Beverly Final

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Effects of Teaching and Learning Styles on Middle SchoolEighth Graders Reading Comprehension Skills

Beverly Y. McClain

Research Assistance by Sparrow Educational Services

An Applied Dissertation Proposal Submitted to theFischler School of Education and Human Services

in Partial Fulfillment of the Requirementsfor the Degree of Doctor of Education

Nova Southeastern University2007

Table of Contents

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Chapter 1: Introduction. 1Introduction and Statement of the Problem 1Purpose of the Study............3Background and Significance .....3Research Questions... 6

Definition of Terms... 6

Chapter 2: Review of Literature... 8Introduction.. 8Reading Comprehension.. 8Teaching Styles . 9

Learning Styles... 16

Standardized Testing.. 16

Summary. 17

Chapter 3: Methodology.. 19Methodology 19Setting. 19Sample. 20Procedure24Assumptions 24Limitations & Delimitations 24Researcher Disclosure25

References.. 31

AppendixesA Teachers Interview Questions . 34B Teachers Survey ...... 36C Letter of Intent ... 39D Teachers Consent . 41E Parents Consent........ 43F Observation Checklist ........... 45

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Chapter 1: Introduction

Introduction and Statement of the Problem

The proposed evaluation study concerns the process of identifying some of the

variables that may be affecting reading comprehension among eighth grade students in

one particular New York City public school, which will be referenced henceforth as the

school. The school is identified by the criteria delineated in the No Child Left Behind

Act (NCLB) as a School in Need of Improvement. The problem is that the school has

not met its accountability responsibilities with respect to reading score performance, and

the administration has not identified the reasons for consistent poor performance or

potential interventions. For three consecutive school years, eighth grade students in the

school have failed to score at or above grade level on the English Language Arts (ELA)

examination, and the Reading Comprehension portion of the examination in particular

has had poor scores. In 2002, only 38% of the eighth graders scored at or above grade

level. In 2003, only 32% of the eighth graders scored at or above grade level. In 2004,

35% of the eighth graders scored at or above the 50% national percentile in Reading

Comprehension, according to the schools yearly report card.

The consequences of poor reading comprehension scores are significant for

students, of course. Reading is one of the most important skills that a student can acquire

during ones academic career, and it is a skill that remains critical throughout the course

of ones lifespan (Paris & Stahl, 2004). The consequences of poor reading comprehension

scores are also significant for the schools themselves. If the school remains designated as

a School in Need of Improvement, it can be in jeopardy of losing federal funding, and

because of provisions included in the No Child Left Behind Act, parents can remove their

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children from underperforming schools and place them in schools with proven

success rates (Costigan, Crocco, & Zumwalt, 2004; U.S. Department of Education,

2004). The school participating in this study is not unique among New York City public

schools; Donlevy (2003) reported that hundreds of New York City area schools are on

the schools in need of improvement list (p. 335). A number of reasons have been

suggested for the pervasiveness of low scores and the needs-improvement status of New

York City schools; these reasons range from understaffing and poor resources to

classroom distractions and the increase in behavioral, psychological, and social problems

such as ADHD. One potential reason for poor reading comprehension that has been

largely overlooked by research and the recent scholarly literature, however, is that of the

relationship between teachers instructional styles and students learning styles and the

impact that this relationship may have on reading comprehension. It is this relationship,

then, that is the focus of the proposed study.

The costs of dropping out of high school can have a profound effect on a young

person's life. The relative earnings of high school dropouts are lower than those for

students who complete high school and/or college (Schmidt, 2001). According to

Schmidt (2001), A study for one city estimated that a year's worth of dropouts cost $3.2

billion in lost earnings and more than $400 million in social services over a lifetime (p.

25). Similarly, high school dropouts experience unemployment more frequently and

persistently than those students who graduate with a diploma (Toutkoushian & Curtis,

2005). Young women who drop out of high school are more likely to become pregnant at

young ages and more likely to become single parents. Nationwide, high dropout rates

among minority youth are of particular concern to educators (Bureau of Labor Statistics,

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2005). Between October 2003 and October 2004 alone, approximately 500,000

young people dropped out of high school. The labor force participation rate of the high

school dropouts was 53.7%, which is considerably lower than high school graduates at

77.5%, according to the Bureau of Labor Statistics (2005). The facts are sobering when

contrasted with the reality of a workplace that continues to require increased literacy,

more education, enhanced technical skills, and the ability to embark on careers that

require lifelong learning. Without the skills and training that schooling should provide,

those who do not complete their education face a lifetime of limited opportunities, or

even the possibility of a life of delinquency and crime.

Purpose of the Study

The purpose of the proposed study is to discern whether there is a relationship

between teachers instructional styles and students learning styles that can be identified

and substantiated through empirical study as having a statistically significant impact on

eighth grade students reading comprehension scores. Based on the outcomes of the

research, a secondary purpose of the study will be to offer recommendations to the

schools administration regarding possible strategies for improving eighth grade students

reading comprehension scores. The implications of the study will be discussed in the next

section.

Background and Significance of the Study

The passage of the No Child Left Behind Act in 2002 intended, in the words of

President George W. Bush, to give our schools historic educational reform(U.S.

Department of Education, 2004, n.p.). The No Child Left Behind Act rested upon four

pillars: stronger accountability for results, more freedom for states and communities,

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proven education methods, and more choices for parents (U.S. Department of

Education, 2004, n.p.). One of the most significant reforms mandated by the No Child

Left Behind Act was the increasing emphasis on and enthusiasm for standardized tests as

a means of measuring students learning and academic progress (U.S. Department of

Education, 2004). Adequate yearly progress, as defined by the U.S. Department of

Education (2004), established standards that each school was expected to meet in order to

prove that learning objectives had been met and that all students had been provided with

the same academic opportunities (U.S. Department of Education, 2004, n.p.). Schools

were to report their yearly progress by reporting annual standardized test scores, which

would be evaluated by the federal government. Based on national and regional averages,

schools would be deemed as having met their target goals, or as being in need of

improvement. The Act assumed that accountability would be fostered because every

schools report card would be published and made available to parents and the

community, which would ostensibly pressure the school to improve (Costigan et al.,

2004). Furthermore, the threat of withdrawn federal funding was expected to be a

motivating factor for schools to boost their students standardized test score performance.

While these assumptions make sense on an intellectual level, on a pragmatic level they

have been far more difficult to implement (Costigan et al., 2004).

In New York City, for instance, many schools have had difficulty complying with

the standards established by the No Child Left Behind Act. According to the National

School Board Association (2002), New York City is the largest school system in the

country, with more than 1.1 million students, all of whom come from varied cultural,

socioeconomic, and educational backgrounds. The pressure for teachers to foster reading

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comprehension according to new curricular standards within such a diverse

environment, coupled with the fact that this school system is plagued by understaffing

and resource problems, are just some of the challenges that inhibit the achievement of

target test scores.

When a school is identified as an underperforming school, such as the school

being studied here, it has a set timeframe within which it must make significant changes.

Changes must improve academic standards and assessments or the school will be taken

over by the state (U.S. Department of Education, 2004). While the school is

implementing a corrective action plan, parents have the option of transferring their child

to another school that meets the state and federally mandated standards. During the

process of restructuring, the school also receives supplemental education services.

The significance of the proposed study is that it has the potential to reveal

variables that influence eighth grade students reading comprehension scores that have

never been examined in depth before. If the research study determines that there is a

correlation between teachers instructional styles, students learning styles, and reading

comprehension scores, it is possible that the teaching and learning styles can be better

matched through specific targeted interventions geared towards boosting students

standardized test scores. Any effective interventions can help schools adjust to the fact

that No Child Left Behind and its attendant mandates are, at least for the time being, here

to stay. Rather that struggle against realities, teachers, administrators, parents, and

students should work together to achieve strong scores within the new educational

framework. The result will benefit individual students, schools, and the communities in

which they are located.

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Research Questions

There are three research questions that guide the proposed study:

1. What teaching styles impact students standardized test scores in the area of

reading comprehension?

2. What learning styles impact students standardized test scores in the area of

reading comprehension ?

3. What interventions, based on the answers to research questions one and two, can

offer the possibility of improvement in the students reading comprehension

scores in the school?

Definition of Terms

No Child Left Behind Act (NCLB): The No Child Left Behind Act was passed in

2002 and which resulted in sweeping changes in the instruction and measurement of

learning in the countrys schools. Teaching and learning successes are determined by the

evaluation of students standardized test scores (U.S. Department of Education, 2004).

Teaching Styles: The term teaching styles is used interchangeably with the

term instructional styles in the proposal. Both terms refer to the methods that teachers

use to deliver instruction to their students, and include not only objective, didactic

elements, but also subjective and personality factors that influence the way that a teacher

instructs students (Capel, Leask, & Turner, 2001). Capel et al. (2001) point out that there

are numerous teaching styles, and because [t]eaching is a very personal activity

certain teaching styles and strategies might suit one teacher, they might not be

appropriate for another (p. 9).Learning Styles: Just as teachers have unique ways of delivering

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information, knowledge, and skills, so too do students have unique ways or receiving,

processing, and applying information, knowledge, and skills; these different ways of

receiving, processing, and applying are referred to as learning styles. Generally

speaking, scholars, researchers, and educators acknowledge four basic types of learning

styles, while admitting that there is substantial variation and that some students exhibit a

proclivity for more than one style (Fritz, 2002).

Standardized Testing: Standardized tests are inventories that are used to

measure students acquisition of skills and information. Standardized testing is becoming

increasingly important to contemporary primary and secondary education; however, it is

also an area that provokes substantial controversy (Phelps, 2004), an issue which will be

explored at greater length in Chapter 2: Literature Review.

Adequate Yearly Progress. One of the stipulations of the No Child Left Behind

Act mandates that schools achieve a particular set of scores on the standardized tests that

students take to measure their learning progress each year. The target scores are referred

to as adequate yearly progress in the NCLB law.

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Chapter Two: Review of the Literature

Introduction

The purpose of this chapter is to offer the reader a concise but comprehensive

overview of the subjects that are related to the proposed study, including reading

comprehension, teaching styles, learning styles, and standardized testing. The literature

review includes germinal, seminal, and recent studies on these four subjects.

Reading Comprehension Skills

Instruction in reading comprehension skills begins in the earliest years of a childs

academic life, and reading skills are intended to become increasingly more sophisticated

as a child develops in cognitive maturity and functioning (Paris & Stahl, 2004). Reading

is not just a skill that is important in the school setting; as any adult well knows, reading

is a life skill that remains important. As Paris and Stahl (2004) write, The ability to read

is essential for successful functioning in society and therefore is one of the most

important survival skills to teach our children (p. 107). Instilling reading

comprehension skills in students can be frustrating for teachers, who recognize that

reading comprehension does not involve simply teaching the components of reading

such as vocabulary, pronunciation, and, word relationshipsbut also involves ensuring

that students learn how to read which involves acquiring the abilities to assess, evaluate,

and apply what they have read (Paris & Stahl, 2004).

Educators, administrators, and researchers tend to agree that assessments must be

utilized to determine whether reading comprehension skills have been conveyed to

students effectively (Paris & Stahl, 2004), though attitudes about the kinds of assessments

used vary dramatically. Regardless of a teachers like or dislike of evaluative measures,

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though, the No Child Left Behind Act mandates annual testing to determine, among

other subjects and skills, the degree to which a student has developed reading

comprehension skills (U.S. Department of Education, 2004). Results of standardized tests

with respect to reading comprehension are alarming. According to the 1998 National

Assessment of Educational Progress, 74% of eighth graders have not reached a proficient

level in their reading, and 26% of those students have not reached even a basic level of

literacy (National Association of Educational Statistics, 1999). As Paris and Stahl (2004)

opine, improving reading comprehension scores is not an easy task, even for the most

skilled and seasoned of teachers. As they write,

For some children, learning to read seems effortless and rapid, whereas for others,

it can be an arduous and frustrating chore. Reading may not be rocket science, as

some pundits note, but understanding how children learn to read, how to teach

reading, and how to help struggling readers have been remarkably stubborn

puzzles. (Paris & Stahl, 2004, p. xv)

Paris and Stahl (2004) go on to list a variety of variables that may affect reading

comprehension in greater and lesser ways; some of these variables are within a teachers

control, while many others are not. Even those variables within a teachers control,

however, such as teaching style, may not be universally effective, for students have

different needs, varying abilities, and a wide variety of learning styles,

Teaching Styles

The number and variety of teaching styles may be as numerous as teachers

themselves. Teaching styles incorporate not only the pedagogical methods by which a

teacher delivers information, but also the attitude and passion with which such

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information is conveyed (Collins & OBrien, 2003). With respect to the teaching

styles that are most effective in instilling reading comprehension skills in students,

research on the subject is contradictory. Borgia, Cheek, Launey, and Steward (2004), for

instance, report that four basic teaching styles facilitate reading comprehension: (1)

experiential teaching; (2) instructional teaching; (3) explanatory teaching; and, (4)

relational teaching. This writer would contend, however, that the four teaching styles

identified by these researchers are not necessarily mutually exclusive. A teacher who

integrates experiential teaching techniques, for instance, may also be highly relational.

Various techniques are also mentioned in the literature, including oral reading practice,

guided reading, word study, reading self-selected books independently, writing about

reading, and learning and utilizing strategies for comprehension (Paris & Stahl, 2004).

Beyond the actual techniques, there are numerous articles that focus on the

intangible aspects of teaching style, which are deemed to be at least as important as the

pedagogical strategies that are used. Rickford (2005) focuses on the personality aspects

of teaching style, and based on her own experience and anecdotal reports she contends

that a dynamic, interactive, passionate teacher who instills beliefs in students that they

can not only learn to read, but also enjoy doing so, will be far more successful than a

teacher who relies upon packaged curricular and pedagogical techniques and traditional

hierarchical interactions with students. Rickfords (2005) article is only one of many that

takes this anecdotal tactic. One of the gaps identified in the literature is that there is little

quantitative research on the subject of teaching styles and the impact that these have on a

students reading comprehension scores. The present study, then, can contribute to the

literature in this regard.

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In addition to the issue of teaching styles, the research literature indicates that

there is a direct correlation between teacher competency and student achievement in the

area of reading comprehension (Cochran Smith, 2004; Phelps, 2004). Teachers who are

properly trained, who are self driven, whose lesson plans reflect strategic planning which

engage students at their individual academic level, and teachers who are motivated to

teach based on a need to make a difference in the lives of others tend to be more effective

than their colleagues who do not embody these characteristics. Some researchers contend

that students of these teachers are more likely to meet their true potential by working

hard, studying more, and scoring higher on the reading comprehension portion of the

New York City English Language Arts examination or other standardized tests. Other

researchers, however, report contradictory data and assert that teacher enthusiasm [does]

not affect [student] achievement (Campbell, Kyriakides, Mujis, & Robinson, 2004, p.

42). Many states, though, seem to believe that teacher competency and enthusiasm do

have a significant impact on student achievement, and to this end, most states require that

teachers receive state certification in order to be considered competent (Laczko-Kerr &

Berliner, 2002). Despite the certification requirements, a widely publicized report

indicates that many teachers are deficient in basic skills (Laczko-Kerr & Berliner, 2002).

How do these deficiencies impact student success? Compare the academic achievements

of students taught by uncertified primary school teachers, including teachers from the

"Teach for America" program, to those of students taught by regularly certified teachers.

Findings for five school districts with roughly 300 new teachers show that students of

under-certified teachers achieve 20% less academic growth than do students of regularly

certified teachers (Laczko-Kerr & Berliner, 2002). Historically, teacher licensing was an

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issue that fell within the jurisdiction of the state; however, The No Child Left Behind

Act requires that states choosing to accept federal education funding provide evidence

that its teachers not only hold licensure, but are highly qualified, a term which is

problematic because it is not quantified in any tangible way. The No Child Left Behind

Act simply stipulates that teachers must meet the following requirements:

1. hold a bachelor's degree,

2. hold full state certification or licensure, and

3. demonstrate competence in subject knowledge in the core subject areas of

English, reading or language arts, mathematics, science, foreign languages, civics

and government, economics, arts, history and geography.

(U.S. Department of Education, 2004).

Witcher, Onwuegbuzie, and Minor (2001) studied the perceptions of 219 pre-

service teachers about the characteristics of effective teachers and investigated factors

that may have influenced their responses. They identified six dominant themes, headed

by student-centeredness and enthusiasm for teaching. Regardless of the research

outcomes, what does seem clear is that the role of the teacher is critical in ensuring that

all children are successful readers. The question remains, though: How do teachers design

instruction to meet the needs of all students? First and most importantly, teachers must

believe that all children can learn to read. Because our attitudes and expectations

permeate instruction, believing that all children can become readers is the first step in

creating an effective literacy program and developing a community that respects the

unique qualities of each child. Communicating high expectations to all children will

enhance their potential for success. Teachers must also be knowledgeable about effective

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instructional practices that meet the diverse needs of students and that take into

account the prior knowledge, experiences, and home languages each child brings to the

classroom. Teachers must create learning environments that support cognitive, language,

and social development through authentic learning activities relevant to childrens lives.

During explicit instruction, teachers must employ a variety of techniques, which

may include direct explanation, modeling, guided practice, feedback and application

(Dickson, Collins, Simmons & Kameenui, 1998). Successful comprehension instruction

requires a sophisticated literacy program: one that includes diverse literature, both fiction

and nonfiction; many opportunities for independent and supported practices; thoughtful

instruction before, during and after reading; explicit teaching of comprehension skills and

strategies; and cooperative, collaborative discussion of the text (Dickson et al., 1998).

Paris and Stahl (2004) suggest that there are some general characteristics that

teachers should incorporate in their teaching styles in order to improve the opportunities

for a student to acquire reading comprehension skills. These include:

Clarity. Teachers should communicate clearly about course objectives, content

and testing, and make sure to provide a rationale for learning particular material.

Teachers should also adapt instruction to their students level of knowledge and skill.

Review. Teachers should review prerequisite knowledge as the foundation for new

knowledge.

Planning. Teachers should be familiar with current research and develop outlines

or lesson plans for each class. Planning should begin with information about students'

existing preparation and skills. Teachers should also be prepared for contingencies and

ideal teaching moments.

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Feedback. Teachers ask questions requiring students to reflect, evaluate, and

connect ideas while providing clear and specific responses to student questions. Teachers

also often engage students critical thinking faculties by offering a response and then

following up with a related question to ensure the students acquisition of information or

an idea.

Transfer of Learning. Teachers provide adequate opportunity for mastery of tasks

by making sure that principles are understood before asking students to apply them. They

offer a wide variety of examples and opportunities to apply learning experientially.

Evaluation. Teachers solicit formal and informal responses from students during

the semester and use this information to improve their courses as they are being taught.

They also invite observation and suggestions from colleagues.

Other researchers have surveyed pre-service teachers regarding their perceptions

of effective teachers' characteristics and whether those perceptions were related to

educational beliefs (see, for example, Borgia et al., 2004, and Minor et al., 2002). Pre-

service teachers believe that many characteristics facilitate effective teaching of reading

comprehension, including student centered practice, effective classroom and behavior

management, competent instruction, ethical behavior, enthusiasm about teaching,

demonstrating knowledge about the subject, and consistently demonstrating professional

demeanor (Minor et al., 2002). There was no relationship between these perceptions and

respondents' year of study, educational belief, and preferred grade level for teaching

(Minor et al., 2002).

One way for administrators to potentially determine what teaching styles and

which teachers are most effective in conveying reading comprehension skills is by tying

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standardized score targets to teachers evaluations (U.S. Department of Education,

2004). Once targets are set, the principal and teacher work out a specific plan of action

within a given time frame, and then review a teachers progress in conference. Research

substantiates the fact that administrators can employ incentives to entice teachers to excel

as they master their educational craft. Administrators can induce teachers with merit pay,

career advancement options, and public recognition with awards and improved work

conditions (Peterman, 2005).

Stronge and Hindman (2003) provide six research-based domains of teacher

effectiveness: Prerequisites of effective teachers, teacher as a person, classroom

management and organization, organizing for instruction, implementing instruction, and

monitoring students progress and potential. The researchers describe how these six

domains can guide the teacher-selection process (Stronge & Hindman, 2003).

Comprehension results from an interaction among the reader, the strategies the reader

employs, the material being read, and the context in which reading takes place.

Because the correlation between student achievement and teacher effectiveness is

generally substantiated by the literature (even if the definitions of teacher effectiveness

vary widely), there are many programs geared to developing the teachers skills. Among

the many educational reform programs the Carnegie Foundation funds, for example, is

Teachers for a New Era, which aims to create innovative teacher training programs to

serve as models for the field. Over the life of the initiative, Carnegie and its collaborators

expect to spend more than $65 million to transform teacher education. Grant recipients

include New York City's Bank Street College of Education, California State University at

Northridge, Michigan State University, the University of Virginia, Boston College,

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Florida A&M University, the University of Connecticut, Stanford University, the

University of Texas at El Paso, the University of Washington and the University of

Wisconsin-Milwaukee (American Psychology Association, 2003).

Learning Styles

Just as teachers have different styles of instructing students, so too do students

have varied styles of learning. While it is accepted that learning styles may differ as

widely as teaching styles, experts tend to acknowledge three basic learning styles: (1)

auditory; (2) visual; (3) kinesthetic (also sometimes referred to as tactile-kinesthetic

(Lamarche-Bisson, 2002). The names of these learning styles offer clear hints about their

salient characteristics. The auditory learning style is characterized by the students

preference to absorb information, knowledge, and skills by listening. Students who are

auditory learners, then, are highly responsive to lectures and read-aloud techniques.

Visual learners, on the other hand, need to literally see the material that is being taught;

they do not absorb, process, and apply learning information simply by listening. Finally,

the kinesthetic learner needs experiential application, or hands-on involvement in the

learning process. Learning styles may be even more important than teaching styles in the

outcomes of reading comprehension as evidenced by standardized test scores (Huang,

Johanson, Leal, & Toth, 2004). As Huang et al. (2004) reported in their studys findings,

students learning styles and positive rapport with the teacher were the two most

important predictors of reading comprehension success.

Standardized Testing

As noted in Chapter 1, standardized testing is becoming increasingly important in

the American education environment (U.S. Department of Education, 2004). Although

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standardized testing is controversial because it is argued that such tests have no

means of evaluating whether students can apply knowledge they have acquired,

advocates of standardized testing contend that such tests are the only way to create, track,

and enforce measurable and shared standards (McNeil,2000). Advocates also argue that

standardized tests are developed, and thus performance is measured, based on inarguable

scientific principles, which provide for more fair assessments than other measures, which

are considered subjective (Cala, 2003).

In New York State, public school students take the annual English Language Arts

Test, a standardized instrument that is used to assess student learning and which is also

used, in part, to determine promotion of the student to the next grade (New York City

Department of Education, n.d.). Sample tests can be viewed online at

http://www.emsc.nysed.gov/3-8/ela-sample/home.htm.

Summary

Chapter Two offered a comprehensive yet concise overview of the literature on

the primary subjects related to the study of reading comprehension scores among students

in the school that is the site of study. It should be acknowledged that low reading scores

are a complex problem caused by multiple variables. The researcher is focusing on

teaching and learning styles to the exclusion of other variables that have been studied in

greater depth. It must be acknowledged that there may be many reasons why eighth grade

students are not mastering reading skills. The reasons range from a lack of parental

involvement in student learning, the failure of teachers to utilize various reading

strategies and techniques to match students individual learning styles, and the failure of

students to invest interest in their educational process. Teachers also often lack the

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knowledge that students from different cultures learn differently (Korn & Bursztyn,

2002). Numerous factors all play a significant role in the success and achievement of

students; however, because so little research has been conducted about the interplay of

teaching and learning styles, this is the particular focus of the proposed study.

In the following chapter, the methodology will be identified and explained.

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Chapter 3: Methodology

Methodology

The research design of the proposed study involves a mixed methodology

approach. With respect to the students who will be involved in the study, the researcher

will use quantitative data derived from the scores of the Reading Comprehension portion

of the states English Language Arts exam, a standardized test, to gain an understanding

of the nature of the existing state of academic performance in this area. The researcher

will complement the quantitative data set with a qualitative interview utilizing open-

ended questions administered to teachers that allow for individual variations. Finally, the

researcher will conduct classroom observations in which a checklist will be used to assess

teachers instructional styles.

There are three variables being studied in this research investigation: (1) the

teaching styles of teachers; (2) the learning styles of students, and (3) the reading

comprehension performance of students.

Setting

The setting of the proposed study is the eighth grade classrooms in the school,

which is an urban middle school located in New York City. The school services students

in grades 6-8. The school has a principal and three assistant principals. Each grade also

has a dean of students. The school has 1200 students. The teachers at the school are

required to be certified. Only 50% of the schools teachers are certified in their specific

field of study. Fifty-five percent of the teachers are males and 45% are females. Less than

half of the staff is considered veteran teachers with a minimum of 10 years teaching

experience. The school operates from 7:30 a.m. until 5:00 p.m. Each morning, students

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can partake of a healthy and nutritious breakfast. Students who make arrangements

with their teachers can also receive morning tutoring. At 8:20 A.M., the students begin

their full day of instruction, which consists of eight periods of various subjects, including

mathematics, social studies, science, English language arts, and physical education. From

October through May, the school has an after school program which further addresses the

academic needs of the student population. The vast majority of the students are minority

students, consisting of Blacks and Latinos. Many of the students are being raised in a

single parent household, a foster-care or extended family setting, or are being raised by

someone other than a biological parent. Ninety percent of the students qualify for free or

reduced breakfast and lunch. Ninety percent of the students have parents who migrated to

the United States. Many of the parents do not speak English and are not legal residents of

the United States. Ninety-five percent of the parents receive some type of public

assistance and/or food stamps.

Sample

The sample is a purposive, non-random convenience sample of eighth graders in

the school being studied, as well as a non-random convenience sample of eighth grade

teachers in the same school. The students in this school are homogeneously grouped.

They have similar learning abilities. In 2005, the average 8th grade student scored a one

(far below) out of four categories on the English Language Arts examination. The

students attending this school are often absent from school. Parental support is lacking in

many cases. Many of the students fail major subjects and the average grade is 70. The

students classes are assigned to specific teachers; therefore, the studys population will

be that of students with similar reading scores. The teachers who are assigned to the four

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classes will be asked to volunteer for the study.

The demographics of the focus group participants consist of teachers, ranging in

age from 21 to 65. The researcher will not be able to control the gender and experience

level of the teachers. There will be four teachers. The teachers will go about their daily

routines in the double period (90 minute) English language arts classes. Two teachers will

be utilized as a control group and two teachers will be assigned to the experimental

group. The experimental teachers will receive additional support by the researcher in the

form of one-on-one professional development based on the latest research. The student

population will consist of homogeneous grouping of students. The students will be boys

and girls ranging from ages 12 to 14. There will be four participants for the focus group.

Each teacher will have approximately 30 students. The120 eighth grade students from

four English language arts classes will participate in the study. The study will seek to

answer the research questions, which are identified below.

Procedures

To substantiate the existence of the problem, the researcher will review three

years worth of reading comprehension scores of the school being studied. A Harcourt

Reading examination will be administered as a pre-test and post-examination measure,

and the collected data will be analyzed. The students report cards will also be assessed

for academic achievement in other subject areas where reading comprehension skills

predicts student success. Finally, the researcher will utilize English Language Arts test

scores to determine annual reading comprehension success.

The researcher will obtain the permission of the district and school administrators

in order to conduct this study at the school site. The researcher does not work at the site.

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Once permission is granted, the researcher will select four out of the ten eighth grade

classes from the English language arts department to participate. The researcher will

select the classes with a similar range of reading scores in order to see which teachers and

their respective instructional styles produce the most significant gains in reading

comprehension.

Each potential participant will receive a letter explaining the study and requesting

that one participates voluntarily in a focus group. A meeting time will be established

where the participants will meet to receive a thorough explanation, directions for the

completion of the survey and instructions on when and where to return the completed

confidential survey. The participants will sign an adult consent form. The researcher will

check the attendance and punctuality for each participant. The school has a high teacher

absentee rate as well as a high turnover rate.

The researcher will utilize a pre and post reading comprehension examination as

well as ongoing assessments throughout a twelve week period. When the reading

comprehension data is collected and analyzed, one will be able to determine if teaching

styles impacted student achievement in reading comprehension. This will be measured by

formally and informally observing the teachers instructional practices. This information

will come from a thorough literature review and what the latest research confirms.

The researcher will seek to discover the various teaching styles of each

participant. The researcher will be looking for research -based proven best practices in

the form of direct instruction, indirect instruction, discussion, cooperative learning and

self-directed instruction. The researcher will be looking for rote learning, guided problem

solving and diagnostic teaching. Most importantly, the researcher will seek to discover if

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the teacher took time to motivate/peek the interest of the students in the subject

matter and the method of motivation. There are other factors the researcher will expect to

observe in the teachers teaching techniques such as the lecture and discussion methods,

grouping, tutoring, games and simulations and instructional medias such as computer

assisted instruction, speaker/listening media, visual and observation media and reading

and writing media.

The researcher will distribute the survey to teachers who will participate in a

focus group. The purpose of the survey is to gather data as it relates to the participants

beliefs, attitudes, and teaching style (teacher as a person, classroom management and

organization, organizing for instruction, implementing instruction, and monitoring

students progress and potential). The pencil and paper survey will be distributed to each

teacher during the focus group meeting and retrieved by the researcher. Each participant

from the focus group will be given directions for the completion of the survey. The

researcher will carefully evaluate each research question and categorize the question by

what it focused on in particular.

Each teacher will also receive sufficient time to properly and thoroughly complete

the survey. The researcher will also have opportunities to interview, observe and meet

with the focus group at the site of the study. The researcher will document the four

teachers unique teaching styles by observing the teachers from the back of the classroom

twice per week with a checklist on taking observational notes. In the data collection, this

particular type of research looks for involvement from the participants. The teachers will

be required to keep a daily log detailing the strategies, skills and techniques utilized

during the teaching of English anguage arts. Each teacher will also have lesson plans

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available upon request.

Assumptions

The primary assumption of the researcher is that the students and teachers will

participate willingly and honestly in the study. The study design also assumes that

teachers will be willing to provide the researcher with various forms of information,

including lesson plans and the like. The researcher also assumes that she will be able to

access other sensitive data, such as reading comprehension scores.

Limitations and Delimitations

As is the case with any study, the proposed study has particular limitations. One

of the limitations of this study is the timeframe that is available for conducting the

research. The relatively short timeframe of the study may inhibit the researchers ability

to establish rapport with the participating teachers. Second, while the researcher believes

that the use of several distinct data streams is an advantage because it provides

corroboration and assists with the reliability and validity of data, it also has the potential

of confounding the analysis and interpretation of results. Specifically, there are many

variables that influence students acquisition of information and skills, and it may be

difficult to establish whether there is a positive or predictive correlation between a

teachers instructional style and a students performance on the reading comprehension

section of a state standardized assessment test. Finally, another limitation of the study is

its sample size. Because the researcher wishes to focus on the phenomenon being studied

within a single school setting, the purposive convenience sample is non-random and it is

small. The small sample size may restrict the researchers ability to generalize results to a

larger population.

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Researcher Disclosure

The researcher is a 22 year veteran with the New York City Department of

Education. Over the past 22 years, the researcher has worked in various instructional and

administrative capacities from a third grade teacher, reading/literacy specialist, staff

developer, high school English teacher, and administrator. The researcher has taught

and/or supervised grades pre-K through 12. The researcher has other instructional and

administrative experiences, supervising a juvenile correctional facility, a child care

facility, and teaching advanced college writing as an adjunct professor at a private college

in New York City.

The researchers educational philosophy is that All children can learn and should

be given an equal opportunity to learn in an environment which is safe and conducive to

learning. Students need to come to school on a daily basis and feel that they are safe

from the ills of the outside world. A safe scholastic environment affords students the

opportunity to attend school and not be concerned with crime and violence. It is equally

important for the school to be prepared to receive the students. The administration,

parents, and teachers must work together to provide an environment of proactive teaching

and learning. Teachers must be skilled in the subject matter that they teach and properly

prepared with a daily lesson plan/blueprint of expected learning activities and outcomes.

Having both a strong literacy and a middle school background has given the

researcher reasons to question the effects of teaching styles on eighth graders reading

comprehension skills. The researcher has a Bachelor of Arts degree in Communications,

Radio, TV and Journalism, a Masters of Science in Developmental and Remedial

Reading, and an advanced certificate in Administration and Supervision. The researcher

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is a candidate for a doctoral degree in Educational Leadership.

Throughout the researchers career, she has often wondered why certain students

perform better than others who come from similar social-economic backgrounds. As a

first year teacher, the researcher began questioning why so many students were not

successful in reading, and comprehension in particular. The researchers observations

prompted her to study developmental and remedial reading as a way to improve student

achievement. One of the areas of focus of the current project, then, will be identifying

best practices for teaching reading comprehension skills to eighth grade students.

The researchers experience confirms that students who have been labeled as

underachievers do have the potential to improve their reading comprehension skills and

to achieve positive results. Her experiences with such students proved to be extremely

positive, as she aided them in their newfound love for reading and writing. Each year the

students who did not strive academically and behave according to the schools

regulations would conduct themselves in accordance with the researchers rules and

regulations in the classroom. The same students improved academically in all subject

areas and especially in reading comprehension. The researcher was able to increase the

skills and scores of her students in many cases without the full support of their home

environment. Each student improved in manner either in reading comprehension,

attendance, attitude, appearance, work habits and/or self esteem. The strategies which the

researcher utilized where the integrating of reading and writing on a daily bases. Each

day the students read and wrote a detailed summary about what they read. The students

read various genres and materials which they were interested in reading. Each day

unfamiliar vocabulary was introduced in context. The students learn the importance of

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reading through various life experiences such as cooking which requires following

instructions. Students were also required to read each evening for a minimum of twenty

minutes and were expected to write an account detailing Who?, What?, Where? When?

Why? and How? Because of her own professional experiences, the researcher offers this

proposal as a continuation of her interest in the effect of teaching styles on student

achievement.

The researcher proposes that administrators utilize a number of research based

strategies to assist in improving teachers instructional skills which will inevitably

improve students reading comprehension skills. Professional development is significant

when it comes to improving teachers teaching strategies and skills. Teachers must be

familiar with the various learning styles of their student population in order to maximize

learning. Administrators must also find ways to improve parental involvement as well as

find way to increase student interest in reading and their learning process.

Administrators must be familiar with the latest research based information on how

to improve teaching skills in order to improve students learning. An administrator can

begin by utilizing the reading comprehension data from ones own school. Administrators

must look at the reading comprehension data of each class/teacher in an effort to see

where their strengths and weaknesses lie. Once the administrator has an idea of the

strengths and weaknesses in reading comprehension, a plan can be devised in conjunction

with the teacher which will address and improve the teachers skills in teaching reading

comprehension.

During the professional development sessions the United Federation of Teachers

(UFT) contract mandates each month, administrators must convey with research, data and

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statistics that student achievement has more to do with the quality of education one

delivers opposed to the students background. According to The New York Teacher

newsletter dated December 5, 2005, low income students are four times as likely to be

taught by teachers who are not certified (17% vs. 4%). Students of color are three times

more likely to be taught by teachers who failed licensing exams at least once (21% vs.

7%). According to Kati Haycock, 2005 director of the Education Trust, the state of New

York has the biggest gaps in achievement in the entire nation. New York also has the

largest gap ($2,040) in per student funding between high-poverty and low poverty

districts. Students who are educated in urban school settings and who are considered poor

or working class received less funding than school districts in suburban communities

where students are considered middle to upper middle class. With these sobering

statistics, educators must take responsibility for their students achievement and therefore

be held accountable for the lack of student achievement.

It is imperative that students in the middle school who are lagging behind their

peers in reading comprehension be given the appropriate intervention. It is also

imperative that teachers receive the appropriate instructional strategies and skills

necessary to move their students to their grade appropriate level. Teachers must provide

students with intensive and structured instruction on a daily basis. This intensive

instruction should be provided in conjunction with balanced literacy instruction. The

intensive instruction should consist of instruction that is fast in pace and structured.

Instruction should focus on strategies that promote independent learning. In addition to

the regular classroom literacy instruction, there should be an additional intervention time

of about 35-40 minutes. Each classroom environment should be print-rich with a

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literature library of trade books which range from easy to grade level and beyond.

The object is to get all middle school teachers to understand and appreciate that

reading skills should not be taught in isolation and or just by the English or language arts

teacher. It is imperative that all teachers understand that they are reading teachers and

these necessary skills must be taught across the curriculum. Through continuous

professional development teachers will learn how to select appropriate reading materials,

and can identify instructional strategies and skills that promote student improvement. The

trade books within the classroom library must be highly interesting, age appropriate, and

have a balance of reading experiences in the areas of expository and narrative genres.

There are several strategies which increase improvement in middle school

students in reading comprehension. These strategies are graphic organizers, summarizing,

clarifying, questioning and predicting, scaffolding, structured lessons which are paced to

move each student quickly and the routine of exemplar work habits. These strategies are

also known as reciprocal teaching. These strategies work independent of any other

strategy; however, in conjunction with the major strategies found in Project Success,

which is an upper grade reading intervention plan, teachers can aid their students into

acceleration more effectively and at a quicker pace. Project Success is an instructional

plan based on research. The effective components of the plan are revisiting, reviewing

rehearsing, reading/reciprocal teaching, responding/reflection, and the home connection.

Research states that development for teachers should consist of opportunities for

teachers to attend conferences and meetings for reading instruction. Teachers should

utilize their skills as researchers and work on research projects. There are significant

benefits when teachers or schools partner and collaborate on projects with colleges and

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universities. There should also be opportunities for teachers to observe and coach

other teachers. There should have opportunities for teachers to try new practices in a risk-

free environment.

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References

Borgia, L.G., Cheek, E.H., Launey, B.L., & Steward, F.A. (2004). Facilitative readinginstruction: Preservice teachers voice and perceptions.Reading Improvement,41(2), 129.

Cala, W.C. (2003). High stakes testing: An allegory on educational testing in New Yorkstate.Phi Delta Kappan, 84(7), 514.

Campbell, J., Kyriakidis, L., Mujis, D., & Robinson, W. (2004).Assessing teachereffectiveness: Developing a differentiated model. New York: RoutledgeFalmer.

Capel, S., Leask, M., & Turner, T. (2001).Learning to teach in the secondary school: Acompanion to school experience. London: RoutledgeFalmer.

Clay, R.A. (2003). Molding effective teachers.APA Online:Monitor on Psychology.

Retrieved on May 22, 2007 from http://www.apa.org/monitor/sep03/molding.html

Cochran Smith, M. (2004). Taking stock in 2004: Teacher education in dangerous times.Journal of Teacher Education, 55(1), 3.

Collins, J.W., & OBrien, P. (2003). The Greenwood dictionary of education. Westport,CT: Greenwood Press.

Costigan, A.T., Crocco, M.S., & Zumwalt, K.K. (2004).Learning to teach in an ageof accountability. Mahwah, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum Associates.

Donlevy, J. (2003). Teachers, technology, and training: No Child Left Behind failingschools and future directions.International Journal of Instructional Media, 30(4),335.

Fritz, M. (2002). Using learning styles inventories to promote active learning.Journal ofCollege Reading and Learning, 32(2), 183.

Huang, C.C., Johanson, G., Leal, D., & Toth, A. (2004). Increasing at-risk studentsliteracy skills: Fostering success for children and their pre-service readingendorsement tutors.Reading Improvement, 41(1), 51.

Laczko-Kerr, I., & Berliner, D.C. (2002). The effectiveness of "Teach for America"and other under-certified teachers on student academic achievement: A case ofharmful public policy. Education Policy Analysis Archives, 10(37).

LaMarche Bisson, D. (2002). Learning styles: What are they? How can they help?World and I, 17(9), 268.

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McNeil, L. (2000). Contradictions of school reform: Educational costs of standardizedtesting. New York: Routledge.

Minor, L.C., Onwuegbuzie, A.J., Witcher, A.E.., & James, T.L. (2002).

Pre-service teachers' educational beliefs and their perceptions of characteristics ofeffective teachers.Journal of Educational Research, 96(2), 116-127.

National Reading Panel. (2000). Report of the National Reading Panel: Teaching childrento read: An evidence-based assessment of the specific research literature onreading and its implications for reading instruction. Washington, D.C.: NationalInstitute of Child Health and Human Development, National Institute of Health.

National School Boards Association. (2002). Mayor takes control of New York Cityschools. [Electronic Document]. Retrieved on May 27, 2007 from

http://www.nsba.org/site/doc_sbn.asp?TRACKID=&VID=58&CID=310&DID=8121.

New York City Department of Education. (n.d.). Resolution regarding promotion policy.Retrieved on May 30, 2007 from http://216.239.51.104/u/nycdoe?q=cache:0guj585answJ:schools.nyc.gov/NR/rdonlyres/D52A7E1D-6FE3-478B-B7E6-AC7E7FFE0956/5550/Resolutionregarding7thGradePromotionPolicy_ADOPTED.pdf+%22standardized%22&hl=en&ct=clnk&cd=1&gl=us&ie=UTF-8

Paris, S.G., & Stahl, S.A. (2004). Current issues in reading comprehension andassessment. Mahwah, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum Associates.

Peterman, F.P. (2005).Designing performance assessment systems for urban teacherpreparation. Mahwah, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum Associates.

Phelps, R.P. (2004).Defending standardized testing. Mahwah, NJ: Lawrence ErlbaumAssociates.

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Rickford, A. (2005). Everything I needed to know about teaching I learned from mychildren: Six deep teaching principles for todays reading teachers. ReadingImprovement, 42(2), 112.

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Appendix A

Teachers Interview Questions

.

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Teachers Interview Questions

1. What motivated you to become a teacher?

2. How satisfied are you as a teacher with the teaching profession?

3. What is your philosophy on teaching and learning?

4. Describe your teaching style as it relates to teaching reading

comprehension?

5. How do you identify the learning styles of your students to maximize their

learning process?

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Appendix B

Teachers Survey

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Teachers Survey

Each of the research questions is addressed utilizing the following balanced five-point

Likert scale: 1 = Strongly agree, 2 = Agree, 3 = Neither agree nor disagree, 4=Disagree,

5=Strongly disagree.

Teacher Survey

Listed below are statements which represent feelings a teacher may have regarding his or

her profession. With respect to your feelings about the profession, rate your level of

agreement with each statement. Record your rating in the blank space provided to the

right of the statement. The rating scale you will utilize is as follows:

1 = Strongly agree, 2 = Agree, 3= Neither agree nor disagree, 4 = Disagree, 5=Strongly

disagree.

1. I enjoy teaching.

______

2. Effective teachers are born, not made.

______

3. Effective teachers can be trained through effective professional

development.

______

4. The New York City Department of Education provides me with the support

and the tools necessary to be successful.

______

5. The reading professional development sessions are data driven.

______

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6. Teachers must be state certified in order to be effective.

______

7. It is imperative for teachers to plan for instruction in order to be

effective.

______

8. It is significant for teachers to teach reading skills across the

curriculum.

______

9. Teachers must motivate and inspire their students to learn.

______

10. Teaching styles impact student achievement.

______

11. Teachers should be a member of a professional teaching organization.

______

12. It is important to keep abreast of the latest research in education.

______

13. Teachers must engage students in meaningful direct instruction on a

daily basis.

______

14. Working with parents helps to reinforce the importance of students

obtaining a quality education.

______

15. Teachers must work collaboratively with other teachers and administrators in

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order to be effective in the classroom.

______

16. Vocabulary building will improve reading comprehension.

______

17. Improving writing skills will improve reading comprehension skills.

______

18. Touching students in an appropriate manner, smiling, and working in

small groups gives students a sense that the teacher cares about them

professionally.

______

19. Homework reinforces information provided during direct instruction.

______

20. Students should be required to read silently and write every day in each

discipline.

______

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Appendix C

Letter of Intent

Dr.____________________, Superintendent35 Halsey StreetBrooklyn, New York 11221

Dear Dr. __________________:

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I am Beverly Y. McClain, a 22 year veteran with the New York CityDepartment of Education. I am currently working on my doctorate degree at NovaSoutheastern University in Educational Leadership. I am requesting permission toimplement the applied dissertation in one of the middle schools within your region. Iwould like to begin implementing the research on September 1, 2007 and conclude

November 1, 2007 This applied dissertation investigates the effect of teaching styles onmiddle schooleighth grade student achievement in reading comprehension.

During the ten work study, I will meet with four eighth grade teachers to givethem detailed information on the study. The teachers will complete a survey and answerinterview questions. I will also obtain written permission for the students in each class toparticipate in the research study from their parents or guardians. I will meet with theteachers and the class to explain the study and the purpose of the study. I assure you thatthe learning environment will not in any way be disrupted during my weekly visits to theschool. I will visit each class at least twice a week during their English Language Artsclass. Each class will be given a pre and post reading comprehension examination. I will

closely work with two of the four classes as the experimental groups and the other twoclasses will be utilized as controlled groups. The experimental teachers will be givenongoing professional development sessions in reading comprehension based on the classreading comprehension data and the latest reach on improving reading comprehension inmiddle school students. Parents of the students will also be expected to cooperate bychecking homework, insuring that the student reads each evening for a minimum oftwenty minutes and to write a detailed account of literature.

The purpose of this study is to provide recommendation to district and schooladministrators, teacher and parents on additional methodologies prove to assist studentswith improving reading comprehension in conjunction with the students particularlearning style.

Thank you in advance for your anticipated cooperation in the above matter.

Sincerely,

Beverly Y. McClain

cc: Principal ______________

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Appendix D

Teachers Consent

I, ____________________________ , am a willing participant in the applied researchstudy.

I agree to an interview, to complete a survey, to being observed by the researcher and tokeeping a detailed journal of my instructional practices during the research timeframe. Ialso agree to make my lesson plans available upon request by the researcher. I understand

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that my participation in this study is voluntary and that there is no compensation,financial or otherwise, for participating in the study. I further understand that I canwithdraw from the study at any time without penalty.

________________________________ ___________________Teachers Signature Date

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Appendix E

Parental Consent

I, ________________________, hereby give permission for my child to participate in the

applied dissertation study conducted by researcher Beverly Y. McClain.

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I understand the information gathered will be utilized in confidence.

_________________________________ __________________Students Name Class

__________________________________ ____________________Parents Signature Date

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Appendix F

Observation Checklist

Learning Environment Observational Checklist

1. Each student has a portfolio. __________

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2. Teacher/Students proactively engaged.

__________

3. Print rich environment. __________

4. Leveled age appropriate library. __________

5. Computers utilized by students. __________

6. Students working in small groups. __________

7. Teacher working with the students in small groups. __________

8. Teacher has lesson plans available. __________

9. Objective displayed on the board and reviewed. __________

10. Teacher tapped into prior knowledge as a motivating tool. __________

11. Teacher reviewed previously taught vocabulary. __________

12. Teacher introduced new vocabulary in context. __________

13. Students read out loud. __________

14 Students read silently. __________

15. Teacher implemented guided reading. __________

16. Teacher implemented independent reading. __________

17. Students answered comprehension questions. __________

18. Teacher review the comprehension question as a class. __________

19. Teacher circulating the room. __________

20. Teacher assigned reading and writing homework __________

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