonious approach to studying culture, they constitute broadsocietal constructs which do not reflect more nuanced or process-oriented aspects ofsociety or the importance of contextual variables in influencing behavior and cognition(Miller, 2002; Oysermann et al., 2002). In particular, they ignore differences amongindividuals in the extent to which they subscribe to the dominant societal culturalorientation as well as the extent to which cultural influences may be activated in agiven situation (Briley et al., 2001). It has, therefore, been argued that a dynamicconstructionist view of culture should be adopted, which focuses on identifying specificknowledge structures or implicit cultural theories that mediate social behavior inspecific domains (Hong and Chui, 2001).

Material culture and artifactsEach culture has its own vision of the world and set of culturally constituted meaningsthat provide understanding and rules for its members which may be unintelligible toothers. Within this stream, McCrackens (1986) work provides a framework forunderstanding the cultural meaning of consumer goods and consumption patterns(Applebaum and Jordt, 1996). It identifies cultural categories of time, space, nature, and

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person as the fundamental co-ordinates of meaning that organize the phenomenalworld. A key mechanism framing interpretation of consumption is advertising in asociety, which serves as a conduit through which viewers or readers are informed ofthe meaning of consumer goods (Belk and Pollay, 1985; Tse et al., 1989).

Material culture incorporates the rituals, artifacts, institutions and symbols of asociety that bind it together and establish rules and norms for behaving towards otherswithin society, either in general or on specific occasions such as weddings, funerals,festivals, etc. The meaning and symbolism attached to individual possessions andgoods owned by individuals, families or social groups and the significance attached togifts and gift-giving rituals are also important elements of material culture.Consumption patterns also demarcate life-styles and social class (Holt, 1998).

The meaning attached to possessions is another integral component of culture.Wallendorf and Arnould (1988) note objects serve as the set and props on thetheatrical stage of our lives and markers to remind ourselves of who we are. Favoriteobjects serve as possessions that reflect local cultures, and as such different values andsocial structure. In the southwest of the US, favorite objects represent uniqueindividual expressions of self or personal experiences, while in Niger they are fewerand more likely to represent links with other members of society, either of aco-operative, e.g. Koranic texts, or competitive nature, e.g. horses (Wallendorf andArnould, 1988). While the specific objects differed between cultures, attachment toobjects as distinct from materialism is a pervasive phenomenon in all cultures.

The rituals and institutions established by society are important indicators of thestrength of cultural ties and the shared collective programming of society. In Japan, forexample, the existence of formal rituals and customs is an important element bindingthe society and ensuring harmonious relations among its members. In the USA, on theother hand, the broad mix of cultures and national origins results in multiple anddiverse cultural traditions and rituals which often intermingle and blend into eachother.

Rituals associated with consumption behavior, or specific consumption occasionsprovide insights into the way in which consumer goods are embedded in and form anintegral part of the cultural fabric of society (Arnould, 1989; Belk et al., 1989). Giftgiving has been one of the most extensively studied social rituals (Belk, 1988: Sherry,1983). Here, the practices surrounding the formalized nature of gift giving in Japan hasbeen contrasted with gift-giving practices in other cultures. Equally, study ofgift-giving practices in Hong Kong has revealed these to be embedded in particularsocio-cultural practices, which form a continuum from intimates to acquaintances(Joy, 2001). In essence, each culture develops its own gift-giving practices incorporatingties of obligation and reciprocity consistent with the network of social relationshipswithin the culture.

Brands also serve as cultural markers (Holt, 1998). The meaning and set ofassociations surrounding a brand name as also a brand category may vary from oneculture to another (Joy, 2001; Sherry, 1983). Studies of diffusion patterns and favoriteobjectives also underscore differences in preference formation from one culture toanother and hence the importance of understanding cultural-specific factorsunderlying diffusion patterns in society (Wallendorf and Arnould, 1988).

These studies generate a rich understanding of consumption phenomena at aparticular site, especially in terms of product use and symbolism. However, to the

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extent that the unit of analysis is a specific cultural context, generalizations to abroader context, and implicit comparisons with regard to other cultures are difficult tomake. As a result, integration of findings relating to specific sites into a broaderunderstanding of cultural influences on consumption, and of the significance andmeaning of these influences across multiple sites or cultural contexts is somewhatproblematic. Ultimately, much depends on how sites are selected, and the culturalcomponents being studied

Language and communication systemsThe view of culture as content focuses on interpreting the role of artifacts and themeanings consumers ascribe to them. Closely related to this is research that examinesthe meaning and implications of language as an interpretation of culture. While bothstreams may end up examining similar stimuli, the focus is different. Content studiesexamine the role and meaning of an object as it is used by consumers. For example,favorite objects of specific cultural groups such as the Hansa (Arnould, 1989) andIndian immigrants to the US (Mehta and Belk, 1991) and Italian immigrants inMontreal (Joy et al., 1995) have been studied. Communication studies, on the otherhand, examine the use of objects and language as conveyors of culture, as for example,the use of ideographic writing systems in brand recall (Schmitt et al., 1994).

Communication is a key element of culture as it provides a mechanism fortransmitting and interpreting messages relating to the world around an individual.Communication takes place in a physical and social context such as time, locationand the social relationship of the participants, as well as in relation to other competingmessages (Hall, 1973). All these influence and condition how a communicationis received. Members of a culture share a common key for interpreting theirsocial surroundings, which establishes rules for governing the interaction. Membersof different cultures may not know how to interpret these signs, resulting inmiscommunication.

Modes of communication both verbal and non-verbal are an integral part of culture(Hall, 1973, 1976; Samovar and Porter, 1994; Whorf, 1956) and provide links within andacross cultural units. Communication arises from the need to connect and interact withothers and unites otherwise isolated individuals. Communication involves messagesthat are encoded and transmitted to others who decode them and respond accordingly.

Language is a key component of communication since it provides a mechanism forencoding and decoding messages. A shared language is thus a key factor unifyingmembers of a common culture. Language provides an organizing schema forinterpreting and understanding the world. The Sapir Whorf hypothesis, for example,postulates that language plays an important role in the formation of thought patternsand behavioral response as well as in the transmission of cultural norms and behaviorpatterns from one generation to another (Whorf, 1956). Thus, for example, Eskimoshave several words for snow to reflect different types of snow, and in the UK there aremultiple words for different types of rain.

Language and communication also give meaning to objects and symbols for theindividual. At the same time, they act as a unifying force binding together the membersof a specific society and culture, and facilitating intra-group interaction, while at thesame time hindering interaction with members of other societies and cultures. Rapidadvances in communications technology have dramatically reduced the importance of

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geographic proximity for communication. Individuals can now be in instant touch withothers around the world by voice or written word. Information that once took days orweeks to spread is available immediately. As a result, physical proximity is no longer akey requirement for formation of a cultural entity.

Language has many facets that relate to the meaning of consumer products.Linguistic structure plays an important role in the formation of cognitive processessuch as perception and hence judgment and choice (Schmitt and Zang, 1998) as well asin brand recall and recognition (Schmitt et al., 1994) and the encoding and recall ofinformation (Tavassoli, 1999). Equally, foreign language and loanwords can help inestablishing the identity of a local (indigenous) product (Sherry and Camargo, 1987).Use of a minority subcultures language in advertising (Koslow et al., 1994) has alsobeen found to impact consumer response. Examination of how bilinguals processinformation in advertisements further demonstrates the importance of language inmessage recall (Luna and Peracchio, 2001). Language is shown to be an importantthread of culture not only in communication within a culture, but also in categorizingcultural content and in retaining information relating to that culture.

While language is a key element of culture it provides only one aspect ofcommunication in a culture. In addition, visual expression, gestures and signs areoften important elements of communication particularly in certain types of cultures(Hall, 1976). Both language and visual modes of communication play an importantrole in social communication and issues such as message interpretation ormisinterpretation which merit further attention, particularly in relation tocommunications between cultures.

Intercultural communication, or face-to-face communication between people ofdifferent national cultures, gives rise to numerous issues of which differencesin language constitute but one important barrier (Gudykunst, 2003). Differences incultural background, values and mores and self-identifies may act as impediments toeffective communication. Ways of expressing emotions, perceptions of self, others andof phenomena may also differ and give rise to problems of miscommunication. As aresult communication between peoples of different cultures is fraught with difficulties.Even within cultures different groups and communities may have their own particularmodes of communication, binding them together, but at the same time excluding others(Abrams et al., 2003).

The three intertwined components of culture comprise the underlying fabric ofsociety. They permeate all aspects of daily life and human interaction. However,culture is not static, but continually evolving and changing. As a result of increasedmovement, contact, and interaction occurring across cultures, local cultural patternsand traditions are being altered, breaking down and being permeated by newinfluences from other cultures. These dynamics and their consequences are discussednext.

Cultural dynamicsGrowing links between local cultures and the increasing permeability of culturalboundaries are changing the nature of culture and transforming its patterning.With advances in communications technology, cultures are increasingly linked byglobal flows diffusing ideas, products and images across the world at amazing speed.The sociologist Appadurai (1990) has identified five global flows that are transforming

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the nature of society and muting the effect of divisions and barriers between them.Mediascapes, i.e. flows of image and communication, are the most far-reaching in bothinfluencing consumers and at the same time are subject to influence by marketers.Ethnoscapes, i.e. flows of tourists, migrants, foreign students, are also shaping beliefsand result in direct exposure of members of one culture to another. Ideoscapes, i.e.flows of political ideas and ideologies, exert more subtle influences that take more timeto have any impact. Ethnoscapes and mediascapes are the conduits for transmission ofideas and ideologies. The last two scapes, technoscapes, i.e. flows of technology andknow-how or linkages between plants and offices throughout the world, andfinanscapes, i.e. flows or capital and money, are important forces but less evident forindividual consumers. In many instances it is the desire to expand markets for goodsand services that sets many of these flows in motion. Technology and capital arecritical factors for business as they seek to expand around the globe and their impact isultimately manifested in the first three scapes. These flows are the primarymechanisms that transmit content from one culture to another.

The five global flows dramatically change the character of the global landscape, andin particular, the way in which the cultural context is configured. Traditionally, culturehas been viewed as localized and defined by territorial boundaries. Cultural behaviorpatterns are viewed as delimited within a given locality, with little interaction oroverlap with other cultures. The strength of global flows creates a very differentlandscape in which cultural patterns are no longer concentrated in a given locality, butare rather interconnected across broad geographic areas and multiple groupings ascultural boundaries become less clearly defined. The consequences of these flows areidentified in Table I and the remainder of this section is devoted to an elaboration ofthese consequences.

Cultural interpenetrationFlows from one culture to another, result in the second culture being interpenetrated bythe first. When the flows are bilateral, both cultures become interpenetrated. As linksare established across cultures, geographically localized cultural entities are rapidlydisappearing. New contact zones or spatial patterns of interaction are establishedacross national groups and cultures. For example, changing ethnoscapes result in thecreation of ties that span national boundaries (Hermans and Kempen, 1998). As guestworkers from developing countries enter into the work force of more affluent societies,

Dynamic Definition

Cultural interpenetration Flows of information, ideas and products from one culture enter anothertransforming its nature

Deterritorialization A particular culture is no longer defined exclusively in terms of a specificgeographic location

Cultural contamination A culture becomes tainted by elements of other cultures making it moredifficult to identify the central ethnie core of the culture

Cultural pluralism Individuals within a culture exhibit elements of multiple cultures.Sometimes this is a product of a transition from one culture to another.It may also be a product of close contact with different cultures

Cultural hybridization A fusion of two or more elements from different cultures resulting in a newcultural element

Table I.Consequences of culturaldynamics

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they are able to retain contact with their homeland through global media, resulting inattachment to policies in their country of origin, or bringing in products from thatcountry. For example, Turkish migrant workers to Germany and the Netherlands haveintroduced the Doner Kebap, a Turkish sandwich of roasted meat, and pide,Turkish flat bread, into those countries (Caglar, 1995). If there are sufficient numbers ofimmigrants, retail shops and restaurants will be established that offer products andservices from their home country.

In some instances, such ties may result in disruption or discontinuities, asdominance of an immigrant group gives rise to fears of disappearance of indigenouslocal habits and traits. In other cases, these intrusions are benign, and different culturesco-exist in harmony along side each other, each respecting the boundaries of the other,and in some cases adopting certain habits or traits of the other.

DeterritorializationOne of the consequences of cultural interpenetration is that a specific culture is nolonger confined to a defined geographic locale. Linkages and scapes crossing manydiverse cultures create an array of transnational contact zones or cultural contexts.On the one hand, they impact the homogeneity of the different cultures and on theother; establish linkages that transform locality to translocality (Featherstone, 1990).This deterritorialization of culture implies that geographic location is far less criticaland at times misleading in defining culture and cultural particularity. A culture thatonce developed relative to specific resources or specific institutions available at a givenlocation, now draws from different resources scattered in multiple locations andthrough links established between locations.

Localized cultural units no longer form the nuclei for the development of distinctcultures, but are replaced by geographically dispersed cultures linked together throughmodern communications technology (Pieterse, 1995; Hermans and Kempen, 1998).Cultural boundaries are becoming more porous, as contact is established betweendifferent cultural contexts through the various flows. As a result of such contact,values, attitudes and/or behavior are becoming more amorphous and continuallychanging, particularly with regard to other cultures and cultural values.

Cultural contaminationOne important consequence of changing cultural boundaries and the reconfiguration ofthe cultural context is cultural contamination. No longer can the pure ethnie core of aculture and its distinctive compositional elements be clearly distinguished. Thiscommon ethnie of shared memories, myths, values and symbols woven together andsustained in popular consciousness (Featherstone, 1990) is becoming more broadlydiffused among the general population and no longer forms a common bond shareduniquely by members of the culture.

The ease of establishing contact between individuals at geographically dispersedlocations throughout the world through global systems of communication and massmedia, further contributes to the breakup of the close knit ties of local cultures and thewidespread diffusion of products, ideas and images of diverse cultures. This results ina blurring of cultural boundaries which is further reinforced by increased consumermobility and travel and greater exposure to global and culturally diverse media.

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Cultural pluralismRather than rapidly assimilating into a host country, immigrants in many countriesand contexts are retaining their own ethnic or cultural identity (Thompson andTambyah, 1999). This is facilitated by the ease with which links can be maintainedacross cultural contexts. The proliferation of cultural groupings is also resulting inincreasing cultural pluralism. As a result, consumers often belong to multiple culturalgroupings, i.e. ethnic, linguistic or religious groups, and hence have multiple identities.For example, female Catholic Korean immigrants in California are members of theAsian immigrant culture in California, as well as the Korean culture, the Koreanimmigrant culture in California, and the Catholic Asian culture, etc.

Some individuals identify strongly with multiple groupings. For example, aPakistani Muslim immigrant, may identify strongly with the Muslim religion, with hiscountry of origin, as well as with his country of adoption, rather than shifting fromidentification with his country of origin to his country of adoption as is commonlyassumed (Alexander, 1994). This gives rise to the question of whether strong ethnic orcultural identification is a personality trait, or in other words, whether someindividuals have a strong drive to identify with a group, while others have muchweaker drives for group identification.

Different identities may, therefore, be operant depending on the specific context orsituation. The ethnic identity of origin may, for example, be operant in the home, whilethat of the host culture dominates in the work place. Equally, the importance of aspecific cultural influence may vary depending on the product category. For example,religion may be operant in terms of food and sometimes clothing purchases, whileethnic origin influences choice of store, and language determines choice of informationsources.

HybridizationA very subtle trend is the hybridization of cultures. As Pieterse (1995) indicates,hybridization occurs when . . . new forms become separated from existing practicesand recombine with new forms in new practices. Thus, rather than resulting in ahomogeneous or universal globalization, different compositional elements and culturalstreams become intermingled, forming a complex new entity combining elements ofeach stream.

Hybridization occurs not only among elements of culture that are in harmony witheach other, as for example, adoption in the USA of other elements of western culturesor Japanese art forms, but among cultures that are substantially different from oneother. Thus, for example, European Americans adopt African-American music just asIndian musical traditions have permeated western music, resulting in the emergence ofworld music (Pieterse, 1995; Featherstone and Lash, 1995).

Co-existence of people from different cultures in close proximity may also lead tohybridization of culture (Pieterse, 1995) as they become intermingled throughintermarriage, or other forms of social interaction. Immigrants of different national orethnic origins will become exposed to each others cultural traditions, life-styles andbehavior patterns, as well as those of their common host culture. The customs orfestivals of one group may be adopted by others, as for example; Christmas has beenwidely adopted in many Asian countries by non-Christians. Similarly, American sportssuch as basketball, baseball and football have been adopted in other parts of the world,

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and soccer in the US. As a result, cultural identities are continually changing andevolving over time and compositional elements are no longer specific to a given contextas the fluidity of boundary lines blurs the lines of cultural demarcation.

Implications for research on cultureEach of the three streams of research identified earlier provides a distinctive apertureand lens to view the intertwined facets of culture. Each is rooted in a specific researchtradition reflecting a focus on a particular aspect of culture. As a result, any oneperspective provides only a partial glimpse that fails to capture the full richness ofcultural influences. As a consequence, findings are often interpreted in terms of a singleperspective, ignoring other possible interpretations or insights.

The complexity of cultural influences and the numerous ways in which these arechanging, suggest the need to adopt a broader perspective. This perspective shouldcapture the richness and diversity of these different aspects of culture and theirinfluence, as well as providing a view of culture that can be applied meaningfully tomarketing situations. In addition to thinking about conceptual issues in designingresearch on culture, research design must also consider the methodologicalimplications of changing cultural dynamics. Both of these are examined next.

Conceptual issues in cross-cultural researchResearch might, for example, usefully focus on studying in-depth a particular cultureover time, examining how values and belief systems evolve, how patterns ofcommunication change and new forms of material artifacts replace the old. Given theimportance of the global flows identified earlier, of even greater salience is theexamination of how such flows impact cultural patterning and establish linkagesacross cultural boundaries. Cultural interpenetration, cultural contamination, culturalpluralism and hybridization while by no means new, have been little studied to date.More detailed examination of such phenomena and the implications for marketingwould undoubtedly provide fruitful avenues for understanding the dynamics ofcultural change.

A consequence of cultural interpenetration is cultural contamination. This impliesthat the central values of a culture are no longer distinct and readily measurable, butrather permeated by influences from other cultures. Consequently, there will be greatervariance within country on measures of individual values such as the Schwarztypology. Greater within country variance also makes it more difficult to obtainsignificant differences between countries as well. Equally, at the aggregate level, thedominant value system of a country or region will begin to incorporate values fromother countries. The rate and degree of change will be a function of the extent and typeof contact with other countries. Values typically characterizing western societies, suchas individualism and independence, will increasingly be adopted in collectivist Asiansocieties. At the same time, Asian values such as harmony will become more evident inwestern societies. Examination of the extent to which individuals in a given society areembracing non-traditional values from other societies would begin to document theextent of change.

The mechanisms through which such changes in the value system occur vary.Some individuals who have been exposed to other cultures either passively throughmass-media and communication systems or actively through living in or traveling to

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other cultures, will exhibit adaptability to different culture systems as they move fromone culture to another. Such individuals have been termed variously world minded(Beckmann et al., 2000) or cosmopolitan (Cannon and Yaprak, 2002; Thompson andTambyah, 1999). In a recent study of worldmindedness (Beckmann et al., 2000),qualitative research was undertaken in a preliminary emic stage of research to assesshow individuals in the three countries studied, Austria, Denmark, and the USA,perceived the concept of worldmindedness or cosmopolitanism. This was closelyrelated to the linguistic context of the study.

More research is also needed to assess how far language influences meaning andequivalency in different cultures. More specifically, it is important to assess whetherthe same construct is linked to the same product related attitudes and consumptionpatterns in each country. As cultural interpenetration and contamination occur, theunique material associated with the ethnie core of a culture, i.e. its artifacts, symbolsand rituals will become less clear and readily identifiable. It will become increasinglydifficult to distinguish one ethnie core from another. A blurring of the ethnie corewill occur as objects and symbols transferred from one culture to another are adopted,and often adapted in a new and different cultural context. Traditions and ritualsbecome intermingled and merged, as those of one culture are adopted and absorbed byanother. As a result of this interchange new food consumption patterns, clothing orentertainment that reflect a fusion of two or more cultures are emerging, as forexample, Afro Hispanic rhythms or Asian fusion cuisine. At the same time, increasingcultural interpenetration results in a resurgence of traditional rituals and artifactsamong a small fragmented market segment. Often they may seek to establish andreaffirm their cultural identity and affinity, resulting in extensive use of objectsand symbols as well as performance of rituals characteristic of their culture of origin.

Cultural dynamics also influence the diffusion of objects and artifacts from oneculture to another or the extent to which symbols of belonging to one culture have beenadopted by another. Measures to trace the flows of goods and artifacts from one cultureor geographic location to another need to be developed. This requires more thantracing the diffusion of new products from one country to another. It implies that, forexample, studies should track not only the movement of goods, but also the transfer ofmeaning associated with the objects. This is particularly salient for objects that arecultural icons or typical of a particular culture.

Given the increased fluidity of culture and the growth of inter-linkages betweencultures, it is important that more time is spent examining the extent to which tradelinkages and communication links such as media, or travel as well as culturalsimilarity or geographic distance influence adoption of products from one country toanother. As communication across broad geographic distances becomes increasinglyeasy, linguistic similarity of cultures becomes more critical than geographic proximityin determining diffusion patterns.

US films have, for example, been found to be more successful in English-speakingcountries, countries with values similar to the USA, and somewhat surprisingly, thosewith more McDonalds outlets per capita (Craig et al., 2005). Subsequent research mightvalidate this latter indicator as a measure of Americanization, examining whether thenumber of McDonalds is related to consumption of other US products such as Levisjeans or Nike athletic shoes. Further, the extent to which adoption of such symbols ofAmericanization is related to other indicators of links with the USA or of potential

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US influence might be examined, as for example, trade flows with the USA, presenceof US subsidiaries, mail flows, telephone communications, and number of business andtourist travelers to and from the USA. Similar measures examining bilateral flows ofproducts, trade and communication between two or more countries could be used toassess the relative influence and inter-linkages between other countries.

Tracking of links between different cultures at the macro-economic, product-marketand individual level can provide an indication of the interconnection between thesecultures and the degree of intercommunication. This should also include examinationof verbal communication such as phone calls or face-to-face meetings, as well asphysical and written communication, as for example, travel between cultures,movement of goods and performance of services across cultural boundaries, use of theinternet, e-mail, instant messaging, etc.

Given the fluidity of communication, research needs to capture the dynamics as theyunfold, focusing, for example, on the impact of the rise of bilingualism or the increaseduse of loan words. In targeting immigrant bi-linguals, the effectiveness of adapting adsto local languages needs to be further probed. Attention might be directed towardslanguage preference differences between first, second and third generation immigrants,as also whether the similarity of their native language to the language of the country oradoption, or socio-economic status plays a role. The extent to which immigrants havelearned the language prior to arriving in the country of adoption, as well as the reasonsfor choosing to immigrate to a particular country are also important.

Use of loan words also merits further investigation and is becoming increasinglysignificant as more individuals travel and are exposed to languages, customs, brandnames and material objects from other countries (Sherry and Camargo, 1987). Researchmight focus on the factors underlying the rise of this phenomenon, as for example,increased inter-linkages and communication between countries and cultures, similarityin cultural values between countries, etc. This will require text-based analysis, i.e. ofthe ad stimuli that provide a mirror of the values and practices of a culture (Belk andPollay, 1985). This type of analysis is greatly facilitated by the availability of ads inan electronic format. In addition, use of electronic techniques such as e-mail andinternet-based surveys allow use of qualitative analysis in conjunction withquantitative analysis to tap into the emotional impact of ads (Sharman et al., 2004).

Methodological issues in cross-cultural researchSpecifying the role of culture. Research on culture must specify why and in what wayculture is relevant to the phenomenon being studied (for more detail on internationalresearch methodology see, Craig and Douglas, 2005; Douglas and Craig, 2006). This inturn requires delineating different levels of culture, i.e. global, regional, national,sub-national, to be examined and the nature of their influence on consumptionbehavior. In some cases, cultural influences may form the focal point of the study, asfor example, where attention is centered on examining cultural conventions suchas weddings, and the extent to which traditional wedding practices in countries such asChina and Thailand are becoming westernized. In other cases, cultural factors mayplay a mediating role. For example, the extent to which values, such as ethnocentricismor world mindedness, mediate responses to marketing stimuli, could be examined bygauging responses to advertising showing products positioned as foreign or domestic(Alden et al., 1999).

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Where attitudes, interest and behavior are examined in multiple contexts, it isimportant to select these contexts based on some relevant dimension or aspecthypothesized to affect the attitudes and behavior studied. For example, inter-personalbehavior might be examined in a collectivist vs an individualistic society (Triandis,1995). Observed differences can then be attributed to collectivist vs individualisticvalues. In this case, the societies being compared should differ primarily with regard tothe aspect of interest, and not systematically with regard to some other underlyingfactor, which may affect the outcome. Factors such as country size, population density,average level of education, and per capita income may all exert some influence on theobserved outcome. Inclusion of other cultural distance measures such as geographicdistance or cultural similarity (using, for example, the Schwarz individual levelmeasures) in investigating differences and similarities in attitudes and consumptionpatterns between countries and cultures would also help to shed further light on theimpact of culture.

Identifying the unit of analysis. Deterritorialization, market fragmentation and thedevelopment of linkages across national borders imply that national culture is nolonger as relevant as the unit of analysis for examining culture. Rather the dominanceof national culture and national borders has been replaced by a multiplicity of complexcultural influences, which may be studied at the global, regional, cross-national or subnational (e.g. urban/rural) level. Research designs must begin to take into account thesedifferent levels of culture. Further, less reliance should be placed on the country as theunit of analysis. Instead greater attention is needed to alternative units which are finerand more closely knit to find ones that are culturally pure.

The culti-unit proposed by Naroll, the cultural anthropologist is particularlyuseful in identifying analytically pure units to study (Naroll, 1970). A culti-unit consistsof people who are domestic speakers of a common distinct language and belong to thesame state or contact group. The two key criteria defining the unit are language,which may be a dialect or main language, and the degree of social interaction andcommunication. This definition is well suited for examining consumer behavior, wherelanguage and communication or interactions are often important boundary linesstaking differences and similarities in consumption and purchase behavior (Douglasand Craig, 1997). Use of the culti-unit is also consistent with the view that transmissionof collective identity requires a sense of continuity, shared memories, and a sense ofcommon destiny in order to endure (Smith, 1990). An enduring cultural identity is mostforcibly provided at the level of the contact group with its ethnie core of shared myths,memories, values and symbols.

There are two key issues involved in identifying and analyzing a culti-unit.First, the culti-unit has to be identified so that the research effort can progress. Theavailable sampling frames or the population to which the researcher has access willtypically be the defining factor, as it is difficult to identify an appropriate culti-unit apriori. In many cases, therefore the definition may be subjective and somewhatarbitrary. The second step is more important, that of determining whether the selectedculti-unit appears to be analytically pure. Since, cultural contamination occursprimarily through outside influence, the purity of a culti-unit and the extent to whichits ethnie core has been culturally contaminated can be assessed by examining in-depththe impact of relations of members of a given culti-unit with individuals within andoutside the group. A given culti-unit can be selected, for example, ethnic Chinese living

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in an upscale area in Guangzhou China. Once all the data have been collected, thevalues, beliefs, and consumer behavior patterns of those who have traveled abroadextensively and have substantial business and/or social interaction with Chinese inother areas of China or with individuals in other parts of the world can then becompared with those whose relations and interaction are predominantly with otherChinese of the same background and in the same area in Guangzhou. The differencesobserved between the two groups will then suggest how the ethnie core is evolving andthe extent to which cultural contamination is taking place.

Isolating confounding influences. A third issue concerns the isolation of confoundinginfluences on the behavior studied. This in turn is closely related to the definition of theunit of analysis and the structure of the research design. Since, multi-site marketingresearch involves the comparison of variations between spatially distinct entities orunits, it is critical that confounding external influences be isolated or accounted for.Further, interaction between units will plague the researcher and contaminate researchresults. This poses a particular problem in examining the dynamics of cultural changeinsofar as respondents are exposed to direct and indirect influences that extend wellbeyond their locale.

As Galton noted in his remarks following Tylors presentation of his classic paperon the cross-cultural method at the Royal Statistical Society in 1889, it is typicallyimpossible to obtain cross-cultural sampling units, which are independent of each other(Naroll, 1970). Traits that are supposedly culturally distinctive often spread betweenneighboring or historically proximate regions through diffusion or migration. Thisproblem apparent over 100 years ago is even more significant intodays world wherethe five flows identified by Appudurai are inter-linking countries.

Respondents, especially where these are students, are likely to have traveled toother countries or at a minimum have been exposed to ideas and influences emanatingfrom other countries and cultures. Even respondents, who have not traveled, areexposed to images and information about other countries through mass media.Consequently, findings relating to differences or similarities between countries, forexample, in relation to consumption or purchasing patterns, attitudes towards differentforeign or global brands, may simply reflect consumer mobility and migration, andexposure to other life-styles and consumption patterns

This suggests that it is important to set-up controls to test for the impact of suchinfluences on attitudes and behavior, especially where this relates to products fromanother cultures. Respondents can, for example, be asked to indicate the extent towhich they have traveled or lived in other cultures, listen to TV programs and othermedia, use the internet, have friends or relatives from other cultures, or are in generalinterested in and exposed to information about other cultures.

Expanding the range of contexts. Another priority is the extension of the range anddiversity of countries and socio-cultural contexts. This is critical in order to understandwhich elements of culture are universal and which are embedded in a specific culture.It will also aid in studying variation in cultural theories and constructs in differentsocietal contexts. Study of a broader range of socio-cultural contexts especially whereextensive preliminary research is conducted in each case; also helps to identify newconcepts and constructs or relevant elements of culture. In addition, it enablessystematic examination of the impact of specific aspects of the socio-cultural context,such as language, size or geographic scope. This is parallel to the distinction made by

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Lonner and Adamopoulos (1997) in comparing the impact of cultural context vscultural content.

Most cross-cultural consumer research, published in English has been US-centric i.e. conducted by US or US-trained researchers. Often it has focused on examining thegenerality of models and theories developed in the US to other countries in Europe orAsia. In particular, focus on individualism/collectivism, for example, has resulted incomparison of behavior in the USA as an exemplar of individualism, with that in anAsian country such as China, Taiwan or Hong Kong, as an exemplar of collectivism(Oysermann et al., 2002). Examination of cultural phenomena and cultural traditions inother continents such as Latin America, Africa or India, would considerably enrich andenhance our understanding of the range of culture and its influence.

ConclusionThe parallel trends of globalization and multiculturalism make it increasinglyimportant to develop a deeper understanding of culture and its various manifestations.Cultural influences are changing dramatically, as cultures are no longer dependent onlocal resources to formulate their characteristic tastes, preferences and behavior andare increasingly linked across vast geographic distances by modern communicationmedia. Membership in a culture is becoming more fluid as individuals travel widelyand both adapt to new cultural contexts while transporting elements of one culture toanother. As membership in a culture becomes increasingly transitional, uniqueelements are less clearly demarcated or distinctive. New hybrid cultures are emerging,blending elements of different origins. The dynamic and evolving character of thesecultural influences greatly complicates research designed to disentangle the impactand meaning of culture. For progress to be made, research designs must account forthis complexity and span multiple contexts to establish the generality of findings. Thiswill result in improved knowledge of culture and its role in molding consumptionbehavior.

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Corresponding authorC. Samuel Craig can be contacted at: scraig@stern.nyu.edu

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