"Beware of the Man with One Book": Teachers as Mediators of Identity-Based Conflict in Bosnia-Herzegovina (Oxford MSc Edu Dissertation)

8/3/2019 "Beware of the Man with One Book": Teachers as Mediators of Identity-Based Conflict in Bosnia-Herzegovina (Oxfor

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Beware of the Man with One Book:

An Exploratory Study of Teachers as Mediators of Identity-Based Conflict in

Bosnia-Herzegovina

Paul Chiariello

Linacre College

Dissertation submitted in part-fulfillment of the requirements for the degree ofMSc Education (Comparative and International Education)

Trinity Term 2011


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Abstract

Current research into the reflexive relationship between identity-based conflict

and education has developed the idea of the two faces of education, both

antagonistic and constructive. However, this reasoning is not used to consider

the role teachers play in contexts of conflict. To create effective educational

reforms, this study argues that the frames of reference teachers use to mediate

curricula and reform efforts in such contexts must be understood.

Acknowledging that teachers play a similarly reflexive role, this study seeks to

first develop a framework that will describe the frames of reference teachers use

in mediation and second to create an initial description of Bosnia-Herzegovinianteachers. Relying on the literature on conflict and education, the study identifies

three major themes important in describing teachers frames of reference. They

are 1) a critical construction of beliefs and perspectives, 2) an understanding of

difference in beliefs and practices and 3) perspectives on inclusivity of identity.

This framework was used to develop questions and indicators for interviews

with ten Bosnia-Herzegovinian teachers in Tuzla and Zenica. An initial

description of teachers is analyzed followed by a discussion of the framework

developed from the literature. This is an exploratory study of a framework and

of Bosnia-Herzegovinian teachers and therefore concludes with further research

necessary to create a more comprehensive understanding of these issues.


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Acknowledgements

As for anyone confronted with the problem of writing acknowledgements, there

are simply too many people to name who have helped realize this project. First,

I have to thank my advisor, Professor David Johnson, for all of the hours of

work he has put in, panic attacks he has had to deal with and the positive

encouragement that has helped me finish this. Second, I could not have written

this without the support of my partner, Siobhan Riordan. I can never pay her

back completely for letting me rant about whatever it was I was thinking of at

that particular moment and encouraging me when I doubted myself. To my

friends in Bosnia-Herzegovina, you are too many to name. Specifically, I must

acknowledge Emin Eminajic for his friendship and particular help in getting

some of my referral chains going. I want to thank all of the participants who

were so wonderful, especially who those who sacrificed their own time to help

find further teachers to participate. I made a lot of friends and I couldnt have

finished this without them. Last, but not least, I want to thank the library staff at

Oxford, my fellow course-mates and all of the professors that have met with me,

however brief, to discuss my dissertation


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List of Abbreviations

2U1R Two Schools Under One Roof policy

BiH Bosnia-Herzegovina

CUREC Central Universitys Research Ethics Committee

CIIM Common In-Group Identity Model

FR Frames of Reference

GMR Global Monitoring Report

Ofsted Office of Standards in Education in the United Kingdom

PotB People of the Book

RCI Re-Categorized Civic Identity

RE Religious Education

RRI Re-Categorized Religious Identity

UNESCO United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organization

URI Universal Re-Categorized Identity


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Table of Contents

ABSTRACT ..................................................................................................................................... ii

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS ............................................................................................................ iii

LIST OF ABBREVIATIONS ......................................................................................................... iv

Introduction Chapter........................................................................................................................ 6

The Importance of Teachers ........................................................................................................ 7

Bosnia-Herzegovina .................................................................................................................... 8

Aims and Research Questions ................................................................................................... 11

Methodology and Study Outline ............................................................................................... 11

Literature Review Chapter ............................................................................................................ 13

Teachers as Mediators ............................................................................................................... 13

Literature Research: Themes Important in Describing Teachers Frames of Reference ............ 15

First Theme: A Critical Construction of Beliefs and Perspectives ............................................ 16

Second Theme: An Understanding of Differences in Beliefs and Practices ............................. 18

Third Theme: Perspectives on Inclusivity of Identity ............................................................... 20

The Framework ......................................................................................................................... 23

Methodology Chapter.................................................................................................................... 25

Sampling .................................................................................................................................... 25

Interview Procedures and Rationale .......................................................................................... 28

Sensitive Subjects: Methodological Issues and Rapport ........................................................... 29

Ethical Issues ............................................................................................................................. 32

Research Questions ................................................................................................................... 33

Findings and Analysis Chapter...................................................................................................... 34

First theme: A Critical Construction of Beliefs and Perspectives ............................................. 34

Second theme: An Understanding of Differences in Beliefs and Practices ............................... 43

Third theme: Perspectives on Inclusivity of Identity ................................................................. 49

Beware of the Man with One Book ........................................................................................... 55

Discussion Chapter........................................................................................................................ 57

Conclusion Chapter ....................................................................................................................... 64

Bibliography.................................................................................................................................. 67

Appendices .................................................................................................................................... 75


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Introduction Chapter

Only recently has the view of education in contexts of conflict shifted from that of

a panacea to that of a sometimes willing accomplice. Particularly in identity-based

conflict, research has been mounting towards the view that education has two faces, a

thesis argued best in The Two Faces of Education in Ethnic Conflict (Bush and

Saltarelli, 2000). This reevaluation has come not a moment too soon. The Global

Monitoring Report (GMR) (UNESCO, 2010) Reaching the Marginalized has argued

that experts must focus on the marginalized if progress is going to continue. In efforts to

reach such children, GMR 2010 has called specific attention to children in conflict

affected countries, where nearly half of out of school children live. This urgency has led

to the GMR report The Hidden Crisis: Armed Conflict and Education (UNESCO,

2011).

In order to provide quality education to those most in need and ameliorate the

often antagonistic effects of education on identity-based conflict itself it is increasingly

acknowledged that an education system must first be understood. Only then can changesin curriculum, training, administration and other issues be addressed.

In the present study, this reasoning is taken a step further and applied to teachers.

Often teachers, individually and collectively, are treated as agent-less mediums

mechanically dispersing curricula to students. However, teachers, like education itself,

reflect the biases of their environment and can manifest two faces. Regardless of the

curriculums content, teachers still consciously and unconsciously teach hidden

curriculums to students in their actions, tone, jokes or what they dont have time for.This hidden curriculum is mediated by what I call, following Thornton (1991), their

frame of reference (FR). A teachers FR is not the practices they actually use in this

hidden curriculum, but the beliefs and perspectives that produce them. As with the

importance of understanding an education system before one can attempt to fix it,


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teachers FR must be understood if any lasting change in curricula or training is to be

made.

The Importance of Teachers

Countries with identity-based crises still face problems around the world which

are remedied, reflected and perpetuated by education systems. The positive and negative

roles of education take many forms. South Africa experiences difficulty achieving

equitable language policies. As white Afrikaners remain attached to an Afrikaans

identity, historically discriminated groups continue to speak English. Universities

therefore continue holding lectures in Afrikaans for the majority of students with, at best,

simultaneous translations in English for others. In the Middle East, Groiss (2004; 2008)

examines school textbooks for appropriate representations of others. Studies of Egyptian,

Palestinian and other textbooks have brought to light both violent representations and

condemnations of intolerance. In Northern Ireland segregation has been a central

concern. With state schools dominantly Protestant, many Catholics attend private

Church-run schools.

The present study focuses the lense on teachers and the positive and negative

roles they might play. Teachers similarly reflect their environment and lend their own

complicit hands to conflicts. To better understand the role education plays in South

Africa, the Middle East and Northern Ireland the FR teachers use in mediating issues of

identity-based conflict must be understood. For example, how do professors view

ethnicity and assimilation/accommodation? How do Middle Eastern teachers understand

the concepts they teach? Do Irish teachers believe integration is preferable or will work?

The curriculum or education system may be mandated to teachers, but teachers still

facilitate, interpret and resist according to their frames of reference.


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Bosnia-Herzegovina

Bosnia-Herzegovina (BiH) is historically comprised of three ethnic groups

defined largely by religion. Identity-based conflict in BiH has a contested history and afull study of it is outside this studys scope. However, it is important to understand the

context of BiH in order to ask what teachers FR used in mediating conflict are.

Interviews with BiH teachers relied largely on topics discussed below to access the

concepts important to understanding teachers FR, as discussed in the Literature Review,

and will therefore be referenced again in the Findings-Analysis Chapter.

The unique mix of BiHsMuslims1orBosniaks, Croats and Serbs were formed

out of two key events: the splitting of the Roman Empire along Catholicism andOrthodoxy and the expansion of the Islamic Ottoman Empire. During these centuries the

region experienced a complex political dance of shifting alliances with Catholic Rome or

Orthodox Constantinople, followed by resistance and compliance with the Ottomans and

then the Austro-Hungarians.

During WWII, the Croatian Ustashe aligned with Germany persecuted Serbs by

killing, converting and expelling them resulting in Serbian nationalist Chetnik resistance.

Josip Titos communist and diverse Partisans, however, rose as victors and then

suppressed ethno-religious identities for the socialist mantra of brotherhood and unity.

The attempt was to form a unified Slavic nation, Yugoslavia. This union lasted until the

War in the 1990s when constituent nations seceded.

Varying interpretations of this past have been a major cause of identity-based

conflict. They include both international explanations for recent violence and historical

narratives internal to the Balkans.

Many historical themes internal to the Balkans and relevant to modern BiH

revolve around who the Bosnian Muslims are. It is not the purpose of this paper to

answer this but to explore the various answers. Malcolm (1994) explains that in recent

1Terms used throughout the study requiring further explanation are explained in the Glossary in Appendix,

1. Their first use is italicized.


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decades Croats have claimed Bosnian Muslims as really Croats while Serbs do the

same. The most common reference point is the early Bosnian Church. Each ethnic group

claims it as a heretical Catholic or Orthodox Church. Conversely, a popular, and

debunked, theory was that it was Bogomil, a poorly understood heretical Christian sect.

All such narratives assume that the Bosnian Church converted entirely to Islam at first

chance. A similar narrative is that Bosnian elites and/or peasants converted for economic

or political reasons once offered. Malcolm (1994) and Lovrenovic (2001) argue,

however, that these narratives are full of holes as little is known of the Bosnian Church

which certainly did not convert entirely. It likely disappeared during the 150 year period

Bosnians began slowly converting to Islam. Instead, ethnic categories came after

religious ones as the Ottomans organized their empire around religious and not linguistic

groups. In addition to efforts to claim Muslims, narratives demonizing them also

prevailed. These include the heretical nature of Bosnian Church narratives, opportunistic

conversions under the Ottomans or association with Muslims as Turks and ethnic traitors

(Drakulic, 2009). Narratives have also painted Muslims as Serbs or Croats with moral,

genetic or social defects. Bosnian Muslims, however, have also taken pride by forming

their own narratives, including continuity with a unique Bogomil Church or an essentially

peaceful Bosnian coexistence of the three groups (Mahmutcehajic, 1998).

Outside of these internal discourses, the international community has offered a

variety of explanations as well. Malcolm (1994) argues that early Balkan conflict was

economic and later conflict not religious but discussed in terms of politically minded

individuals. Mazower (2000) focuses alternatively on romantic nationalism of

conflicting patriots. Roots therefore go back primarily to Catholic Europes Eastern

Question to intervene in the regions fate between Orthodox Russia and the Muslim

Ottomans. Sells (1996) champions the position that religion is underrepresented in this

discourse. The focus is too often shifted away from Catholic and Orthodox propagandaor Islamic Jihadists. Sells points to the abundance of religious symbols and narratives,

especially depictions of Muslims as Christ killers. Lastly, is the international

communitys focus on historic hatred. Malcolm (1994) describes Americans and

Europeans as maintaining a simplistic picture of ancient ethnic hatred that should be

allowed to burn out.


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This mix of international and internal dialogs culminated in and about the war in

the 1990s. The compromise of the US-led Dayton Accord organized an enormously

decentralized state ensuring autonomy to each group. BiH was split into the centralized

Republic of Srbska and the dominantly Croat and Muslim 10 cantons of the Republic of

BiH. These 11 states, plus the Republic of Brchko, each have their own education

systems that serve their ethnic composition.

This fractured system has led to a multitude of educational issues that reflect and

perpetuate identity-based conflict. First, the separate curriculum taught to students

depends on the schools ethno-religious demographics, perpetuating the biased, negative

narratives outlined above. These curricula consist of separate national subjects: history,

religion and language. Studies of these texts often promote self-victimization and

demonize others as the Great-Serbian aggressors or Ustasheas fascists and racists

(Torsti, 2007). Many Croat and Serb curricula are published outside BiH in the capitals

of Croatia and Serbia (Russo, 2000).

Second, the Two Schools Under One Roof (2U1R) policy exemplifies the walls

between these groups. Some ethnic schools are combined only by sharing a door-less

wall or organizing separate morning and evening shifts in a single building. However

there are also areas of hope in the role education can play. The currently segregated city

of Mostar is host to the United World Colleges International Summer School on Peace

and Conflict Resolution. Their mission is to deliver a challenging and transformative

educational experience by inspiring them to create a more peaceful and sustainable

future (United World College, 2011).

Considering the wide variety of issues discussed above, it is important to

understand teachers FR. With an adequate understanding of what teachers use to

mediate the curricula we can better understand how they act in this context and howfurther training and education reforms will be mediated by teachers. As no such

framework exists to investigate teachers FR, the present study will develop one by

surveying the relevant literature and then using informed interviews to explore BiH

teachers FR and the framework itself.


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Aims and Research Questions

The aim of this study is to further research that adequately informs education

reconstruction in conflict and post-conflict societies by focusing on the important and

often neglected role that teachers play.

There are two research questions posed in this study:

First, relying on the literature, what themes are important in developing a

framework to describe teachers frames of reference used in the mediation

of contexts of identity-based conflict?

Second, what are teachers frames of reference relevant in mediating

issues of identity-based conflict in Bosnia-Herzegovina?

This latter question will further elucidate the framework initially described in the first

research question.

Methodology and Study Outline

Field research consisted of interviews with BiH teachers. Because the present

study discusses sensitive subjects, snowball sampling will be used to build rapport and

gain access, as discussed in the Methodology Chapter. Ten teachers were interviewed

from two major BiH cities, Tuzla and Zenica. The interviews explored a wide variety of

discussions aimed at uncovering concepts developed from the literature and composed

into three themes in the Literature Review. The interview findings will be analyzed and

then discussed to further understand the concepts used and framework itself.

The interviews provided a detailed method for answering the research questions.

First, they explored the themes identified in the literature. The Discussion Chapter

further investigates reliable and valid interview questions and concepts, question for


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further study about the three themes and a possible fourth theme arising from analysis of

findings. Second, the interviews provide an initial description of BiH teachers FR, with

required additional research in the Discussion Chapter.

The present paper follows the format of Literature Review, Methodology Chapter,

Findings-Analysis Chapter, Discussion Chapter and Conclusion. The Literature Review

analyzes what the present literature argues is important to understand concerning

teachers frames of reference in contexts ofidentity-based conflict. The Methodology

Chapter describes and justifies the methodology used in the present study of BiH

teachers. The initial framework developed in the Literature Review was used in creating

interview questions and in organizing and analyzing the following Findings-Analysis

Chapter. The Discussion Chapter will outline further study of both BiH teachers and

suggestions for further research to expand the initial framework described in the

Literature Review. The Conclusion will summarize the research problem and questions,

the studys findings on these issues and the studys limits.


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Literature Review Chapter

This chapter explores both the literature supporting the research problem

discussed in the Introduction of educations two faces, teachers frames of reference (FR)

and mediation. Following is an initial framework representing the three major themes

identified in the literature for describing teachers FR. These themes are not exhaustive

or mutually exclusive. In the Discussion Chapter, suggestions for further research into

the inter-relatedness of the themes and a new theme not gathered from the literature will

be discussed.

Teachers as Mediators

For many years policy makers and educationists passively understood education

as a positive force in conflict situations. However, there is growing consensus that

education has two faces, contributing to both conflict and its resolution (Bush and

Saltarelli, 2000; Davies, 2004). As Buckland (2005: 11) discusses, education is a key

social institution that is impacted by and can influence characteristics that perpetuate or

resolve conflict. As Johnson and Stewart (2007: 249) add, education can reflect rather

than cause the general hostility between communities. The reflexivity that education

has with its environment enables it to instigate post-conflict situations and provide a

background for positive civic engagement and tolerance.

This dynamic is now addressed in many post-conflict programs. But whileeducation systems and curricula are investigated according to this reflexive dynamic, the

same reasoning is not applied to teachers. Such programs are implemented as if teachers

are a broadly uniform conduit. However, it is important to understand the actual

perspectives of teachers in the communities that these reforms seek to reach.


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Many acknowledge that teachers are the most critical resource in education

reconstruction (Buckland, 2005: 49), but little is given to the role that teachers

individually and collectively make on their own agency towards shaping their educational

and social contexts. Top down policies are often simply pushed through the medium of

teachers or aim to mold them according to some certain frame. However, as Holmes and

McLean (1989) argue, teachers play the role of guardian over the curriculum. Their

deeply held beliefs make curriculum change slow and difficult and determine their

responses to proposals for curriculum reform (Holmes and McLean, 1989: vii, 138). In

order to affect change in the classroom, teachers must internalize new beliefs.

Otherwise, teachers will continue to express the freedom they have behind closed doors

(Holmes and McLean, 1989: 74).

Thornton (1991) similarly argues that teachers are gate-keepers. Teachers make

day to day decisions on the actual content of their lessons and the experiences that

students have access to (Thornton, 1991; Adler, 1991). Tawil and Harley (2004) here

draw a distinction between the intended, officially prescribed curriculum and the

real, hidden or actually implemented curriculum. The latter hidden curriculum

includes indirect meanings or connotations, teacher behaviors and attitudes and

expectations in assessment. These decisions come from their frame of reference (FR),

which comprises their beliefs about the value or likelihood of things, regardless of

whether they are good or bad; rigorously thought through or passively consumed

(Thornton, 1991: 237).

A teachers FR is further important to understand as it is both consciously and

unconsciously expressed in the classroom. Teachers are constantly examined not only by

their students, but also their communities (Ismail, 1997: 44). Internalization is needed if

they are to practice what they preach (Njoroge, 2007; Holmes and McLean, 1989).

Because teachers are the most proximal lens through which children are socialized in the

classroom, their actual behavior and attitudes are constantly assessed and absorbed by the

student. Even if the curriculum is taught mechanically, conforming to orders is

undesirable because it means teaching without conviction when conviction is needed

(Peshkin, 1972: 67). Without the acceptance of the beliefs taught, teachers will not be


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able to fully engage students and the curriculum in ways that will effectively socialize

those values. As Thornton (1991) argues, the form of teachers interaction with students,

whether shaped out of volition, their unconsciousness or conveniences sake, may

outweigh the impact of the taught curriculum.

This FR is developed by a complicated socialization process that involves the

community in which teachers live. Teachers, like education itself, reflect the structural

biases of their environment (Socknat, 2006: 149; Nelson, 1991; Peshkin, 1972).

Teachers beliefs and their reflexive relationship with their community therefore need to

be understood if any positive change is to be made using education.

It is the role of teachers as guardians and gate-keepers that I will refer to them

as mediators. Teachers mediate an issue, whether the lesson is specifically on that issue

or not, through their deeply held beliefs or frame of reference. Mediation includes

their conscious and unconscious behavior which reflects their beliefs. Therefore, because

of the importance and resilience of the beliefs teachers hold, any policy reformer or

teacher trainer needs to be able to understand the actual beliefs held by teachers.

The remainder of this chapter will engage the literature to design an initial

framework of three themes for describing teachers FR, which influence the mediation of

identity-based conflict2. To explore this initial framework, these themes will be used in

analyzing interview findings with teachers in BiH.

Literature Research:

Themes Important in Describing Teachers Frames of Reference

In a review of the literature, three central themes were identified as important forteachers FR in mediating identity-based conflict. They are the critical construction of

beliefs, understanding of difference of beliefs and practice and perspectives on the

inclusivity of identity. The remainder of this chapter will establish from the literature the

2Identity-based conflict is used, following Tawil and Harley (2004), instead of ethnic and religious

conflict to draw salience to the issue of identity and avoid ambiguities of the latter.


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important components of these three themes. These themes were used to develop

interviews used in field research.

Literature on peace education and identity-based conflict was the primary focus of

this literature review. However, social psychology, religious education, conflict

resolution and other disciplines were investigated. Terms searched and cross-referenced

included, but was not limited to, belief$, perspective$, ethni$, religio$, teacher$,

education, mediat$, and conflict. After the three basic themes were identified,

further searches included, empath$, identity, knowledge, critical and others. Once

a selection of literature was found, further resources were selected from bibliographies.

Journals, such as the Journal of Peace Education and the Muslim Education Quarterly,

were also routinely searched.

First Theme:

A Critical Construction of Beliefs and Perspectives

The first theme concerns the critical construction of beliefs and perspectives. In

understanding teachers FR it is important to understand how they construct them.

Before teachers can become transformative agents (Miller and Ramos, 1999) or

have instructional effectiveness (Gay and Kirkland, 2003), teachers must maintain a

critical consciousness, a readiness to question beliefs and have the ability for cognitive

flexibility, self-assessment and reflection (Carter, 2007: 245). Gallagher (2004)

discusses why this conscious critical awareness is important. He argues we should

consider the thinking styles of prejudiced thinkers versus reasoned thinkers as a primary

issue in developing stereotypes. Prejudiced thinkers develop beliefs that are rigid and

fixed and are more likely to be defended than changed faced with conflicting evidence,

while reasoned thinkers are flexible, critical and amenable to change as new

information is encountered (Gallagher, 2004: 24). The former maintains stereotypes,

while the latter is important for dismantling them.


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Active incorporation of multiple interpretations is also important because it

challenges beliefs that form barriers to reconciliation. Nieto (2010) and Niens (2009)

argue for critical multiculturalism, which openly challenges racist and other beliefs,

allowing similarities and confronting prejudices. In a complimentary dynamic, Doi

(1990) argues for critical thinking as central to education in multi-cultural countries for

its role in making it difficult for misconceptions and prejudices claimed to be widely

accepted. Openness to multiple interpretations or perspectives and a critical view of

culture allows an escape from ethnocentrism and acknowledges positive perceptions of

differences and ways of knowing (Hickling-Hudson, 2003; Gay and Kirkland, 2003). .

A critical construction of history is a central concern during identity-based

conflict as it plays an important role in identity formation. In this role, history is often

used for political ends and should be critically engaged (Bush and Saltarelli, 2000).

Davis (1996) argues that particular narratives are interpreted to justify particular

interpretations of the present by connecting them with the past. This practice of

interpretation often includes an affective or emotional construction of history involving

both personal and collective memory (Bekerman and Zembylas, 2010). While not

necessarily negative, these narratives can legitimate victimhood engendering anger and

bitterness (McGrellis, 2004) and justify negative reactions and stronger in-group

identity (Bekerman and Zembylas, 2010). Acknowledging that history need not follow

the past allows dialogic possibilities and the construction of new narratives (Bush and

Saltarelli, 2000; Bekerman and Zembylas, 2010). New narratives create the possibilities

for reconciliation, creating new identities (Bekerman and Zembylas, 2010) and better

understanding the dynamics of group relations (Reid, 1999; Miller and Ramos, 1999).

An uncritical view of history as static or repetitive will ensure that it is, while using

history to selectively justify present beliefs will hinder the formation of new ones.

Whether or not they are history teachers, references to history infiltrate every classroomand a teachers representation of it will provide lessons for the possibility of constructive

change. Further, a teachers construction of history reflects important aspects oftheir

beliefs about identities.


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Empathy, lastly, is a necessary ingredient for a critical FR. Here we are

concerned with the cognitive definition which can be deliberately learned and taught

(Kahn and Lawhorne, 2003). This use of empathy consists of viewing the perspective of

decision makers, and develop[ing] an understanding for the problems and opportunities

they face (Stover, 2005: 207). For Kahn and Lawhorne (2003) empathy consists of

accurate perspective taking which involves identifying and understanding the others

emotions. Similarly, Barton and Levstik (2004) prefer the term perspective recognition

which involves identifying the multiple perspectives of an issue. In this paper I will use

perspective recognition as it implies a more reasonable act than assuming one can take

the perspective of another. This process is important in that it may lead to motivation for

ameliorating others conditions (Kahn and Lawhorne, 2003) and increase interaction,

cooperation and curbing of violence (Malhotra and Liyanage, 2005). In short, empathy is

the colloquial practice of walking in anothers shoes or acknowledging anothers eyes to

add to ones own individual experience.

In surveying some of the literature that is concerned with the critical construction

of beliefs and perspectives, I have identified four broad, overlapping concerns. A critical

construction of beliefs consists of 1) a flexible and critical construction of beliefs, 2) an

active use of multiple perspectives, 3) a critical focus on historical narratives, and 4) the

use of empathetic perspective recognition. A critical construction is important in the

context of identity-based conflict as it allows teachers, and the students they teach, to be

aware of previous stereotypes, dismantle them, break out of ethnocentric perspectives,

bring others into dialog, facilitate the formation of new ideas and make positive

associations with others circumstances.

Second Theme:An Understanding of Differences in Beliefs and Practices

The second theme concerns understanding differences in beliefs and practices.

Teachers should have a general understanding of other groups, whether in terms of


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culture or religion, beliefs or practices, in order to better understand and mediate relevant

issues.

Ignorance of difference in beliefs and practices can inhibit efforts for

reconciliation or exacerbate conflict. Inadequate and shallow teaching may only

reinforce and encourage the application of stereotypes when analyzing contemporary or

historical issues (Council on Islamic Education, 2002). One form of shallow teaching is

representing only one isolated sketch of a religion in a particular time or place giving the

image of a static, undifferentiated item (Douglas, 2001). Monolithic stereotypes of

beliefs and practices can also lead to misunderstandings and nurture animosity in

analyzing actions and arguments (Njoroge, 2007; Unites States Institute of Peace, 2005a).

This includes discussions in subjects besides religious education or history since issues

relevant to ethno-religious conflict permeate all subjects (Smith, 2006). A more detailed

study of beliefs and practices, whether explicitly in curricula or through the teachers own

nuanced mediation of relevant issues, would help students better analyze contemporary

events and arguments by pluralizing Otherness to disarm notions of an undifferentiated

block or monolithic representation (United States Institute of Peace, 2005b).

Understanding of other groups may also provide positive perspectives and

facilitate dialog. Active, informed study of others may produce positive attitudes towards

diversity (Morris, 1999). The Office of Standards in Education in the UK (Ofsted)

concluded a relationship between lack of teacher knowledge with their confidence

teaching Religious Education (RE) and also poor RE provision with student attitudes

towards diversity (Ofsted, 2010). Without better understanding of differences, students

with a daily dialogue in multi-cultural settings may simply talk past each other due to

the often unique use of representations of different cultures and religions (Cilliers, 2007).

Teachers also should be aware of students when teaching in diverse classrooms. In

order to teach you, I must know you Delpit (1995: 183) quotes a Native Alaskan saying.

In multicultural classes, understanding the different backgrounds and starting points of

students, as well as your own in comparison, is important for class management (Gay and

Kirkland, 2003; Delpit, 1995).


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Teaching informed about practices, as opposed to solely doctrine, is also

important andbetter represents how faiths are lived out (United States Institute of

Peace, 2005a). Experiencing rituals creates a more accurate picture of groups and allows

an experience of worldviews as others see them (Smock, 2007; Abu-Nimer, 2007). Mere

contact may not be enough to remedy ignorance either. McGrellis (2004: 22) has found

that after programs operating on the contact hypothesis many teachers in Northern Ireland

maintained previously held beliefs and attitudes of their home communities. To

develop an understanding of another groups beliefs and practices regular interaction with

friends, family, local community and personal study may play a central role in

developing and maintaining an accurate understanding of differences.

An understanding of difference of beliefs and practices is important in that it

helps 1) dismantle negative stereotypes and undifferentiated monolithic representations,

2) construct positive attitudes and dialog and 3) facilitates teachers better understanding

the actions and needs of students. An understanding of such difference concerns both

beliefs and practices. Personal experiences of these are important for understanding how

different faiths are lived out. Further, regular exposure with friends, family and

community may develop and maintain an accurate understanding of differences.

Third Theme:

Perspectives on Inclusivity of Identity

The Third Theme concerns perspectives on the inclusivity of identity. Teachers

may view the in-group they most identify with as excluding certain groups or, on the

other hand, including what is commonly considered an out-group. This is important for

how teachers mediate issues concerning group relationships.

Identity is often a primary instigator of conflict, and increasingly ethno-religious

identity (Stewart, 2008; Danesh, 2007). Social scientists in various fields have argued

about what constitutes such identity. Primordialists believe ethnic identities are extreme

socio-biological givens (Wolff, 2007; Stewart, 2008). Ones culture is determined by


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birth, making its traditions and traits inherited. In contrast are Instrumentalists who

believe ethnicity is fluid and both groups and members can change identities (Wolff,

2007; Stewart, 2008). The salience of certain identities for individuals or groups and the

characteristics emphasized are manipulated by social forces, most commonly group

leaders. While many currently believe that this latter interpretation of ethnicity as fluid

better reflects its dynamics, it is important to acknowledge that for individuals within

those groups identity is still often perceived as primordialist. The perception of

primordialism or instrumentalism is important for how individuals treat messages from

group leaders and the possibility of change (Gallagher, 2004).

A perceived primordialist identity is often formed in reference to an out-group

(Wolff, 2007) with education, formal or informal, regularly used to develop such

distinctions (Johnson and Stewart, 2007). Kelly (1993: 65-66) has argued that often the

stronger the individuals sense of in-group identification, the more negative the

perception of those out-group characteristics. This point is particularly important for

instrumentalists who charge leaders with manipulating this dynamic. Negative

stereotyping of out-groups is a particular concern for teachers who historically have been

used as a weapon in cultural repression defining such groups for students (Bush and

Saltarelli, 2000: 10).

How we form in-groups and out-groups can, however, create more positive inter-

group relationships. Hybrid identities that focus on common characteristics, hopes and

fears can encourage reconciliation and diminish negative assumptions (Doi, 1990). The

level of inclusivity of identity, therefore, is important as the more inclusive ones salient

identity is, the less likely they will maintain negative stereotypes against what others may

perceive as out- groups.

Danesh (2007) identifies three worldview types: Survival, Identity and Unityworldviews. Survival worldviews, Danesh argues, are based on power and domination,

and often used by individuals during crises. Identity worldviews also focus on survival,

but of groups in competition. A notionof the survival of the fittestand objectives to

get ahead of others accompany these worldviews (Danesh, 2008: 160). Unity

worldviews, however, promote safety, cooperation and reject all forms of prejudice and


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segregation (Danesh, 2007: 141). In this worldview common characteristics and ends

are focused on in attempts to work together.

Gaertner, Dovidio, Anastasio, Bachevan and Rust (1993) propose the Common

In-group Identity Model (CIIM), comparing the effects of categorization, de-

categorization and re-categorization in several empirical tests. Categorization consists of

defining in-groups and out-groups and maintaining or enhancing biases. De-

categorization takes advantage of pluralizing otherness, as mentioned by United States

Institute of Peace (2005b) above. This renders each member more distinctive and this

potentially blurs the prior categorization scheme (Gaertner, et al, 1993) reducing bias.

Re-categorization, however, is argued as more effective. Here categories are formed into

a single group either through the process of 1) increasing the salience of existing

common super-ordinate characteristics (Gaertner, et al, 1993: 6) or 2) introducing new

common characteristics, goals, etc, for example, a new national identity,. The study

showed that re-categorization had a greater reduction in bias primarily by increasing the

attractiveness of former out-groups. De-categorization reduced bias, though less so, by

decreasing attractiveness of the former in-group. Reducing bias with CIIM, the

researchers argue, expands the boundaries of identities increasing inter-group harmony.

In respect to more inclusive religious identities, many authors focus on the

similarities of the Abrahamic religions. This includes forming new syncretic religions,

such as Chrislam which hybridizes Christianity and Islam. Abu-Nimer (2007: 23) argues

that during inter-faith dialogue emphasizing these similarities is necessary for building

trust and for discovering the human bond that ties. Noibi (1994) focuses on the Islamic

category People of the Book (PotB) as a binding characteristic. All groups keep their

original religions but focus on similarities over differences. For this he cites such

passages in the Koran as 2: 135, 3:64-67, 10:47. However, Danesh (2007) and Harris

(1988) argue that a new identity should be formed beyond such religious beliefs. Being

human, they argued, is itself sufficient for a new re-categorized or unity worldview.

Whether individuals believe their identity is ingrained or not, we can identify four

categories between Danesh (2007) and Gaertner, et al (1993) concerning perceptions of

inclusivity of identity. First, it is important to discuss de-categorization as opposed to


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Daneshs Survival worldview, as both posit individuation of group identity. For Danesh

the Survival worldview is marked by individuals putting themselves in conflict with out-

groups that include all other individuals. De-categorization, however, separates

individuals from their previous in-group by deconstructing the homogeneities that

separated groups, individuating the members of each group. In other words, me against

the world versus simply meeting individuals instead of representatives of groups.

Second, both Identity worldviews and categorization represent a status quo in

maintaining the identity commonly held between groups. Third, the Unity worldview is

here taken to be analogous to re-categorization. However, three kinds of new unified

identities can be formed in relation to previous group identities. 1) An individual may

focus on common factors between the two groups resulting in a more salient new

identity, such as PotB, or 2) abandon old identities for a new identity based on similar

traits, i.e. syncretic identities like Chrislam. Lastly, 3) a new identity could be formed by

introducing new traits and goals un-related to the old groups, for example, a national

identity. Fourth, corresponding to the logical extension of the Unity worldview, we can

importantly identify a universal re-categorized identity, namely humanity. Maintaining

a more inclusive and instrumentalist perspective on identity allows teachers to engage

messages from group leaders, perceive the possibility of change, resist structures that

perpetuate in- and out-groups, reduce bias and organize groups oriented toward common

ends.

The Framework

This chapter surveys three themes the literature argues are important for teachers

FR. The Discussion Chapter will introduce a fourth theme developed from initial

findings and suggest further studies of this framework. Exploration of the concepts

above in interviews will weave a description of how teachers construct their FR,

understand others and identify in relation to others. These themes are necessary to

understand in order to grasp how teachers consciously and unconsciously mediate and

reflexively affect the education system and curricula. With a better understanding of


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teachers we can better understand their responses to reforms and how best to create

effective new reforms.

The description above is only an initial, partial and mutually inclusive framework

comprised of three themes. First is teachers critical construction of beliefs and

perspectives. It is important to understand how teachers reflexively interact with their

context and form their FR. A critical perspective, use of multiple perspectives and

empathy are the central concerns of this theme. This allows teachers, and the students

they teach, to criticize stereotypes and positively acknowledge others narratives. Second

is teachers understanding of difference in beliefs and practices. It is important to

understand how teachers understand other groups they mediate to students. An

understanding of lived practices and beliefs which can best be learned by personal

exposure is here the central concern. This allows teachers and students to adequately

engage both educational content and the dialog in which they live. Third are teachers

perspectives on inclusivity of identity. It is important to understand how teachers

perceive their relations to others which inform their interactions and understanding of

historical interactions. A primordialist or instrumentalist concept of identity and the

inclusivity of identity is the concern of this theme. This facilitates teachers beliefs about

how different groups have interacted, possibilities for new identities and the associations

they form with corresponding in- and out-groups that teachers mediate to students.

This framework will be used to describe teachers in BiH. How this framework

will be used in empirical field research is discussed in the following Methodology

Chapter. In later chapters, the findings of this study will be analyzed and used to discuss

further studies and the framework itself.


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Methodology Chapter

The present study is an initial exploration of the framework developed in the

Literature Review and therefore allows special sampling and methodological

considerations that a more comprehensive study would require. However, validity,

reliability and research ethics remained key concerns.

This study relies on qualitative empirical analysis gathered during field research

consisting of interviews with teachers3. BiH was chosen as a site for several reasons.

First, BiH manifests a variety of the negative and positive roles of education, as the

Introduction discusses. This provides a relevant context to explore the framework

developed in the Literature Review.

Second, it has been my own observation and that of colleagues knowledgeable of

BiH society that this study could be conducted safely and respectfully. BiH, therefore,

presents a unique context that is still both relevant for respondents and appropriate to be

discussed.

Third, this study relies on convenience, snowball sampling. Personal contacts in

BiH were able to answer logistical issues and develop initial contacts with teachers

interested in participating in the study. For these reasons BiH was an ideal choice to

conduct an exploratory study of this kind.

Sampling

Convenience sampling methods were used in this study, specifically snowball or

chain referral sampling. Snowball sampling uses referrals made among people who

share or know of others who possess some characteristics that are of research interest

3For an example interview transcript see Appendix, 2.


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(Biernacki and Waldorf, 1981). The characteristics initially of interest were Bosnian

secondary school teachers comfortable interviewing in English. Several personal

contacts, all Bosnian citizens, acted as initial locators of possible respondents. The use of

referrals initiated by personal interactions was chosen for its informal approach in the

hopes of lending rapport to the researcher. Though snowball sampling is most often used

for so called deviant behaviors, such as drug use, it is also useful for approaching

sensitive issues, of which identity-based conflict is one. A foreign researcher, or even

school administration, may not have access to the willingness of possible respondents

(Biernacki and Waldorf, 1981). Locators, contacts and past respondents that search for

future respondents willing to participate, were instructed to not discuss interview

questions, but were allowed to discuss other information. Locators were not reimbursed

for their participation. Further instructions, initially, involved the requirements that

respondents were secondary school teachers willing to participate in English. Most often

locaters contacted and initially discussed the project and myself with a variety of possible

respondents. If willing, locators forwarded contact information after which I personally

contacted respondents to discuss the study further and arrange other logistics of the

interview. Questions about the study were also asked directly by respondents during this

introduction. This period of introduction occurred often over a series of messages via

email, Facebook and phone, depending on respondent preferences.

A broad sample with minimal requirements of respondents characteristics was

initially welcomed (Biernacki and Waldorf, 1981). This was followed by a second stage

where specific under-represented demographic traits were sought by controlling the

referral chains. All three initial locators were able to reference other non-teachers who

further participated as locators in finding respondents and locators. Initial referral chains

involved possible respondents in the cities of Zenica, Tuzla, Sarajevo and Mostar. The

referral chains developed and materialized most quickly and broadly in Zenica and Tuzlabefore interviews started in other cities, leading to the decision to continue pursuit of

respondents exclusively in these locations. This would provide both an easier interview

schedule and minimize logistical complications. Due to the sampling methodology and

size, broad generalizations would be invalid, however the trends that did initially emerge

from the study would be much easier to characterize to the similar demographics of these


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two cities. Unlike other cities considered, both Zenica and Tuzla consist of a Muslim

majority and a relatively integrated Croat minority, with other ethno-religious groups

only nominally represented. After half of the goal of 10 respondents was interviewed, the

second phase started and locators were asked to find more Bosniak Muslim respondents,

which was accomplished, seemingly, without difficulty. Similarly, the use of English in

interviews led eventually to the explicit search for English teachers. Several locators said

that they had asked a variety of teachers of other subjects, but none were comfortable

enough to participate in English.

Other demographics were also monitored though were not underrepresented

enough to influence an explicit change in the second stage. A total of ten interviews

averaging 105minutes, ranging 77 to 130 minutes, was taken and fully transcribed. Four

respondents from Tuzla and six from Zenica were interviewed. The resulting sample

included four men and six women; five respondents that attended secondary school

primarily before the war in the 1990s and five after and two respondents with Muslim

parents, four with Croat parents and four with mixed Croat and Serb parents. Whether

respondents grew up in Yugoslavia or the present BiH was considered significant because

of 1) the wide divergence in social and educational policies and 2) their different

experiences of the war in the 1990s. Many of the younger respondents at their own

confession did not remember the conflict or understand what they were experiencing.

The teachers interviewed taught at a variety of schools including public schools with a

Muslim majority, Catholic schools and vocational secondary schools.

As an exploratory study a rigorous, representative sample is not the aim. Further

studies seeking to describe the frames of reference (FR) representative of BiH teachers in

these cities and BiH as a whole must interview a larger sample and proportionate amount

of Muslim teachers. The present study nearly reverses the proportions of the Croat and

Muslim populations (the proportion of Croat and Muslim teachers in these cities could

not be found). Snowball sampling further limits the sample to specific networks of

teachers which may represent a sub-population within these cities. This however, was

accounted for where possible by locators approaching teachers in different schools and

who they were not personally close with. However, this study only seeks to explore the


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framework detailed in the Literature Review and therefore only an initial exploration of

the various discourses and perspectives of the population are needed and then described

in the Findings-Analysis Chapter.

Interview Procedures and Rationale

The initial aim for interviews justified during CUREC approval4

was for a series

of two semi-structured interviews with respondents totaling an estimated two hours,

scheduled at the respondents convenience. There were a variety of reasons to structure

interviews in this way, though original plans changed due to considerations during field

research.

The rationale for a series of interviews was argued to provide several benefits. It

1) would allow respondents to further think about the topics discussed in the first half and

2) would unburden respondents from lengthy two-hour interviews. In the Participant

Information Form5, and at the beginning of each interview it was explained to

respondents that they could stop the interview at any time and resume it later, or not, in a

second session at their convenience. Though some respondents acknowledged they

might decide to continue the interview later, all respondents eventually, from my own

perspective, became engaged in the content of the interview and decided to continue until

all of the interview questions were asked. One respondent even asked to continue the

interview in another setting instead of postponing it until a later time once we were asked

to vacate an office we were using. All interviews were completed in single interviews

with respondents.

A semi-structured interview has been used to balance two aspects discussed by

May (2004), specifically 1) the ability to compare answers so that broader conclusions

can be made and 2) the ability of respondents to fully expressed themselves and the

chance for interviewers to explore these answers. While the former focuses on

4See Appendix, 3 for the CUREC 1a application and Appendix, 4 for CUREC Approval.

5See Appendix, 6.


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uniformity of question and is need to look for patterns of answers the latter focuses on the

flexibility of questions and allows unique follow up questioning directed at further

understanding individual respondents particular answers. Therefore, open questions

were asked while respondents were encouraged to answer at length with further questions

exploring these answers.

Sensitive Subjects: Methodological Issues and Rapport

Issues of conflict fall under the category of sensitive subjects. Questions in this

study did not enter, except tangentially, on respondents or their close familys personal

experiences of conflict but instead on their perceptions and opinions of issues related to

identity, learning, friends, family and current issues. Issues that might cause any

emotional or psychological stress for respondents were avoided and I constantly repeated

to respondents their ability to stop the interview or not answer questions if they chose to.

However, as Lee (1993: 5) argues, It is not unusual for the sensitive nature of an

apparently innocuous topic to become apparent once the research is under way. This

study already begins far from innocuous. Therefore, a variety of precautions were taken

concerning methodological risk. If questions are perceived to be too sensitive they may

be under or over reported, avoided, taken offense to or create in the respondent a negative

view of the interviewers intentions influencing how they later interpret questions.

First, Lee (1993) argues that open questions could deal with issues of under

reporting of participation that respondents are aware may be considered socially

inappropriate or that the interviewer might see as such. Avoiding this was one reason

interviews were chosen to the exclusion of questionnaires. Further questions that asked

the respondents to rate themselves compared to others were avoided. Instead interview

questions focused on respondents narratives and perspectives on issues without

comparison to others.

The use of open questions also allowed me to develop a clearer set of questions

for increased reliability and validity. It is important to understand how respondents


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themselves understand specific terms or the questions being asked so that each question

when asked to different respondents is interpreted reliably and consistently in the same

way. It is also important to understand how individual respondents use certain terms and

questions so that the questions given and the answers they give validly and accurately

refer to those indicators aimed at by the researcher. It is important not that the speaker,

whether it be the researcher or respondent, knows what is meant, but that listener also

knows what is meant. Converse and Presser (1986) suggest that open questions are

important to use as they allow researchers to explore respondents use of specific words

and how they understand different questions. This suggestion was used at the beginning

of interviews. For example, teachers were asked a series of questions about their age, the

subject they taught and also how they identify themselves and the ethno-religious

demographics of their school and town. I admitted in these introductory questions that

different people used different categories and terms, so I was interested in how they

understood them. Whether or not, for example, the respondent referred to Muslims or

gave legitimacy to the term Bosniak informed me of their thoughts about those terms

and how they would interpret questions later. After several interviews, I also better

understood how individual questions were understood by respondents answers and the

questions they asked for clarification. These discussions allowed me to better understand

answers in previous interviews and better edit future questions.

Second, is the critical issue of validity of self-reported data in discussions of

sensitive subjects. To improve the validity of self-reports Lee (1993) suggests

comparisons for consistency of respondents answers with their answers at different

points in the interview or separate interviews. During the lengthy two hour interview,

several issues were revisited. However, it is important while discussing sensitive subjects

not to be perceived by respondents as treating them as untrustworthy which may result

from asking them the same question repeatedly in a noticeable way. Therefore, questionsrepeated were varied. Similarly, for certain general topics discussions on several

different issues were also used to triangulate respondents views. An example of this was

the separation of discussions over education. During the beginning of the interview

respondents were asked questions about their own personal education. This was

compared later, towards the interviews end, with their views on specific educational


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policies, many of which were raised in the earlier discussion. This example, however,

does not compare exactly the same answers as the question and their contexts have

changed. What were also being compared in this example were respondents answers to

questions in different contexts, different stages of comfort (rapport) with the interviewer

and after different amounts of time thinking and discussing such issues.

Lastly, the issue of rapport and the dynamic between the interviewer and

interviewee is central to any discussion of research on sensitive subjects. Building

rapport with respondents can help elicit valid and reliable answers. Burgess (1984)

argues that unstructured and semi-structured interviews may lead to greater honesty and

openness in responses than structured interviews and questionnaires. More unstructured

interviews allow the chance for the respondent to learn about the motives, perspective

and personality of the interviewer by asking questions in return and a more

conversational format. Prior to interviews, I often discussed a variety of unrelated issues

sports, news, hobbiesand explained that I am not evaluating their views but only

curious about their thoughts on certain issues. There are several aspects the interviewer-

interviewee relationship that are important to discuss.

Going into an interview it is important to understand that the characteristics of the

interviewer place limits on the roles that the interviewer can adopt (Burgess, 1984:

105). As a young foreigner, there are a few issues that need consideration. I certainly

cannot take on, or more importantly be perceived as taking on, a position of authority on

issues that others believe are unwarranted by my age or position as an outsider.

Fortunately, it is possible to see the exercise of power in the interview as a two way

process: it can be exerted by both the interviewer and the respondent (Lee, 1993: 110).

Using these characteristics as an advantage, it was decided to take a less authoritative

stance during interviews. For discussions where respondents were describing their

beliefs about a particular policy or historical narrative this strategy seemed to be

particularly useful. If I was deemed to be less or comparably knowledgeable on a topic,

then those respondents that were relatively unconfident in their beliefs had less of a risk

of looking foolish as I could not judge their accuracy. These advantages could be easily

taken too far, however. Some respondents would begin by explaining relatively simple


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points where my original question sought more nuanced information. Further it is

important to maintain some degree of authority or apparent knowledge to appropriately

steer the conversation.

In addition to the interviewers characteristics, the characteristics of the interview

site are also important. Practical considerations, primarily background noise and

accessibility, were taken into account when discussing where the interview should take

place. Often we would meet in one location easily recognizable to myself, who was

initially unfamiliar with the streets of Tuzla and Zenica, and walk to another site for the

interview. This also allowed for further conversations not related to the interview

creating opportunities for rapport, discussed above. Respondents, with the exception of

one who preferred having the interviews in unused classrooms, chose cafes. Cafes in

most Bosnian cities are regularly visited throughout the day and a popular place to meet

with friends in a laid back setting. In a few instances the first caf had to be abandoned

because of noise considerations, but a nearby alternative was quickly found.

Ethical Issues

In addition to methodological issues, there are also a variety of ethical

considerations. Approval for this study has received clearance for CUREC 1a6

from an

ethics committee at the University of Oxford Central University Research Ethics

Committee.

Respondent consent was approached in two stages. First, before the interview

respondents were given a Participant Information Form7 and asked to read it before

signing and dating the Consent Form8, which I additionally signed. Second, during the

beginning of the interview I again introduced myself, the project and repeated the

information included in the Participant Information form in a more conversational tone.

6See Appendix, 3 and 4.

7See Appendix, 6.

8See Appendix, 5.


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Respondents were asked if they had any questions throughout the explanation. After all

questions were answered and respondents stated they understood all of the information

just discussed, the interview began.

Confidentiality is a central concern for social science research. All respondents

were kept completely anonymous after data collection. Electronic copies of transcripts

did not contain names or other identifying features not needed for the study. This

includes names of schools and family. All data was stored and backed up in password

protected software only accessible to myself. All recordings were deleted shortly after

transcripts were completed.

Research Questions

This study aims to further research that adequately informs education

reconstruction efforts by focusing on the neglected role of teachers. To do this the study

asks 1) what framework do we need to describe teachers FR? And 2) what are teachers

FR in Bosnia-Herzegovina? This study has attempted to answer these by developing

indicators and questions to be discussed in interviews within the context of BiH,

described in the Introduction. These interviews will not only give a description of BiH

teachers in the second question but will allow an empirical exploration of the framework

in the first.

The framework has already been outlined in the Literature Review. Next, the

initial description of these interview findings is analyzed in the Findings-Analysis

Chapter. These interviews used indicators developed from concepts in the literature.

Lastly, the reliability and validity of these indicators will be weighed in the Discussion

Chapter.


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Findings and Analysis Chapter

In this chapter the research findings of BiH teachers frames of reference (FR)

will be analyzed in three sections corresponding to the themes identified in the Literature

Review. The research generated a vast amount of data. I have therefore selected what

best represents the research questions.

First, this chapter will provide an initial pilot interested in describing the BiH

teachers FR. Second, it provides an initial exploration of the framework developed in the

Literature Review. The findings presented below will be used in the Discussion Chapter

to identify valid and reliable interview questions and techniques, discussions proving less

useful, topics to expand on in further study of BiH teachers, new topics to discuss in

interviews to expand on teachers FR, further research to expand on possible related

aspects of the three themes of the framework and suggestions for further research into a

possible fourth theme.

First theme:

A Critical Construction of Beliefs and Perspectives

The first theme focuses on the construction of beliefs and perspectives of teachers

concerning issues relevant to identity-based conflict. It describes teachers critical

reflection, use of multiple perspectives, empathy and critical perspectives on history. The

second theme describes teachers understanding of difference in beliefs and practices.

However, because the present study did not have the resources to test teachers

understanding of specific doctrines and practices, which are often heavily contested and

malleable, it was decided to use the means by which teachers learn about and are

exposed to differences in beliefs and practices as an indicator.


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This has created an overlap in asking 1) if teachers use multiple perspectives and

2) what are their practices or exposure when learning about difference. For example,

most of the teachers interviewed read at least some of both the Koran and Bible.

Therefore, instead of presenting this finding twice under the first theme concerning

multiple perspectives and the second theme concerning learning about differences it was

decided, for the sake of organization and presentation, to separate certain indicators to

one or the other theme in this chapter. The section on the first theme will focus mainly

on the importance respondents place on different issues while the second theme on

describing respondents practices. So the first section will focus on the importance of

reading different scriptures while the second describes teachers practices reading them.

This section is divided into a discussion of 1) the importance teachers place on

the use of critical and multiple perspectives of educational policy, 2) the importance

teachers place on the use of critical and multiple perspectives of private learning and 3)

the importance and use of empathetic perspective recognition of individuals experiences

of issues of conflict. This analysis provides a necessary aspect in understanding teachers

FR. As discussed in the Literature Review, a critical construction allows teachers to be

aware of and dismantle previous stereotypes, facilitates the formation of new

interpretations and makes positive associations with others circumstances.

To explore the importance teachers place on the use of critical and multiple

perspectives in the history and religious instruction curriculums and schools policies a

number of subjects were discussed. The majority of findings were reported during

discussions of the Two Schools Under One Roof policy (2U1R), the national subjects9,

teachers roles and the respondents own education.

Almost all of the respondents stated that the 2U1R policy and several aspects of

the present division of national subjects were, counter-productive, stupid or radical.

9See Introduction.


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Even if they were not personally very familiar with such schools or other versions of the

national subjects, they most often had strong opinions about the harm that they caused

students. Some however, also offered explanations for how the separation of students

into separate schools using separate history curriculums may have made sense at the

time but became habit. For example, that specific parents of different ethnic groups

were fighting which eventually caused the communitys families to send their kids to

separate schools.

The separation of students by ethno- religious background into segregated

schools, as discussed in the Introduction, was seen as a way of allowing teachers and

parents to maintain their own biases. Students were seen as too young to understand why

they were separated and would therefore construct or maintain arbitrary differences.

Several respondents also pointed out what they saw as the reality that students would

inevitably socialize after class and therefore break down the barriers others created. Such

socialization, before or after class, was seen as a necessary prerequisite for getting

along, being able to get comfortable and joke about problems to break tension, to learn

tolerance and to learn that other groups are normal people too. Most respondents also

repeatedly stated that it may not be as necessary in other more homogenous countries, but

that these lessons were critical in diverse places like BiH where you inevitably encounter,

live and work with people of different religions.

Views differed more while discussing the various, conflicting national subjects.

The religious curriculum was seen as understandable, but only as long as there was the

option of secular ethics classes. About half of the respondents, however, stated that

religious instruction in one religion should be replaced by a secular history of religions,

often explicitly mentioning the need for non-indigenous religions, like Hinduism, and

non-religious perspectives. Several stated that religious instruction should be given only

via church and family. The secular version was seen as important for providing basic

knowledge of other religions needed for understanding and maintaining a richer

knowledge of a diversity that many were explicitly proud of. Religion and ethnicity

being an indigenous resource, a combination of East and West, several were proud of

when comparing Bosnia to more homogenous neighbors. Most also expressed


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throughout the interview, sometimes giving anecdotes, that even some educated Bosnians

unfortunately knew little about religion, theirs or others, and that this created intolerance.

None reported that religious instruction played or should play a role in conversion or

maintaining legitimate practice and beliefs. Some mentioned that others of all religions

often made these arguments. Respondents also most often stated that individuals didnt

need to know much about different religions, but only the basics and anything more only

if you were personally curious. Religion was private and all religions taught the same

ethics.

The variety of history curriculums were also widely seen as problematic. Several

at first mentioned that there were few, unimportant differences, or only different

emphases. However, when discussing recent history, namely the war in the 90s, all

agreed that there were important problems. Many respondents repeated that history is

written by the winners. Almost all, even if not stating this phrase themselves, explicitly

placed blame on politicians for corruption and the manipulation of ethnic politics.

Historians were not seen as explicit tools of specific politicians, but as part of the

political atmosphere and therefore working together to justify certain versions.

As a solution to the existence of different, manipulated versions of the history

curriculum two paths were usually recommended. First, many recommended not

including recent history, stating that more time would need to pass. Its inclusion required

better research which couldnt be done with present tensions that inevitably caused

conflict if discussed. One teacher described the strategy of some teachers, So maybe we

get to, and a little bit further, but not to the 90s or so. Maybe intentionally, probably

intentionally. Second, almost all recommended, sometimes as an alternative to the first

policy, that one single curriculum needs to be pushed through all schools. Some argued

this very strongly: Final verdict. Exclamatory mark. Teachers if you are unsatisfied,

quit Parents, there is one option, Option B is non-existent. Several argued, though

less often, such enforcement was needed for abolishing the 2U1R policy.

In both discussions of the 2U1R policy and national subjects some respondents

mentioned the need for choice. Most interpreted the 2U1R policy as excluding the

exercise of choice. However, some added that once students were welcomed by ethno-


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religiously privileged schools, those schools provided important options and diversity.

Only one respondent argued that schools should be completely secularized, adding they

were the exception. The value of choice, however, was reserved mostly for the language

curriculum, which I did not prepare to discuss10

. All who discussed the need for choice

also felt the need to defend their own schools as not favoring one group and excluding

others. Several teachers also discussed the importance of lack of choice in Yugoslavia.

One teacher explicitly argued the lack inability to express ones religion and identity

under Tito in areas like education fueled the conflict. A variety of curricula was therefore

a way for people to express themselves. Without such schools, the only source of

learning is the home which is harmful because not talking about [history in public] can

only exacerbate the problem.

Nearly half of respondents who grew up predominantly after the war emphasized

the importance of specific history teachers. One respondent stated Im so grateful to

him, especially for building up certain attitudes. My own way to approach certain topics

in history [to] take into consideration different opinions. Another praised a former

teacher who never pointed a finger at anyone. A third praised teachers they had for

what they perceived as softening certain parts of the history for certain minorities in the

class. Values that many recognized as important for learning about history were

sensitivity of others feelings and perspectives and the need to be aware of and

dispassionately analyze the different versions that exist.

Another common discourse revolved around the importance of facts in

presenting history and historical inquiry. Facts were portrayed in opposition to

individuals opinions. History curriculums should, it was argued, revolve around

objective facts as opposed to subjective, emotional or biased ones. Most teachers

seemed to assume a clear difference. Some sited authoritative bodies, particularly The

Hague and other court decisions, as being able to help provide or assert simple what,

where and who answers. Authoritative historians and scientists were thought to play a

role but have merely not been a part of the process yet or enough or have been co-opted

10Focus was given to the history and religion curriculum and not language based on considerations of

time.


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by politics. However, some teachers,

Documents

"Beware of the Man with One Book": Teachers as Mediators of Identity-Based Conflict in Bosnia-Herzegovina (Oxford MSc Edu Dissertation)