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Between Rand & Ruhr The missing pages
Doris Roelvink
22-06-2015
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Colophon Title Between Rand & Ruhr: The missing pages Author Doris Roelvink S4012623 Master Thesis Human Geography Specialization Europe; borders, identities and Governance Management Faculty Radboud University Nijmegen Supervisor Radboud University Henk van Houtum Supervisor Municipality Doetinchem Klaartje Legtenberg Albert Gerritsen
III
Preface
Born and raised in the region Achterhoek, the case was familiar for me. In order to shop, go
to school or work I had to go to the municipality of Doetinchem. In 2007 I moved out of the
region, and now I am back due to the internship granted to me.
I really enjoyed my time working at the municipality of Doetinchem. Everyone was nice and
really helpful. Although I already had quite some experience on the work floor, this is the first
time that I could actually applicate what I’ve learned in school to what I was doing.
With this masterthesis I will end my (many) years as a student. It is time to move on. This last
part of my study-career was a though one. As they say; the last mile is the longest.
I would like to thank everyone for contributing to this research. In particular Klaartje
Legtenberg and Albert Gerritsen, my supervisors from the municipality Doetinchem, for giving
me space to do my research, helping me and showing me around the organization.
Furthermore the rest of the ‘physical development’ department of the municipality for giving
me a wonderful time and helping me with everything.
Henk van Houtum, my supervisor from the Radboud University, for providing new angles on
my research, his open mind, his out-of-the-box ideas.
My boyfriend, Fabian Penninkhof, for helping me in search of a trainee post. For helping,
supporting and motivating me during my research.
And last but not least, all the wonderful people who gave me their time, help, interviews, ideas
and so on during my research.
Thank you.
Doris Roelvink
Doetinchem, 2014
IV
“Anyone can create scenarios.
But it will be much easier if you are willing to encourage your
own imagination, novelty, and
even sense of the absurd—as
well as your sense of realism.” Peter Schwartz, cofounder of GBN
http://www.monitorinstitute.com/downloads/what-we-think/what-if/What_If.pdf
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Abstract This study is performed in order to strengthen the economy of municipality Doetinchem and
to face future problems due to demographic changes. The municipality Doetinchem is seen as
the capital of the region Achterhoek, and as such has a center-function. The region borders
Germany on the eastside. The regions primary focus for cross-border cooperation is with
Kreis Borken, although for Doetinchem Kreis Kleve, and in particular Stadt Emmerich am
Rhein might be much more interesting. The Stadt Emmerich am Rhein has a large container
terminal at the Rhine, which is very interesting and important for the many logistics companies
situated close to the border. Furthermore the Stadt Emmerich has many similarities with the
municipality Doetinchem. We can conclude that they both have to deal with the many
challenges facing them and more specific the region in which they act. Doetinchem as well as
Emmerich achieve better than the rest of their region, they both fulfill a center-function for the
surrounding region, although Doetinchem is larger than Emmerich.
For facing uncertainties coming with the future it might be relevant to search if, why and how
Doetinchem and Emmerich might both become better through cooperation. This study
provides insights in the current status and the identity of both the municipalities. Continuing
with insight in the regions and the actors involved in cross-border cooperation via the
network theory. We conclude that after years of more networks, more integration, maybe
time has come for less is more. Finally three scenarios for the future are developed for the
cross-border cooperation between Doetinchem and Emmerich. The first scenario foresees a
future when nothing really changes and things will go on the way they have been going for
years now. The two cities will remain to primarily focus their attention on the regions in which
they participate; meaning that Emmerich will have an eastward look towards the Ruhr area,
Doetinchem will have a more westward look towards the Randstad and city-region Arnhem-
Nijmegen. In the second scenario a future is described whereby we have to conclude that
integrating borderareas is not a successful idea. Many years the European Union has tried to
bring both sides of the border closer together and therefor more successful, hence less
peripheral. However it has become clear that this idea was to ideological; the border regions
remain peripheral, but this is not a bad thing. It offers space, and quietness. Nature and
recreation can flourish, silence is bliss. In the last scenario the future is one which Manuel
Castells encourages; a world of networks. The border and national governments have become
less relevant. Regions, across borders, decide what is best locally.
VI
1 Table of content 1 Introduction ............................................................................................................................................................ 1
1.1 Problem statement ............................................................................................................................... 1 1.1.1 Research objective ........................................................................................................................... 1 1.1.2 Research questions .......................................................................................................................... 2
1.2 Relevance ................................................................................................................................................. 3 1.2.1 Societal relevance ............................................................................................................................. 4 1.2.2 Scientific relevance ........................................................................................................................... 4
1.3 Research outline .................................................................................................................................... 5 1.4 Structure of the thesis ......................................................................................................................... 6
2 Methodology ..................................................................................................................................................... 7 2.1 Conceptual model................................................................................................................................. 7 2.2 Research strategy .................................................................................................................................. 9 2.3 Research methods and techniques................................................................................................10
2.3.1 Internship...........................................................................................................................................10 2.3.2 Interviews ..........................................................................................................................................10 2.3.3 Document-analysis .........................................................................................................................10 2.3.4 Observation ......................................................................................................................................11 2.3.5 Scenario-planning ............................................................................................................................11
2.4 Reliability and validity .........................................................................................................................12 2.5 Operationalization ..............................................................................................................................13
2.5.1 Economic crisis ................................................................................................................................13 2.5.2 Demographic changes ...................................................................................................................14 2.5.3 Operationalization table ...............................................................................................................15
3 Case study........................................................................................................................................................18 3.1 Doetinchem...........................................................................................................................................19
3.1.1 Mobility...............................................................................................................................................19 3.1.2 Population..........................................................................................................................................20 3.1.3 Economy ............................................................................................................................................20 3.1.4 Interesting places ............................................................................................................................21
3.2 Emmerich am Rhein............................................................................................................................22 3.2.1 Mobility...............................................................................................................................................22 3.2.2 Population..........................................................................................................................................23 3.2.3 Economy ............................................................................................................................................23 3.2.4 Interesting places ............................................................................................................................24
3.3 Doetinchem – Emmerich..................................................................................................................25 4 Borders .............................................................................................................................................................26
4.1 Evolution of border-studies .............................................................................................................27 4.2 Future of borders ................................................................................................................................28 4.3 Cross-border cooperation ..............................................................................................................29 4.4 Borderscapes ........................................................................................................................................31
5 Networktheory ..............................................................................................................................................33 5.1 Evolution of the networktheory ....................................................................................................33 5.2 Network aspects .................................................................................................................................35
5.2.1 Actors .................................................................................................................................................35 5.2.2 Sources ...............................................................................................................................................35 5.2.3 Interests .............................................................................................................................................35
VII
5.2.4 Perceptions .......................................................................................................................................35 5.2.5 Strategies ...........................................................................................................................................36 5.2.6 Arena...................................................................................................................................................37 5.2.7 Rounds................................................................................................................................................37
5.3 Network-analysis.................................................................................................................................37 6 Scenario planning ...........................................................................................................................................38
6.1 The evolution of scenario planning ...............................................................................................38 6.2 Scenarios in Borderland ....................................................................................................................40
7 Network analysis of the region ................................................................................................................42 7.1 International policy of Doetinchem ..............................................................................................42 7.2 Actors......................................................................................................................................................45
8 Scenarios for the region..............................................................................................................................50 8.1 Uncertainties .........................................................................................................................................50 8.2 Scenario ‘Logistic corridor’..............................................................................................................51 8.3 Scenario ‘Made in Holland’ ..............................................................................................................52 8.4 Scenario ‘Doetinchem am Rhein’ ..................................................................................................54
9 Conclusion .......................................................................................................................................................57 9.1 Conclusions ...........................................................................................................................................57 9.2 Reflection on research ......................................................................................................................60
9.2.1 Value network-theory...................................................................................................................60 9.2.2 Scenario-planning ............................................................................................................................61 9.2.3 Used methods ..................................................................................................................................61
9.3 Recommendations...............................................................................................................................62 9.3.1 Suggestion for the Municipality Doetinchem ........................................................................62 9.3.2 Suggestion for improvement.......................................................................................................63
10 Literature.....................................................................................................................................................64 Annexes......................................................................................................................................................................70
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1 Introduction
“Life begins at the edges of our comfort zone”, is a well-known quote. But is this not also true
for the edges of nations? Although the edges might be peripheral they also mean new
challenges and chances. Especially in economic and demographic uncertain times, chances are
more than welcome. For the Netherlands as a nation depends on its relations with other
countries to ensure both domestic and foreign socio-economic development.
1.1 Problem statement The aging of the population is considered to be a big problem in the Western world. Some
regions are more infected. In the Netherlands four regions may expect a shrinking number of
potential workforces of more than 20% in the years to come (PBL, 2010). One of these
shrinking areas is the Achterhoek. This region is a so-called ‘anticipating region’ which means
that policy can still be established to deal with the consequences of demographic decline.
However in July the regions request to be considered a shrinking-region has been declined by
Minister Stef Blok for housing and civil services, which means that the region cannot benefit
from money the national governments invests in these shrinking-regions (deGelderlander,
2014). The municipality Doetinchem is considered to be the capital of this region.
Not just aging of population, also the shrinkage of population is a major problem for the
region. This could lead to a negative spiral. If the municipalities where shrinkage takes place,
cannot change their position on the housing market, houses will become unsalable,
investments and innovation stops, values decline and depravation sets in (Glaeser & Gyourko,
2005).
1.1.1 Research objective
The aim of this research is mapping actors involved and their perceptions towards increasing
cross-border cooperation between Doetinchem and Emmerich am Rhein to enhance their
economic position. By using these perceptions for formulating scenarios, insights are made
clear in possible future development.
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1.1.2 Research questions
On the basis of abovementioned problem statement and research objective we can define the
key question for this research. This key question is the common theme of the research and
needs to be answered in the conclusion.
What scenarios can we describe, which actors will be included and what will be most favorable for the
Municipality Doetinchem and their cross-border cooperation with Stadt Emmerich am Rhein?
The key question is divided into several sub questions. First I will elaborate on the way this
research is produced. In this research I will use different theories which need to be linked.
How can we link the theories, about cross-border cooperation, network theory and scenario
planning, together?
Cross-border cooperation concerns many actors in networks. But after a time of more
and more it is also important to give attention to a new flow where less is more, leaving
borderlands empty in borderscapes, strength of the weak-ties. Via network analysis I want
to gain insight in the actors involved in the borderlands. Once this is established, we can
continue and develop plausible scenarios for the future.
After explaining about how this research has come about it is important to look more
closely in what is the current state in the cases chosen. Thus we will try to investigate
what current problems and challenges facing Doetinchem and Emmerich am Rhein.
What is the current situation in Doetinchem and Emmerich am Rhein, their policies,
governments, cooperation, economies and future plans?
This question will be answered and described in the chapter 3. We have than established
the cases, it is important to learn more about borders; since we are looking at a border
region and all challenges coming with that.
What are borders, border-studies, cross-border cooperation and borderscapes?
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Once we have learned about border, cross-border cooperation and borderscapes we need
to establish which actors are involved. When we look at cross-border cooperation many
actors are involved thus a large network, while when we look at borderscapes, the
network looks different. With this sub question a description will be given about network
theories.
What is a network and network theory?
In this research we will try to present plausible scenarios. There are several theories about
how to correctly ‘tell stories’ about the future.
What is a scenario and scenario planning?
How we can make scenarios in a scientific way will be described in chapter 6.
Which actors play a role with the development of enhanced cooperation between Doetinchem
and Emmerich am Rhein?
Abovementioned actors will be scrutinized in the network theory. Trends, certainties and
uncertainties will be extracted from the network theory. This way we can develop
representative scenarios.
What scenarios can be formulated with the knowledge gathered above?
On the basis of this question three scenarios will be formulated. After presenting the
scenarios, conclusions can be drawn and the key question can be answered.
1.2 Relevance
Relevance can be both societal; what does it mean for society, as scientifically; what does it
contribute to theories.
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1.2.1 Societal relevance
The decline of population in the western world is considered to be a major problem. This is
also true for the Netherlands; in four regions in particular. The region Achterhoek is a so
called ‘anticipating-region’, which is not the same as a shrinking-region. The region tried to be
considered as a shrinkage-region so it can have financial benefits, but this request is declined by
Minister Blok of housing and central government because of tightened criteria. The population
still shrinks in the region, but this decline is less sharp than in other regions in the Netherlands,
who are subsidized by the national government. But still, population shrinks, and moreover the
population is aging. This presents different challenges for the region. The population of the
municipality of Doetinchem is shrinking, but not as hard as neighboring municipalities in the
region.
On the other side of the border, Kreis Kleve is also experiencing a decline in population, and a
strong aging of population (Olbermann & Schönberg, 2010). Also, although Stadt Emmerich is
affected by population decline, it is not as hard affected as neighboring municipalities. Stadt
Emmerich is however affected by the aging of the population; in comparison to the rest of the
‘Kreis’ and also in comparison with the ‘Bundesland’.
A possible way to tackle these problems is to face them together. The border presents
challenges but also possibilities. How cooperation could, and if it is a desired solution,
contributes to societal relevance.
1.2.2 Scientific relevance
The future is always full of uncertainties. By using scenarios we can try to reduce uncertainties.
By also applying the network-theory to involved parties, we try to eliminate uncertainties
about the network. Furthermore we look more closely into the concept of borders. A link is
made about these three concepts. A link between network-theory and scenario-planning can
also be found in Van der Linden (2013). But this research will also bring the concept of
borders in the equation, by putting the uncertainty about borders (strong vs. weak
globalization) in the scenario matrix.
Scenarios about border regions are also presented before, in the book Borderland by Eker &
Van Houtum (2013). This book will be the guideline for this thesis. The theories presented in
the book will be applied to a small case. Which therefore can be seen as a valuable test for the
theories and contribute to scientifical relevance.
5
Examples in which borders and network analysis are combined are plentiful. Network analysis
is used to identify relationships among actors and one of the major strengths is that it allows
systematic analysis of relations at multiple levels and for easy visualization (Bilecen, 2013), ideal
when we look across borders.
By combining three theoretical concepts I hope to contribute to border studies and how we
can take a glimpse in the future.
1.3 Research outline
The different actors concerned with cross-border cooperation play a major role in this
research. With a network analysis we try to reflect on their different perceptions, interest and
dependencies. For the municipality Doetinchem, this step is very interesting since it gives an
insight in their partners and their standpoints. This is one of the preparatory steps in this
research. We survey the different actors and map their interest, perceptions and dependencies
by conducting interviews and observations. The actors formulate the trends, certainties and
uncertainties. This will form the basis of the scenarios. The uncertainty that will decide the
creation of the scenarios is that of borders. Whether borders will remain barriers, or can be
overcome is the basis of the formation of three scenarios.
Interviews, documentanalysis &
observations
Theory
Empiricism
Trends &
(un)certainties
Central concepts
Literature & operatialisation
Answering key question &
recommendations
Borders, Networkanalysis &
Scenario planning
Analysis
Conclusion &
recommendations
6
1.4 Structure of the thesis
In the next chapter we start by explaining the way this research has been produced. The
methodology used will give insight in the different concepts and theories. Next the research
starts by the two major cases for this research, the municipalities of Doetinchem and
Emmerich. When we have a clear view of the cases and problems existing we can continue by
describing the phenomena of borders. What are borders? We will present different theories
about the future of borders, cross-border cooperation and borderscapes. In the following
chapter the network-theory is presented, followed by the theory about scenario-planning. In
chapter 7 and 8 the theories will be applied. Continuing in chapter 9 with conclusions and
recommendations, whereby, hopefully, an answer can be given to the main question.
7
2 Methodology After the introduction it is important to give insight in the way this research has been done. In
this chapter I will elaborate on the methodological approach that has been used. First I present
the conceptual model used for this research. In paragraph 2 the research strategy is presented,
followed by research methods and techniques in 2.3. Paragraph 4 researches the reliability and
validity of this thesis. Finally, in paragraph 5 the operationalization is presented.
2.1 Conceptual model
First I elaborate about borders. Since we look at an area ‘divided’ by a border, it is important
to learn more about borders and border-studies. Cross-border cooperation is an important
part of this thesis and will be discussed and clarified followed by the concept of borderscapes,
a relatively new view on borderlands.
Network-theory and scenario-planning both play a role in taking away insecurities in a
network. The problems Doetinchem faces, with population change and decline and economic
crisis, are diverse and complex. Koppenjan & Klijn (2004, p. 18) refer to these kind of
problems as “wicked problems”, whereby uncertainties exist about the problem as well as
about the possible solutions. In the “Structuurvisie Doetinchem 2035” (GemeenteDoetinchem,
2013) some possible solutions are presented. Doetinchems main goal is to create a sustainable
vital region.
It is impossible to achieve this alone. Therefore Doetinchem needs to cooperate with several
actors at several levels. Actors are mutual dependents of each other’s means, knowledge and
expertise. Dependence will lead to uncertainties, as explained in chapter 4. By creating a
network analysis it is possible to map these uncertainties. According to Koppenjan & Klijn
(2004) a network analysis is a suitable method for the so called “wicked problem”. Because the
network analysis has a systematic character it suits the other theory of scenario planning. Via
the network analysis we have insights in current uncertainties. By making scenarios we can also
map future uncertainties. Scenarios help change the current situation by giving insights in
possible future changes (Van der Linden, 2013).
In this research the three methods, border-studies, network-theory and scenario planning, will
be linked together. The first part of this research has a more inventorying character.
Information about borders and actors is gathered from observation, conversation and
document analysis. The second part has a design character whereby the information is used to
8
create scenarios. When we link the theories we first take the preparing step. Lindgren &
Bandhold (2003, p. 48) claim that preparation is key to formulating good scenarios. By
presenting a complete image of the current state and the actors (and their ideas, interest,
perceptions) involved we can better predict future changes. The preparation stage of Lindgren
& Bandhold will, in this research, be redundant since we have already done that in the network
analysis. Koppenjan & Klijn (2004) describe systematic how actors and their relationships
should be investigated; this leads to a complete picture of structures and interests.
Uncertainties will become visible and can then be used in scenario-planning.
At last the theories and their methods will be linked in editing the scenarios. The scenario
theory of Eker & Van Houtum is used. These authors have done severe research in
borderlands and –scapes, and therefore the choice to follow their analysis is a logical one. In
their book ‘Borderland’ three scenarios are formulated; the status quo, a scenario whereby the
border is wiped out and the third scenario where we see an increased interest in the border
with a prolonged relevance. Since we want to look at improving borderlands, we need to
know the influence the border has. In chapter 4 different ways to look at the future of borders
are presented. We can have weak globalization whereby some borders will remain barriers
and others transform into permeable sites of interaction or we can have strong globalization
whereby borders will no longer be relevant.
Abovementioned information has been put in a model:
9
2.2 Research strategy In this research we use a case-study. Case-study research can be defined as a detailed
investigation with data collected over a period of time within their context (Hartley, 2004, p.
323). The case-study is suited to research questions which require a detailed understanding of
social and/ or organizational processes because of the rich data collected in context (Hartley,
2004). Since this study is done at the municipality of Doetinchem, the choice for a case study is
a reasonable choice.
Case-study research is commonly used in exploratory and explanatory research. Exploratory
research is a way to investigate what is happening. Exploratory research can be done with a
literature study, observation and interviewing experts. Explanatory research is research that
searches for links between variables.
Yin in (Saunders, 2006) discusses four different types of case-studies. First there is the
distinction between holistic and embedded. And second there is a distinction between single
Variables: - Resources - Interests - Perceptions - Dependencies - Strategies
Arena ‘cross-border cooperation’
actor
actor
actor
actor actor actor
Tre
nds
Certain
ties
Uncertain
ties
Scenario-planning
Recom
men-
datio
ns
10
case versus multiple case. For this research I will use the single case, because of the unique
character of the case (Scholz & Tietje, 2013).
Ways to collect data are via interviews, document analysis, observations and questionnaires
(Saunders, 2006). For this research I had the ability to do an internship at the municipality
Doetinchem which contributes to my knowledge about the case.
2.3 Research methods and techniques The research for this thesis was done between June and 2014 and June 2015. During the first
four months I also worked as an intern at the Municipality Doetinchem.
2.3.1 Internship
The main part of this research is done while I had an internship at the municipality
Doetinchem. For almost four months I had the ability to see how the municipality operates
and had various opportunities to participate in meetings. At the municipality I have had many
conversations with different staff members on different sectors involved in cross-border
cooperation and cooperation in the region and within the EU-region. Much information is
gathered by documents of the municipality and conversations during my internship.
2.3.2 Interviews
For this research it was essential to get to know the involved actors and their views. I
therefore chose to collect information via interviews. These interviews where semi-structured.
This means that I used an interview-guide to form the bases of the interview. The questions
from this interview-guide are based on the operationalization of central concepts (§ 6.5).
When conducting the interviews, I also made use of the ‘interview checklist’ from Janssen et al.
(2004). The summaries of these interviews can be found in the annexes.
2.3.3 Document-analysis
Another method used in this research is that of document-analysis. To get a good insight in
which actors might be of influence it was essential to study documents existing about the
subject. Furthermore to get to know more about the theories used in this research, I could
not go without studying documents.
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But since I did my research during an internship, I also had access to documents that have not
been published, so-called primary material (Van Thiel, 2007, p. 115).
I started out by looking at other mastertheses in order to get more feeling with the writing of
a thesis. Continuing by gathering more knowledge about the region, the main participants in
possible cross-border cooperation and their perceptions and standpoints. This included many
documents presented by different actors in the Netherlands as well as in Germany. During the
internship I had the possibility to gain background information to the documents by the
municipality, region, province and national government. After getting an insight in the actors via
document-analysis I needed to learn more about the theories. I started out by looking at
articles that combine the theories I also wanted to link together.
2.3.4 Observation
The main part of the observation consisted of my internship at the municipality. During the
internship I was supervised by Klaartje Legtenberg and Albert Gerritsen, who told me about
the ins and outs of the cross-border cooperation, and took me along with meetings about the
subject.
Another part was actually going to the borderland. By going to the border area I want to get a
feeling of the borderland. I grew up around Doetinchem so the area is quite familiar, however
with this research I had to look through a different lens. Where I usually just cross the border
without really experiencing the border, now I fully realized what the border meant. The way
the roads, houses, nature, culture and other things change when crossing the border.
Observation gives me more insight in the borderland.
2.3.5 Scenario-planning
The information obtained from the interviews and document-analysis will be used in three
scenarios; by doing so we get insight in long term views. As mentioned before scenario-
planning is used to learn about possible futures and uncertainties that might play a role. In this
research I used the book ‘Borderland’ from Eker & Van Houtum as a guideline for constructing
the scenarios. In the book the authors develop three possible scenarios about the future of
borderlands. The first scenario considers the status quo; no drastic changes will emerge in the
near future. The second scenario is based on the possibility that borders are not just a barrier
but might also give new possibilities. The border in this scenario has regained its relevance.
12
The last scenario presents a case whereby the national borders are no longer relevant. The
world has become a world of networks and regions, decisions are made locally for what is best
for the region.
2.4 Reliability and validity
In this research information will be collected via internship, interviews, observation and
document analysis. I use triangulation (Van Thiel, 2007) which increases validity and reliability,
because I can check results from the internships and interviews with the results collected from
document analysis, and vice versa. Furthermore the observation gives a visible insight in
differences across the border.
In this research many different terms and concepts are presented. In order to have a clear
understanding of the way I use these concepts, operationalization is an important step. First a
definition will be presented (indicator). I will indicate how to use this concept in this research
and present interview questions including these concepts.
Second all steps followed in this research are denoted transparent, which gives the
opportunity to redo the research. Interviews are done in the same manner, which will give me
the opportunity to compare results from different respondents. Unfortunately the internship
results are less clear. During my four month at the municipality I have seen many things,
learned many things and spoken to various different people. It is impossible to mention all the
aspects and feelings I had when I did my internship. This reduces the transparency of this
research. Furthermore it is important to remark that people might change opinions over time
due to changed insights/ knowledge/ experiences.
Another way to create reliability is by the method of scenario planning. This scientific method
leads to systematic organized data.
There are two kinds of validity; external and internal validity. Internal validity is about whether
the researcher measures what needs to be measured. The quality of operationalization plays a
major role, theoretic constructs need to be unambiguous and exclusive (Van Thiel, 2007, p.
56). Internal validity of this research is increased by the usage of different techniques.
13
External validity is about generalizing. Whether results from this research are also applicable
on other researches. Unfortunately for this particular research generalizing is difficult, because
of the unique character of the casus.
2.5 Operationalization Before presenting a table with the different concepts used in this research, there are two more
concepts that need further clarification; demographic change and the economic crisis. Both
play a major role in this research, and are of major importance to the municipality
Doetinchem. These concepts are important since they are the basis for this research. Due to
demographic change and the economic crisis the municipality tries to look for alternative ways
to enhance their socio-economic position.
2.5.1 Economic crisis
A crisis can be defined as a period whereby things are worse than normal. It can affect a
person or more people. In the case of an economic crisis it affects entire nations (InfoNu,
2014).
The worldwide economy is experiencing troubles since 2008. Thing became apparent when
the housing-bubble collapsed in the United States. Americans could no longer pay their
mortgage and this resulted in the bankruptcy of banks like Fannie Mae and Freddie Mac. This
trend soon spreads towards Europe and Asia.
In Europe this crisis meant a decline of the economy, rise in unemployment and bankruptcies
of banks. Just when things started to look up new troubles arise with the ‘Euro-crisis'. Trust in
the currency declined when national problems became clear (EuropaNu, 2014).
For the Netherlands this crisis became clear in 1008, with the ‘housing-bubble’. Housing values
rose and mortgages where to high. Banks where experiencing trouble and the government
needed to rescue these banks (InfoNu, 2014). Companies could no longer get loans from the
banks and they themselves got into trouble. Unemployment rates increased, and pensions
values declined. Incomes also decline while costs rise (ANP, 2013). According to the
‘Arbeidsmarktschets’ of the UWV (2012) this is especially true for the region Achterhoek. The
number of jobs declines and the number of people seeking work is increasing (UWV, 2012).
14
2.5.2 Demographic changes
In a globalizing world one of the main factors is the mobility of people, not only international,
but mainly interregional (Van Dam, Galjaard, Harkink, McCann, & Van Wissen, 2010). This has
many consequences for regions, not just in population numbers but also in population
composition. According to van Dam et al. (2010) many well-educated leave regions for
knowledge-intensive locations. This means that the regions they left tend to see a severe aging
of population, but also decline of well-educated and highly skilled, resulting in a negative mix of
aging, declining level of education, income and prosperity. Other locations see an incline of
population and moreover a rejuvenation of population. This is not always positive since it can
lead to traffic jams, high land prices and high rents. According to Aalbers, Heutinck &
Visschedijk (2011) the causes of demographic decline in the Netherlands are both social-
cultural as economical. The increase in emancipation together with the increase in birth
control has led to a decline in birth rates. Combined with selective migration and
deindustrialization has left some regions in the dark (Aalbers, Heutinck, & Visschedijk, 2011).
As we mentioned before, the region Achterhoek is experiencing population decline and ageing
of the population. Young people leave the region, and the population left is ageing. This brings
several problems. But what are we really talking about? First let’s look more into the decline of
the population. The UN speaks of demographic transit which is ‘historical shift of birth and
death rates from high to low levels in a population’ (PRB, 2014). We can see this in the region
and the municipality in the way that less people are having children and people are getting
older, due to medical improvements. This is one reason for another demographic change, what
we call the ‘ageing of the population’. The Population Reference Bureau (2014) defines this as a
process in which the proportions of adults and elderly increase in a population, while the
proportions of children and adolescents decrease; resulting in a rise of the median age of the
population. A last definition to be giving hangs together with the decrease of adolescents. Most
young people flee the region and/or city because of lack of opportunities and facilities. We call
this brain-drain.
15
2.5.3 Operationalization table
In the table below different concepts from this research are made measurable. First is the
central concept, followed by a definition. Then an indication of how the concept can be used in
this research is presented. In the last column possible interview questions including this
concept are presented (Van der Linden, 2013, p. 33). These interview questions will be
questioned to the respondents and will form a basis for the ‘small talks’ with different people
participating in cross-border cooperation.
Concept Definition Indicator Interviewquestions Economic crisis Period whereby economics are worse than
normal
How does the economic crisis
influences your organization?
Demographic
change
The changes in human populations Do demographic changes
influence your organization?
Demographic transit Shift of birth and
death rates from
high to low levels
How can you see
demographic transit as a
problem/challenge for your
organization?
Ageing of the population Increase in the
median age of the
population
How is the ageing of the
population a problem to your
organization?
Brain-drain Emigration of
young, educated
people
Does your organization
experience problems due to
the brain-drain?
Borders The barrier between two areas How does the border limit
your organization?
Weak globalization Future whereby
some borders
become permeable,
others more
barriers
Do you believe that the
relevance of borders might be
changing? What would that
mean for your organization?
Strong globalization Future whereby
the relevance of
borders disappears
Do you believe that the
relevance of borders
disappears? What would that
mean for your organization?
Cross-border
cooperation
Collaboration between sub-national
authorities across national borders
What benefits do you think
cross-border cooperation can
have?
Borderscapes Border region which can be created,
shaped, constructed and recreated
Do you see potential in
alternative ways of dealing
with the border? Instead of
more and more, less is more?
Actor Participant in action Which parties play, according
to you, a role in cross-border
cooperation?
Relevant actor Participant in action
who has crucial
resources to reach
goals
Which resources are
according to you crucial to
reach goals? Do you have
these resources?
16
Un-relevant actor Participant in action
who resources not
crucial to reach
goals
Which resources are of less
importance? Do you have
these resources?
Resources Formal and informal resources actors can
use to reach their goals
What resources do you have
to reach your goals?
Financial resources Money Which actors have the
necessary means?
Production resources Physical resources
or services to
visualize policy
Which actors have important
physical resources to
complete the project?
Competencies Formal or juridical
authority to make
decisions
Who has, according to you,
de formal authority to decide
about future plans?
Knowledge Information in
documents or
experiences of
actors
What knowledge is important
with the development of the
project?
Legitimacy Extent of authority
of actor
Who gives, according to you,
authority to decision taken
around the project?
Dependencies The ways in which actors rely on each other
for resources to reach their goals
Of which actors are you
dependent?
Mutual dependency Interchange of
resources is
necessary to reach
goals
Are there any actors you are
depending on, who are also
depending on you? Who?
One-way dependency Actor A depends
on actor B, not the
other way round
Are there any actors you are
depending on, but who are
not depending on you? Who?
Independency Actors do not have
to interchange
resources to reach
goals
Are there any actors who are
not necessary to reach your
goals?
Interests Values of actors What interest do you have
with cross-border
cooperation?
Perceptions A view or opinion of the situation which
actors see as the truth
How do you see the future of
cross-border cooperation?
How do you see the future of
your organization?
Problem perception A view or opinion
of the problem
What problems are there
according to you? What is the
problem why your
organization has trouble with
working together?
Solution perceptions A view or opinion
of possible
solutions?
How can cross-border
cooperation be a solution to
the problem? What way can
cross-border cooperation be
better?
Environment
perceptions
A view or opinion
of the surroundings
of the actors
workplace
What actors play a role,
according to you, with the
problems and/or solutions?
17
Goals Things actors like to achieve What would you like to
achieve with cross-border
cooperation?
Strategies Actions or intentions to influence other
parties/ content of the problem or solution/
development of the process.
In what ways do you try to
reach your goals? Do you use
other parties to reach your
goals?
Trends Course over a longer period in a certain
direction
What are according to you,
important development for
your organization? What
solutions do you see for the
demographic changes and
economic difficulties? What
are according to you
important developments in
European policy/ cross-border
cooperation?
Certainty Relative clearness about how things will
develop in the future
What are according to you
important certainties for your
organization? What are
certainties for the future for
your organization when
considering economic and
demographic changes? What
certainties are there with
cross-border cooperation and
European policies?
Uncertainty Unclearness about how things will develop
in the future
What worries you for the
future of your organization?
What worries you about the
future considering economic
and demographic changes?
What worries you about
cross-border cooperation and
European policy?
Tabel 1 operationalization table
18
3 Case study
The region Doetinchem-Emmerich lies outside the main urban conglomerations of the
Randstad and Ruhr regions. However, from these two urban centers of gravity it is a mere
one-to-two hours’ drive to Doetinchem-Emmerich. The centre of the Netherlands is displayed
as being the Randstad; east, south and north Netherlands are therefore periphery areas. These
areas feel as if being undervalued. According to Jacobs (2012) periphery now equals economic
disadvantage.
The region Achterhoek stands out because of its tranquil appearance. Many tourists from the
Netherlands come here to experience the silence and nature. According to CBS (2012) 24.701
daytrips had the region as destination. The ‘Achterhoekers’ have a ‘less is more’ mentality.
Changes and innovation are slow but steadily; when something is decided it usually follows
through. Cooperation within the region is good, and many parties are involved.
According to Marlet and van Woerkens
(2013) the Achterhoek actually consists of
two subregions; Doetinchem and
surroundings and Winterswijk and
surrounding. The study shows where to draw
the line with the focus on Doetinchem or
Winterswijk (or in the case of Berkelland;
Enschede) (Marlet & van Woerkens, 2013).
We can see that we can draw half a
circle/horseshoe (Drenth, 2014), although
somewhat edgy, around Doetinchem, see
picture on the right, with the city as centre,
and the state-border as lower boundary.
Within this horseshoe are the places which
perceive the city as center and have their
focus on Doetinchem. The outer parts of the horseshoe, although part of municipalities closely
working together with Doetinchem (Montferland, Bronckhorst, Oude IJsselstreek), see other
19
places as their centre (Zevenaar/Arnhem, Zutphen, Winterswijk). According to Drenth (2014)
the places in the horseshoe could maybe one day in the future belong to one municipality.
However in this research it is interesting to learn how we can turn this horseshoe into a full
circle, with a lower boundary at the Rhein, or maybe even further south, Cleves. For this we
have to learn more about the main cities. In paragraph 1 the municipality of Doetinchem is
presented. In paragraph 2 the municipality, or Stadt, Emmerich am Rhein and the last paragraph
will make a comparison between both areas. For pictorial material see annexes.
3.1 Doetinchem
Gemeente Doetinchem
Population 56.414 (2014)
Area 79,66 km2
Region Achterhoek Province Gelderland
Country Netherlands
Euregio Euregio (Enschede-Gronau)
Villages Gaanderen, Wehl, Nieuw-Wehl, Wijnbergen, Dichteren, Ijzevoorde & Langerak
Main city Doetinchem
Population 43.800
Percentage over 65 18,4%
Bron: CBS Statline
Doetinchem has created a vision of its future in “Structuurvisie Doetinchem 2035”
(GemeenteDoetinchem, Structuurvisie Doetinchem 2035, 2013). In this vision, projects,
trends, desired states, responsibilities and actions are presented. The main trend and
moreover the main problem, is that of population decline, aging and dereliction.
3.1.1 Mobility
The municipality of Doetinchem has an important role as being the centre of the region.
Therefore accessibility is key. In the “Structuurvisie Doetinchem 2035”
(GemeenteDoetinchem, 2013) it is considered that the city has a relative good accessibility
due to its position to the highway A18, railway and the river ‘Oude Ijssel’. Furthermore
Doetinchem is accessible via the provincial roads N314, N315, N316 and N317.
20
The railroad still has a single rail, which leads to more delays and less trains. Prorail, the Dutch
manager of the railroads is working to establish double rail between Arnhem and Doetinchem.
3.1.2 Population
Since 2005 the population growth stagnated for the region Achterhoek. Although Doetinchem
is used to demographic changes, this reverse curve is new. After a period of more and more,
Doetinchem now faces economic crises and population decline. In 2005 1 in 7 inhabitants
reached the age of 65, in 2030 this will be 1 in 4. The workforce will decline with 14%.
Furthermore the population of 4 till 12 year olds will also decline with 15%. This combination
has huge consequences for job opportunities, education, housing market, health and further
social affairs (GemeenteDoetinchem, 2013). As mentioned before, the region Achterhoek is
considered to be an ‘anticipating region’ which means that policy can still be established to deal
with the consequences of demographic change and decline. The region negotiates with the
national government and other regions how to deal with, and fight these consequences. One
outcome which has been reached already is that of “Achterhoek 2020” whereby all the
municipalities of the region join together to reverse the negative consequences. This has led to
a positive development in the quality of life (Rigo, 2013).
3.1.3 Economy
Doetinchem is the heart of the region Achterhoek. As such it provides labor for 35.000
people, has a functioning city center serving 200.000 people, seven business areas, and several
places for offices. The municipality invests in physical space, accessibility, technological
potential, employment and a vital economy. Maintaining jobs is key and therefore main goal of
the municipality (GemeenteDoetinchem, 2013). Because of the crisis many jobs are lost and
bankruptcies occur. The region can hardly influence these developments (Gemeente
Doetinchem, 2013). The municipality Doetinchem targets opportunities that come with these
changes. According to Gemeente Doetinchem (2013) this will enhance the cooperation within
the region and with other parties. By anticipating on developments, new paths can be followed
and opportunities are created.
The largest employer in the city is the hospital ‘Slingeland’. Other main employers are
Senefelder Misset, the ‘Doetinchemse’ paperfactory, Rabelink and Esbro.
The “Structuurvisie Doetinchem” states that the economic basis of the municipality is sufficient
and deserves dedication and maintenance. Traditional sectors as manufacturing and healthcare
21
still have sufficient employment. The other traditional sector in the region, construction, is in
trouble. Then again, this is not a problem which occurs only in Doetinchem.
The municipality acknowledges the fact that it cannot solve problems alone. In order to use its
opportunities it needs to cooperate and participate in different networks. The municipality
admits that it can no longer operate via hierarchic structures with central leadership, planning
and budgets. Gemeente Doetinchem (2013) calls for chemistry between horizontal
cooperation and hierarchic government guidance.
Higher education possibilities are limited; there is an Intermediate Vocational Education (MBO)
‘Het Graafschapcollege’ and a Teacher Education for Primary school ‘Iselinge’. For further
higher education students are forced out of the region.
3.1.4 Interesting places
Doetinchem is an interesting place for the people and corporations in Doetinchem and
Emmerich since it has a few unique things to offer. First of all the city Doetinchem has a
vibrant nightlife with a cinema, theater and several nightclubs and restaurants. Furthermore the
city has a wide range of different shops where Germans love to shop. Especially the Tuesday
market is favorable with our neighbors. Of course, German tourists also travel across the
border to make use of the characteristic Dutch ‘coffeeshops’; Doetinchem has three.
The surroundings of Doetinchem consist of the for the Achterhoek characteristic bocage.
Grasslands, with small waterways and ribbons of trees make this landscape attractive to
tourists.
Companies find the area particular interesting for its logistic qualities. Many large distribution
firms have settled their business in the area close to the border. Business parks are plentiful
and consist for the main part of logistic giants as Rabelink, Wim Bosman, Brutra, Rotra and
many more.
22
3.2 Emmerich am Rhein
Stadt Emmerich am Rhein
Population 29.711 (2014)
Area 80,4 km2
Kreis Kleve Region Niederrhein
Bundesland Nordrhein-Westfalen
Country Germany Euregio Euregio Rhine-waal
Villages Borghees, Dornick, Elten, Hüthum, Klein-Netterden, Praest, Vrasselt
Main city Emmerich Population 18.360
Percentage over 60 25,4%
Bron: Landesdatenbank NRW
Emmerich am Rhein is a city on the Rhine, close to the Dutch border. In its “Leitbild”,
Emmerich presents itself to be a city with a future. It claims to be in the center of the
European Core. Unfortunately, the last vision on Emmerichs policy dates back to 2006. That of
course is before the economic crises took over the Western world. However, since this paper
is the last known with plans and visions for the future, this thesis will handle it as if not much
has changed in the plans and visions.
Emmerich am Rhein lies in the Bündesland of Nordrhein Westfalen. This Bündesland lies in the
heart of Europe, has 18 million inhabitants and is the most densely populated of Germany.
Since the Ruhr-area is part of this Bündesland it is one of the most economic active of Europe.
Nordrhein Westfalen has 120 ports, of which the largest inner port of Europe, Duisburg.
Furthermore there are three international airports and 700 rail-stations, guaranteeing mobility
in the region. It has the highest density of rail, transporting around 500 million people and 120
million tons of goods per year.
Just like in the rest of the Western World, Nordrhein-Westfalen experiences major changes.
Globalization, climate change, resource scarcity, deregulation of markets and demographic
changes. These changes ask for different actions.
3.2.1 Mobility
Emmerich accessibility is considered to be quite well. According to the folder of Nettpark
(2014) the city is accessible via water (Rhine), rail and road. The Bundesautobahn A3 from the
23
Netherlands to Rurharea and further is the main road. Emmerich now has one connection to
this highway, but another one is planned (Netterdenschestrasse), mainly for improving
accessibility of the port Rhein-Waal terminal (Nettpark, 2014). Emmerich also has connection
to the German trunk roads B8, B67 and B220 (RheinWaalTerminal, 2014).
In Niederrhein is the railway Emmerich-Oberhausen. This double rail connects Oberhausen to
the Netherlands, especially to the Dutch port of Rotterdam, via the Betuwe-line. Because of
the segregation of slow and fast traffic more trains can use this rail; in particular the transport
of goods profit from this segregation. The program for realizing the segregation has started
(DeutscheBahn, 2008).
3.2.2 Population
In Kreis Kleve population stagnated as well. This is true for the entire Kreis, but not so much
for the municipality. However the aging of the population is a big problem in the Kreis and
especially for Emmerich. Emmerich am Rhein has 30.716 inhabitants, with 7.555 over the age of
60. This 25,4% of the population, which is a larger percentage than it the rest of the Kreis
(23,5%) and the Bündesland (25%) (Olbermann & Schönberg, 2010). Again this will have large
consequences for many things such as, education, housing, healthcare etc.
In the ‘Demografiekonzept für den Kreis Kleve’, Olbermann & Schönberg (2010) expect that
the population in the municipality will increase very light, and that the percentage of inhabitants
over 60 will increase to 32%. Many things are already being prepared to deal with this
problem, such as the creation of places and cafes where older people can meet and changes in
the housing market. However if we look at the ‘Demografiekompass Niederrhein 2030’ we
learn that the expectation for Emmerich am Rhein are more positive than the expectations for
the rest of the Kreis. Emmerich will see an incline in population till 2030, and the median age in
2030 is expected to rise to 48,4, for the rest of the Kreis that will be 50 years old in 2030
(Rüttgers, 2009).
3.2.3 Economy
The quality of the area around Emmerich is marked by the relaxedness of its urbanization.
Emmerich lies in North-Rhine-Westphalia, a federal state the size of the Netherlands. The
urbanization here is concentrates in the Ruhr area and not around Emmerich. Reichswald is
one of the many forests in this state. By German standards it is a relatively small woodland,
24
and by Dutch ones a very empty one. The zone along the Rhine is used as farmland but is for
the most part a Naturschutzgebiet (nature reserve) which means that the present situation is
to remain fixed.
The region around Emmerich has various establishments for healthcare and wellness. The
landscape is also exploited as recreational space, though on a modest scale. (Emmerich was
once part of the roman empire, Doetinchem not). What is attractive in Germany for the
Dutch is that one is able to build one’s own home there, since land is cheaper and there are
no meddlesome aesthetics committees (NIHK, 2012).
Emmerich is a small town with a lot of employment for unskilled workers. There is already an
economic shift taking place from industrial activities towards container transfer and services.
The construction of a new large-scale container terminal could give the town another
economic boost, enabling Emmerich to reorganize and upgrade itself further, creating more
diverse employment opportunities and investing in new, attractive housing environments.
The main employers in the city are sweets-producer ‘Katja’, Gimborn and a factory of Brother.
The hospital is also a main employer and also provides its services in Dutch.
There is a lot of vacancy in Emmerichs city center (Kruse & Völker, 2011). The city center
functions as a middle-center with its catchment area concerning mostly of the rest of the
municipality. It experiences concurrence from other middle centers like Kleve, Goch and
Bocholt. On the Dutch side of the border concurrence comes from Arnhem and Nijmegen
(Kruse & Völker, 2011).
3.2.4 Interesting places
For the people and companies Emmerich can be an interesting place. First and foremost is the
Rhein Waal Terminal, giving containerships access to the Rhein. This terminal is very
interesting for the surrounding areas and their many logistic companies.
Another point of interest, especially for tourist, is the bridge Rheinbrucke and the
Rheinpromenade. Many restaurants are located here. Since prices for eating out are lower and
portions are bigger in Germany than in the Netherlands, this is particularly interesting for
Dutch visitors. Restaurants respond and many restaurants have Dutch names (‘onder de poort’,
‘het oude posthuis’ and ‘hof van Holland’). When talking to Doetinchemmers this is what brings
them across the border; on a sunny day they stroll down the Rheinpromenade which offers a
view of the Rheinbrucke and later sit down in one of the many restaurants Emmerich has to
25
offer. However, many also mention the increased vacancy in the city center. Someone said; ‘If
you want to feel really depressed, go to Emmerich on a rainy Sunday’.
3.3 Doetinchem – Emmerich There are many reasons why it might be relevant for Doetinchem and Emmerich to cooperate
and develop approaches to cope with future challenges. Apart from the similarities which can
be found in abovementioned case studies, there are more things that make a cross-borders
cooperation between Doetinchem and Emmerich a logical step.
In the introduction of this chapter it has become clear that the location is an important reason
for the municipalities to cooperate. Visually speaking we can see a horseshoe with potential to
become a circle. Doetinchem now primarily looks westward when it comes to cooperation,
because there is the main point of the Netherlands, the Randstad. For Emmerich this is true in
the other direction, eastwards, because in the east is the main focus of Germany (Berlin, Ruhr-
area).
But there are also reasons for Doetinchem and Emmerich to cooperate if we look at the
history. From 1902 till 1954 there was a tramway going from Zutphen via Doetinchem to
Emmerich. This was a lucrative tramway due to the connection with the ports of Zutphen and
Emmerich. However due to the world wars and the gradual replacement of tram with
autobuses the tramway was dissolved (Van der Gragt, 1968).
Furthermore there are financial advantages with cooperation. Not just because the sum is
worth more than its parts, but also because of the subsidies coming from the INTERREG funds
with cross border cooperation.
At last there is a growing awareness that an international view is necessary for the future.
More and more decisions come from Brussels instead of Amsterdam or Berlin.
We can conclude that the similarities, location, history, financial-economic situation and the
awareness of an international orientation are main points of focus and make the choice of
cooperation between Doetinchem and Emmerich a very logical choice.
26
4 Borders
Before going into details about what network-theory is and how we can correctly do scenario-
planning it is important to take a closer look in to the concept of borders. Since we investigate
cross-border cooperation, and look at an area where the border plays a major role we cannot
continue before explaining more about the border.
Borders are everywhere. When we draw a line on a blank paper, a border is already
established. We create something that separates one side from another side. But also in the
color we see a border. When we put just a simple dot on a blank paper; there is a border
between the white blank paper and the colored dot. There is a difference, one versus the
other. Lines on a map define the border, the here and there. But in real life these borders are
not visible. American artist Dennis Oppenheim created these lines in nature; with a
snowmobile he followed the border between the United States and Canada. By drawing this
line Oppenheim defined an area. Van Kampen (2013) states by feeling the presence of the
border in real life it becomes clear that border are because of human action. Humans created
the border, and borders remain because of our action. Or in the words of Bijsterbosch (2007)
borders are no longer seen as territorial lines at a certain place in space but we have learned
that they are also symbols of processes of social binding and exclusion that are constructed in
society (Bijsterbosch, 2007).
Borders and borderlands are human creations. In the Roman Empire there was a border
between barbarism and civilization. The borders served as a way to organize the hierarchy of
the Roman Empire, settlements, cities, provinces and regions. During the Middle Ages, vague
borderlands existed, but the feudal system was more concerned with control over cities and
territories (Brunet-Jailly, 2009). Geographers made it possible for rulers to have a spatial view
of their possessions. According to Brunet-Jailly (2009) what originally were borderlands or
borderregions became boundaries and frontiers.
In this chapter we start with the evolution of border-studies (3.1), than take a closer look in
the future of borders (3.2). In paragraph 3 a view is presented on cross-border cooperation.
The last paragraph consists of the relatively new idea of borderscapes.
27
4.1 Evolution of border-studies The Treaty of Westphalia of 1648 by the Spanish and Dutch served as the beginning of an era
of nation states and nationalism, which would be explained by historians and geographers in
the 19th and 20th century (Brunet-Jailly, 2009). The Treaty of Paris reviewed the borders of
most states at the end of the First World War (Brunet-Jailly, 2009). Margaret Macmillan (2003)
in the book Paris 1919, emphasized on the negotiations following the First World War. She
states that the representatives of states and nations would use aggrandized maps that serve the
purposes but not actually the depications of territories and people. These are the first signs
that borderstudies could benefit a specific purpose.
The first and second World Wars and the following decolonization led to the first attempt to
study borders (Diener & Hagen, 2009). Geographers tried to describe, locate and classify
borders. Others focused on empirical research. Both however presumed that borders
functioned as ‘passive lines demarcating spaces of territorial sovereignty in the modern state
system’ (Diener & Hagen, 2009, p. 1199). Systematic studies of borders focused on both
natural and man-made borders. Ellen Churchill Semple (1911) argued that natural geographic
frontiers where humans cannot settle are ideal boundaries. These views gave way to a debate
about the functions of borders. Albert Brigham (1919) stated that borders should provide
economic equilibrium. Withermore Boggs (1940) suggested that borders should have specific
functions that vary in time and space. Spykman (1942) continued by suggesting that the
territory surrounding a border is central to understand power relation across the border. The
transformation of borderlands into buffer zones is eminent in the literature. According to
Brunet-Jailly (2009) the borderlands of European states turned into military practice grounds.
At the end of the 1950s the accepted view was that changes in border functions might lessen
border tension across borderlands (Brunet-Jailly, 2009).
The bipolar geopolitical structure of the Cold War give way to a western hegemony in which
trans-border flows of people, materials, information and technology established a global
organization that transcended traditional state borders and sovereignty (Diener & Hagen,
2009). Borders are no longer passive things to be described and categorized but they are now
active forces and processes impacting domestic and international concerns. Anssi Paasi (1999)
argued that borders are institutional constructs; borders resulted from international
agreements by mutual understandings between states. Complex and intermeshed networks of
28
government policies interact in the formation of international borders delineating sovereign
spaces (Brunet-Jailly, 2009, p. 3).
According to Anderson, Sharma & Wright (2011) no border study can start without the
recognition that borders are ideological. Sometimes borders are presented as filters, sorting
people; us and others (Paasi, 2002), desirable and undesirable, skilled and unskilled, wife,
worker, refugee (Anderson, Sharma, & Wright, 2011). Borders are also the mark of a kind of
relationship, based on divisions and inequalities between people with different national
statuses. Anderson, Sharma & Wright (2011) explain borders as not being fixed, although
borders are all about fixing and categorizing.
Van Houtum and Van der Velde (2003) discuss that people have an urge to belong and create
their own space. The nation-state functions as what people see as their own space. The
borders of this nation-state demarcate us from them. According to Van Houtum (1999) the
borders thus ”produce an imagined mental nearness to the members of one’s nation and an
exclusion of and mental distance to non-members” (Van Houtum & Van der Velde, 2003, p. 104).
So although the border may be physically near, it is perceived as distant, far away, the other
side. Van Houtum and Van der Velde (2003) continue that despite or even because the urge to
integrate, national political sensitivity and practices of bordering have been fiercely put on the
agenda (Van Houtum & Van der Velde, 2004). National governments are in a process of
encouraging nationalism, via emphasizing on national and regional advantages compared to
other places (Van Houtum & Van der Velde, 2003).
4.2 Future of borders The way in which the views on future border evolution differ, lies in territorial sovereignty.
Some argue that borders will lose their relevance. Nation state systems collapse and so will
the significance of borders. Diener & Hagen (2009) refer to this as ‘strong globalization’.
Proponents are most economists, information scientists, business leaders, and journalists; ‘the
world is flat’.
Most geographers (and political scientists, anthropologists, socialists) foresee a weaker form:
‘weak globalization’. Some borders will remain barriers, and others will transform into
29
“permeable sites of interaction or bridge borders” (Diener & Hagen, 2009). The power of
borders is manifest.
We can see this in how NATO and the EU require states seeking membership to settle their
external borders. Although EU’s internal borders become increasingly permeable, external
borders become harder and harder. All borders are being transformed in meaning and function
by the combination of global economic exchange and fears created by global security issues
(Diener & Hagen, 2009).
Now globalization will have profound implications for international borders and state
sovereignty. Yet how these state borders will evolve differs from view to view (Diener &
Hagen, 2009). There are cases of barrier removal in order to promote transnational trade, and
there are cases of creating new barriers due to security matters. During the state of shifting
spatiality, borders embody contradiction (Diener & Hagen, 2009).
4.3 Cross-border cooperation When we look into how the municipality of Doetinchem and Stadt Emmerich can work closer
together, we talk about cross-border cooperation (CBC). Cross-border cooperation is defined
in accordance with the definition used by the association of European Border Regions, as
‘Neighbourly cooperation in all areas of life between regional and local authorities along the
border and involving all actors (Martinos & Mahnkopf, 1999). Van der Walle (2000) defines
CBC as the “co-operation of decentralized authorities across the border. It concerns
neighboring areas, that have a common border and they are part of different countries” (Van
der Walle, 2000). Perkmann defines CBC as a “more or less institutionalized collaboration between
contiguous subnational authorities across national borders” (Perkmann, 2003, p. 3). Not only the
functioning of an area is the main target of CBC but also the creation or improvement of
necessary linkages between involved actors, markets, politics and necessary institutional and
legal bases (Gerfert, 2009). The fact that CBC deals with decentralized authorities is
important, because these decentralized authorities are the coordinators of CBC, private
initiatives, companies and non-profit organizations can also be involved (Van der Walle, 2000).
European CBC at regional levels was developed after World War 11. The intensive
cooperation involved municipalities, universities, consultative committees of central and local
30
government and private business interest (Järviö, 2011). After the fall of the Berlin Wall in
1989 Europe had the chance to renew itself. The European Union wanted to bring “the
abstraction of Europe closer to the European citizen” (Kramsch, 2007) and therefor
institutions should become more visible and relevant for European citizens (Kramsch, 2007).
Inner borders became softer and actions were taken to increase the integration of the
Europeans. From the beginning of the EU, cross-border mobility and governance was
encouraged and stimulated (Van Houtum & Van der Velde, 2003). Many scholars state that the
EU has been and will be a laboratory for supranational and transnational institution building.
This laboratory has as goal to reach a united European Union (Van der Velde & Van Houtum,
2003). The EU encourages, stimulates and governs CBC and cross border mobility of goods,
money and information (Van Houtum & Van der Velde, 2004). Already in the 1960s informal
agreements existed for cross-border cooperation between Germany and the Netherlands. It
took until the last decade for the EUregions to become official policy of the European
Commission (Kramsch, 2007).
Since then the European Commission tried to transform borderlands that used to be
peripheral and marginal in national politics and economics to more laboratories of European
integration. According to Kramsch (2007) borderlands are meant to serve as a conduit for EU-
funds.
Several projects are funded by the EU in order to promote cross-border cooperation. One of
those projects is ULYSSES; ‘using applied research results from ESPON1 as a yardstick for
cross-border spatial development planning’. ULYSSES is supported by 18 European border and
cross-border areas. This project researches these border areas, among them the Euregion
(Gronau), in order to present diagnosis and analysis for future challenges and opportunities.
This project describes borders as being synonymous for political, demographic and economic
remoteness and they behave as functional and territorial discontinuities (ESPON, 2012). This
description explains why border areas tend to experience an inferior status in relation to
central areas. Economic activities do not concentrate close to national borders and public
institutions have limited interest in investing in these areas. But ESPON sees great potential for
these border areas with the growing integration of European regions, whereby border regions
could exploit their formerly hindered potential (ESPON, 2012).
1 European Observation Network Territorial Development and Cohesion
31
Traditionally, borders between states have been perceived as obstacles. As mentioned before,
border regions are often peripheral because contacts across the border are limited. The need
for the European Union (EU) to develop these regions is clear. The EU is considered to be a
laboratory for supranational and transnational institution building (Van der Velde & Van
Houtum, 2003).
Another downside of the border-area is the fact that these areas cannot use agglomeration
advantages to the fullest. In non-border-regions it is possible for inhabitants of the city to use
facilities in the city and enjoy nature
outside the city, and vice versa for
inhabitants of agricultural regions. In the
border area there is a barrier, see figure
on the right. This barrier makes that
municipalities cannot profit to the fullest
from jobs and facilities on the other side
of the border (Ponds, Marlet, & van Woerkens, 2013).
The goal of cross-border cooperation is to gain advantages for the region. According to
Reichenbach, Spoormans and Korsten (1999), motives for cross-border cooperation are in
origin historical and economic. Reichenbach et al. (1999) claim this historical motive has been
overruled by national governments. Economic motives are because of border regions are
usually periphery areas, with unfavorable economic positions (Reichenbach, Spoormans, &
Korsten, 1999). However the major motive for cross-border cooperation is an increased
awareness that problems and challenges don’t stop at the border (Ten Hoeve, 2011). Due to
the shrinking of the population it is suggested that cooperation is not only positive but
essential for policy successes (SER, 2011).
4.4 Borderscapes ‘Scapes’ is a term originated from the Dutch/German ‘scheppen/schaffen’ meaning creating or
establishing. This meaning makes clear that borders shape or create places. But creating also
means that new things, challenges arise due to this border. The interaction of people from one
side to the other side could be seen as a positive aspect of the border (Agora, 2012).
Municipalities in nation-state Municipalities at the border
32
Arjun Appadurai (2003) proposed to use the term scapes as ‘building blocks of the new
transnational imagined possibilities in modern society’ (Eker & Van Houtum, 2013, p. 406).
There are many kinds of scapes, like ‘technoscapes’, ‘financescapes’, ‘mediascapes’ and
‘ideoscapes which can flow into each other’. Your perspective decides the different uses of the
scapes. Since we talk about the border and the different communities that exist in the border
we can talk about borderscapes. It can be created, shaped and constructed and also be
recreated (Eker & Van Houtum, 2013).
Borderscapes are ‘shifting and conflictual’ zones in which ‘different temporalities and
overlapping emplacements as well as emergent spatial organizations’’ take shape (Neilson,
2011). Jacobs (2012) concludes that the most literal definition of the borderscape would be
there where the nation borders are in the middle instead of the boundary of an area. Borders
play a role in the way they can include and exclude ‘others’. They are seen as places where
things end, demarcation. Borders are artificial, political constructions which have social and
cultural consequences for the people living in border areas (Bouwmeester, 2008). Borders
create barriers, whereby contact between people is more difficult. This and national
uniformation of time, language, regulations, laws and education, created homogeneous nations
with social-cultural differences (Uijlen, 1999).
However, borders cannot always define people. In the municipality of Emmerich there is a
small village called ‘Elten’. After World War 2, the Dutch wanted to have some kind of
repayment for the destruction the Germans created. Since payments weren’t an option, they
suggested shifting the national border eastwards. This meant that Elten (as well as Tudderen)
were no longer German but now Dutch. Cats (2001) shows in his documentary ‘Eisch
Duitschen Grond’ that the Germans still living in Elten, never felt Dutch, even though they
now lived under Dutch law, probably lived in typical Dutch terrace houses and are separated
from their former homeland Germany. However, in 1963 the villages of Elten and Tudderen
where given back to Germany.
By adopting the term borderscape we also want to look at the attractiveness of borders.
Border can be a beginning, a way to open your mind about possibilities (Agora, 2012). To
perceive borders in a positive way we can see opportunities instead of just barriers. Maybe this
means that the borderland purposely should be left free; creating cultural value of the border.
33
5 Networktheory
For Doetinchem to strengthen its economic axes along the line of Emmerich (A3) to Zutphen
(A1), it needs several parties to cooperate. The network-theory can be used when we want to
gather more insight in which parties and actors are involved in the cross-border cooperation.
After a period of more and more, just as in borderstudies, maybe it is time to revalue the
strength of weak-ties. As mentioned in the previous chapter, cross-border cooperation
focuses on more integration and the barrier function of borders. In network theory we can
see a similar trend. In order to strengthen regions it is considered to be essential to have many
networks. But this tangled web of networks and actors can also be difficult; maybe the time
has come to opt for fewer networks.
In this chapter we will present the network-theory as presented by Klijn & Koppenjan (2004).
We can use this theory to investigate the different interests and involvement of actors.
We will start presenting the theory in paragraph 5.1, followed by the relevant aspects of the
network. In paragraph 5.3 we will look into the network-analysis.
5.1 Evolution of the networktheory
When actors want to achieve their goals and interests, it is essential to have knowledge and
expertise of different actors at their disposal. Every actor involved has his own knowledge and
expertise which might be relevant for other actors. Governments, businesses and civil society
are unable to tackle complex problems by themselves. The complexity of these problems gave
rise to arenas of interactions, in which actors are forced to work in networks (Koppenjan &
Klijn, 2004). According to Hoogerwerf & Herweijer (2008) networks are social systems in
which actors develop interaction- and communication patterns that are sustainable and are
focused on government problems and programs (Hoogerwerf & Herweijer, 2008, p. 236).
Cooperation is well known in Dutch government. The tradition of cooperation in the
Netherlands probably relates to the battle against water. Only by cooperation between
different parties the threat of floods could be handled. Cooperation increased after the Second
World War when the country had to rebuild itself (Hoogerwerf & Herweijer, 2008, p. 301).
34
Cooperation consists from the acknowledgement of mutual dependency. One actor cannot
reach his goals without cooperation from another actor (Hoogerwerf & Herweijer, 2008). The
mutual dependency of actors has increased due to four major developments (Koppenjan &
Klijn, 2004). The nation state borders are no longer as important as they used to be due to
globalizations. Actors have to think in international context. Then there is an increase in so
called ‘wicked problems’, which means that problems are complex and solutions are diverse
(Korsten, 2000). Furthermore public and private parties are more interconnected. As last
major development we can see the development in information-technology. This development
resulted in an easier way for actors to cooperate. The borders and barriers between the
different organization fade which leads to a somewhat network-society (De Bruyn & Ten
Heuvelhof, 2007). Society is now interconnected through several networks. The role of
government has changed, no longer can they govern top-down (Van der Linden, 2013).
Increased mutual interdependence gave rise to the network society. Society is characterized by
networks that are linked together. And many of the problems society faces are so called
‘network-problems’ in which many parties are involved, with different values, visions and
interests, with fragmented power and responsibility, without one actor who can single
handedly come to a solution (Van der Steen, Peeters & Van Twist, 2010). Furthermore, the
question of ‘what is the problem’ is answered differently and contradictory (Van der Steen,
Peeters & Van Twist, 2010).
So how do networks develop? Social networks are about relationships among entities and the
patterns and implications of these relationships (Wasserman & Faust, 1999, p. 4).
There are three ways in which networks can develop (Koppenjan & Klijn, 2004). First, when
governments force cooperation between different actors. Another way of network-
development is if there exists a common problem definition, or a shared ideal solution. Actors
will then look for each other to cooperate. At last there is voluntary cooperation, in which
actors see an increased chance to reach goals by cooperating in a network (Koppenjan & Klijn,
2004, p. 83).
Networks are characterized by continuing interaction between the different actors (Van der
Linden, 2013). Another characteristic is that of pluralism. In networks all actors are diverse
and have diverse knowledge and expertise, which can be shared to strengthen the network. A
third characteristic is that of interdependence. Actors depend on each other to reach their
35
goals. In networks the principle of give and take exists, when actors don’t contribute they
might be deleted of the network (De Bruyn & Ten Heuvelhof, 2007). At last we can mention
the dynamic character of a network, which means the structure of the network, where
positions change and new actors can enter and others may leave (Van der Linden, 2013).
5.2 Network aspects
5.2.1 Actors
In order to strengthen the economic ax of Doetinchem, it is of major importance that multiple
parties cooperate. These parties are actors and each has its own goals and strategies. We can
identify actors if they have sources that are essential to the network, contribute to the network
(knowledge, insights) and they have power to block or accept decisions (Van der Linden, 2013).
5.2.2 Sources
According to Koppenjan & Klijn (2004, p.144) there are five types of sources.
- Financial resources: For development money is essential.
- Means of production: Owners of these means are dependent on initiatives and
decisions before actual use of these means.
- Competencies: Formal/ legal authorities from government to make decisions.
- Knowledge: this can be knowledge by experience or in documents.
- Legitimacy: give decisions legitimacy to resolve cases.
5.2.3 Interests
These interests are in contrast to goals not directly linked to the (problem) situation. Interests
are close to the identity and perceptions of an actor. Interests are the answer to the question;
why does this actor want to achieve this goal? The goal behind the goal can be detected
(Koppenjan & Klijn, 2004, p. 48).
5.2.4 Perceptions
Everybody has a certain view of his surrounding, and whether there are changes or problems
in their environment. These views are perceptions. The goals of actors are made up via these
36
perceptions. Goals are the concrete version of perceptions, on the basis of perceptions actors
choose which goals they want to reach (Koppenjan & Klijn, 2004, p. 48).
There are different kinds of perceptions (Van der Linden, 2013, p. 19).
- Problem-perception: The nature, meaning and significance play a central role.
- Solution-perception: Actors pro’s and con’s to solutions.
- Actor-perception: Actors view on other actors in the network, and their goals,
sources and strategies.
- Environment-perception: Actors view on the environment of the network, and the
developments that might influence the situation (Koppenjan & Klijn, 2004).
Perceptions differ from actor to actor. These differences can be both positive and negative.
Positive as the network reaches its final form, negative if it blocks the network, where opinions
and goals are to different from each other (Zaagsma, 2009).
5.2.5 Strategies
A perception is a display of the situation which actors see as the truth. On this basis actors will
act, according to Thomas theorem: “If men define situations as real, they are real in their
consequences” (Thomas, 1928). Because this is true for actors they develop strategies to reach
their goals. Strategies are actions or intentions with the goals of influencing other actors,
problem-statement or solutions. There are five types of strategies (Koppenjan & Klijn, 2004,
pp. 49-50)
1. Go-alone strategy: In this strategy the actor chooses to, despite all dependencies of
other actors, come with a solution by itself. This strategy is sensitive for conflicts and
resistance.
2. Conflictual strategy: In this strategy actors choose to block or prevent solutions of
other actors.
3. Avoidance strategy: In this strategy actors choose a passive attitude, actors don’t
oppose to ideas and solutions of other actors.
4. Cooperative strategy: In this strategy actors acknowledge dependencies and try to do
everything possible to interest other actors in their ideas.
5. Facilitating strategy: In this strategy actors see that cooperation is essential to reach
common goals. This strategy brings actors together and mediates in conflicts.
37
5.2.6 Arena
Abovementioned come together in an arena. In this arena actors meet, strategies are
presented, perceptions of problems and solutions are shared. The strategies used play a role in
the flow of events in an arena. It could lead to stagnation or better cooperation.
5.2.7 Rounds
Interaction plays a major role in networks. Through communication actors meet in arenas.
One of the actors in a network takes initiative, which implies the first round. Other actors
react, which leads to discussions and negotiations. The round ends with a crucial decision;
something is about to change (Koppenjan & Klijn, 2004, p. 60). This change could be; change in
number of actors, change in the contents of the arena or the nature of interactions (Van der
Linden, 2013).
5.3 Network-analysis In this paragraph the actual network-analysis will be done. For a network-analysis we need to
follow some steps:
First of all it is important to identify the relevant actors in a network. Which actors play a role
to strengthen the economic ax of Doetinchem? Continuing we need to establish which sources
these actors possess. At last we need to distinguish the positions of the actors; whether they
are dependent on the sources of other actors (Van der Linden, 2013).
Now we have a vision of the relevant actors, their resources and their dependencies. This
makes it possible to focus on the interaction of the network. Which ties exist between the
different actors in the network, which actors play a central role (Van der Linden, 2013). The
frequency and variation of the interaction needs to be determined. Perceptions are also
relevant; these determine the strategy of actors.
With a network-analysis we can collect and investigate the interactions and relations of the
different actors (Koppenjan & Klijn, 2004, p. 145).
It is really import to look at the form of a network, because this regulates positions and
contribution of the actors. Form and content clarify power and decision-making processes.
The formation decides who is in the network and who is not (Boonstra, 2007).
38
6 Scenario planning
Following the book ‘Borderland’, we will now continue with the theory of scenario planning.
First I want to give a brief introduction in the scenario-planning. Second I want to present the
ways in which the theory will later be applied on the cases.
6.1 The evolution of scenario planning
When we talk about scenarios, we want to have an insight in the future. But the future is
uncertain, “terra incognita”: we may be able to guess the outcome of events but it is full of
uncertainties. Scenario planning is a way when to look at possible futures, so that we can make
decisions today. In the words of Shell; it is impossible to map the future, but we might explore
the possibilities that support the way in which we might make decisions (Shell-International,
2008).
According to Mietzner & Reger (2004) a scenario is “a fuzzy concept that is used and misused,
with various shades of meaning” (Mietzner & Reger, 2004, p. 50). Michael Porter (1985) defines
a scenario as “an internally consistent view of what the future might turn out to be – not a
forecast, but one possible future outcome” (Porter, 1985). Hermann Kahn was the pioneer of
future-now thinking. Kahn worked at Rand Cooperation2 in the 1950s (deWaal, 2012). The
term scenario was given by writer Leo Rosten, who came up with the name based on
Hollywood terminology, Kahn adopted the term because he liked the emphasis it gave,
creating a story or myth (Ringland, 1998). Other corporations started using the term as a
method to plan and anticipate the future of their businesses. Most well-known user of
scenarios is the company Shell (deWaal, 2012). Royal Dutch Shell contributed to a more
formalized approach to scenarios, what could then be linked to strategic planning (Fahey &
Randall, 1998).
A scenario is defined as; a description of a possible future situation (conceptual future) and
includes paths of development which may lead to that future situation (Kosow & Gassner,
2008). Since the future is always uncertain, a scenario is a function to direct attention to one
2 Rand Cooperation, which is non-profit, “helps improve policy and decision making through research
and analysis” (RandCorporation, 2014).
39
or more specific segments of reality (Kosow & Gassner, 2008). Some factors and events are
included and others are excluded. Some are considered to be relevant and others are ignored.
Uncertainties are there when problems exist. According to the business-dictionary we can
define a problem by a “perceived gap between the existing state and a desired state, or a
deviation from a norm, standard or status quo”. When there are many actors involved,
problems arise and uncertainties increase. According to Koppenjan & Klijn (2004) there are
three kinds of uncertainties. First is substantial uncertainty, which has to do with the nature of
a complex problem. Information might not be available when needed. As has become clear
from the previous chapter; actors involved have many different perceptions, which influences
the way they look at a situation. Another uncertainty is strategic uncertainty; actors have
different ideas about the desired state. Their ideas follow from a frame of reference which
includes facts, interests and values of reality and the position of actors. Because the actors
interact the frame of reference changes constantly and therefore their strategy changes. Th is
uncertainty following interaction results in the complex character of a network. First two
uncertainties are about the current situation. The final uncertainty is about the future
(Koppenjan & Klijn, 2004).
In scenario planning these uncertainties are accepted and worked out into different ‘futures’
(Lindgren & Bandhold, 2003). A scenario is neither a vision nor a desired future. It is a vivid
description of plausible futures. Visions or forecast tend to conceal risks, while scenario
planning makes risk-management possible (Lindgren & Bandhold, 2003, p. 21). Scenarios are
intended to form a basis for strategic conversation (Shell-International, 2008, p. 8). They
provide a common language and a shared basis for exploring future uncertainties, which can
lead to making more successful decisions (Shell-International, 2008).
Furthermore strategic policy knows great uncertainties but also great consequences. This may
lead to big investments and radical effects, but it remains uncertain what effects precisely
(Dammers, Van 't Klooster, De Wit, Hilderink, Petersen, & Tuinstra, 2013). These effects are
not just influenced by policy but are also social and physical. Therefore strategic policy brings
the risks of being a failure. Scenarios may help reduce the risks of complexity and uncertainty
of strategic policy (Dammers et al., 2013).
Scenarios give insights in the future, support communication about the future and increase
engagement in future policy. In preparing and implementing strategic policy, actors need each
40
other because of their knowledge, decisions they make and actions they take. However, many
different actors speak many different languages; have many different ideas, interests and wishes.
Dammers et al. (2013) refers to complex communication. When creating scenarios, interests
and perceptions about the future of all parties involved are discussed. This leads to different
alternative futures. In this case all actors find something of their own in the scenarios
(Dammers et al., 2013). Furthermore strategic policy needs a certain degree of engagement.
6.2 Scenarios in Borderland
As mentioned before I will use the book ‘Borderland’ as a guide for this thesis. Borderland
presents three different futures for the borderland. Eker & Van Houtum (2013) consider three
possibilities for the future of the borderland, and the way we consider the border. The
possibilities are exaggerated, caricatural enhanced or removed, in order to project the
scenarios (Wulf, Brands, & Meissner, 2011).
In the first scenario, Autonomous Development, the status quo is maintained. The
scenario presents a future for the border landscape whereby national policies and cross -
border cooperation funded by the European Union remain somewhat the same. The authors
foresee a future whereby the EU-regions evolve into institutions, who want to maintain the
status quo. Although both sides of the border want to cooperate, the funds they receive will
mostly be spent in ways which benefits themselves. Eker & Van Houtum (2013) consider
cooperation between both sides will remain limited and focused on issues like “recreational
infrastructure, regional promotion, education, healthcare, culture, water management and the
construction and upgrading of infrastructure” (Eker & Van Houtum, 2013 , p. 293). Furthermore
differences between us and them will persist; us on one side of the border and them, the
others, on the other side of the border.
The second scenario the authors consider is what they refer to as ‘Community’ (Eker & Van
Houtum, 2013 ); whereby the importance of the regions in Europe grows and national borders
fade. The European Union invests in the development of regions, via various programs. The
Union will continue to invest resulting in the increased presence of influential regions.
Therefore the national borders will become less meaningful. The differences between both
sides will have little to do with national characteristics, interests and policies (Eker & Van
Houtum, 2013 ). Regions now have the power and assets to make their own decisions, and
41
decide what is best for the region and then are revised with national policies and plans. This
will result in optimization of allocation. Police regions and health care will be aligned and
infrastructure will connect. According to Eker & Van Houtum (2013, p. 293) the housing and
employment markets are the first to become fully integrated. Rules and regulation will be
tuned and spatial planning becomes increasingly coordinated. In this scenario the regions will
take responsibility and handle physical planning. The Euregions will primarily focus on
improving economic and natural infrastructure. Eker & Van Houtum (2013) forecast that
cultural differences remain but these are cherished and appreciated. They are part of the
borderland but no longer influence planning.
The third scenario is ‘Longing’, a desire; the ‘longing’ to travel, to different cultures and
landscapes. In this scenario the border will be enhanced. This possible future foresees that
there is a prolonged desire to remain different, and that it might be a good thing. Differences
on both sides are enhanced because they might be interesting as a cultural showpiece. Years of
experimenting in the borderland has taught us that there is no such thing as a collective
identity across the border. Therefore we should embrace the differences in our culture and
the specifics of the borderland. Euregions are guardians of differences in this scenario. They
emphasize on the different, the other of the others, across the border. In this scenario the
difference is good, differences makes us learn, surprise and challenge each other and ourselves.
42
7 Network analysis of the region
In this chapter the empirical past begins with the network analysis of actors involved in CBC.
First the current international policy of the municipality of Doetinchem is presented. In
paragraph 2 the network will be drawn. Paragraph 3 presents the actor analysis, with the
involved actors their resources, interests, perceptions and strategies. The last paragraph (7.4)
presents a graphic display of the network analysis.
7.1 International policy of Doetinchem The municipality of Doetinchem is involved in different international networks. These can be
wide (Euregion) or more specific on one policy-domain (biogas infrastructure). The network
can either focus on lobbying or development aid. A network can also exist in order to find
partners for European subsidies or develop from a European project (Interreg). The
municipality Doetinchem is involved in international activities in several ways:
- Relation with twinning cities
- Regional and provincial collaboration
- European projects
- Millennium municipality.
The municipality of Doetinchem has relations with La Libertad (Nicaragua), Pardubice (Czech
Republic) and Raesfeld (Germany). However the concept of twinning cities is somewhat
questionable. The current state is far from postwar ideas about reconciliation between east
and west. However the European Union still encourages partnerships between cities who
advocate for active European citizenship.
Apart from bilateral contacts and cooperation the municipality of Doetinchem also participates
in different regional- and provincial cooperation’s. The province of Gelderland has as core task
to stimulate regional cooperation. Also the cross-border cooperation with Germany should be
optimal to create changes. Furthermore the cooperation in NUTS 1: East-Netherlands for
European Funding. The project of GO (gebundelde innovatiekracht Gelderland & Overijssel)
flowed from this cooperation. The municipality of Doetinchem also works in the Euregion and
participates in different European projects. Then there is the cooperation within the region
Achterhoek, with 8 other municipalities. A more specific cooperation is that of west-
43
Achterhoek with the municipalities Bronckhorst, Oude IJsselstreek, Montferland and
occasionally Emmerich am Rhein. Furthermore the municipality closely cooperates with
businesses and organization in EOD (Economisch Overleg Doetinchem), IG&D (Vereniging
Industrie, Groothandel en Dienstverlening), park management, business club Kleve, Rhein-
Waal Terminal Emmerich and the Rhine-Waal University of Kleve. At last the municipality also
cooperates as Millennium municipality to enhance education for all children and equal
economic development.
The municipality of Doetinchem wishes to contribute to a sustainable enhancement of the
quality of society, here and across the border, with international contact.
The international position of the municipality of Doetinchem, and the region, is quite good
between the Randstad area and the Ruhr area in Germany. Zooming in we can see somewhat
of half a circle with Doetinchem in the center. For the international position, it should be a full
circle.
For this research we will look
more closely into how we can
reinforce the economy of the
municipality Doetinchem. By
doing this we try to link
Doetinchem to the municipality
(Stadt) Emmerich am Rhein
(Emmerich) in Germany.
Before going further it is
important to get a closer look
into the Dutch and German
control for both municipalities.
See figure below (Figure 2).
We can see many ‘boxes’. It is
impossible for a municipality to make decisions themselves because much of the money and
rules and regulations are made up levels above. These are not the only boxes, for Doetinchem
and Emmerich it is also true that they are in two different EUregions. Doetinchem in the
EU
Netherlands
Germany
Gelderland
Nordrhein Westfalen
Achterhoek
Niederrhein
Doetinchem
Kreis Kleve
Stadt Emmerich
44
oldest EUregion, based in Gronau (Germany), Emmerich in the EUregion Rhine-Waal. Both
municipalities are in the edges of the EUregions. EUregion Gronau focuses on Twente and
Osnabrück/Münster, EUregion Rhine-Waal on Arnhem-Nijmegen and Kleve. See figures (3 &
4) below.
Euregio Rhine-Waal
EUREGIO (Gronau)
45
7.2 Actors In the figure above the network is drawn. It becomes clear that there is a tangled web of many
different actors with more or less influence and relevance. The different actors are now being
described.
First and foremost actor is the municipality Doetinchem. The reason for this thesis was to
research in what ways and why Doetinchem should cooperate more in the axes Doetinchem –
Emmerich.
The municipality Doetinchem describes in the ‘Structuurvisie’ that chances could be sought
across the border in order to strengthen the economy. The interest of Doetinchem in
Emmerich is partly because of the accessibility and close proximity. Emmerich has a cross-
border railroad, the ‘bundesautobahn’ A3 and a large container-port. For Doetinchem these
Arena: crossborder Actor-analyse
cooperation
Graafschap College IG&D Logistic firms Wim Bosman
EU
Montferland Doetinchem Emmerich
A18 Rijn-Waal Terminal EMMMO
Euregio (Gronau) Euregio Rijn-Waal West-Achterhoek
Achterhoek Kreis Kleve Provincie Gelderland
INTERREG Netherlands NordrheinWestfalen Germany
46
aspects are quite relevant when we look at the marketing of parcels of new-build industrial
sites (Gerritsen, 2014). A good connection and mutual recommendation could play a major
role in the selling of these parcels. This connection will mainly consist of roads; public
transport is not on the agenda. Cornelissen (2014) states that a public transport line between
Doetinchem and Emmerich will not be profitable. Apart from connection a good cooperation
and tight links between the two cities might be attractive for new companies trying to settle in
the ‘new (logistic) corridor’ between Randstad and Ruhrgebiet.
Second we need to look into the interests of Stadt Emmerich am Rhein. To come to a
strengthening of the economy of Doetinchem the viewpoint of Emmerich should become
clear. In the ‘Leitbild’ (2006) of the city Emmerich states multiple times that cross-border
cooperation is key for its development. The intention declaration signed by the ‘Western -
Achterhoek3’ municipalities, Rhein-Waal Terminal and the municipality Emmerich is the first
real attempt for the cities to come closer together. In this intention declaration all parties sign
to recommend the specific features of the parties involved with the entry of new businesses in
their organization (Berenbak, 2014). The major of Emmerich, Johannes Diks, sees a great
potential in cross-border cooperation. Over the intention declaration he states; “The
operational area works as a real unit, with the port of Emmerich and industrial parks of
Emmerich and across the border in the Netherlands (Diks, 2014)”. This makes the major
optimistic about the economic situation in the region. If you read between the lines, it
becomes clear that the major of Emmerich is very much in favor of a broader cooperation
between the different municipalities close to the border (Tepass, 2014). This also shows in the
“Leitbild Emmerich am Rhein” (2006).
Then there is the municipality of Montferland; In order to get from Doetinchem to
Emmerich you need to go through this municipality. Although most of the municipality is more
focused on the “Liemers4”, the town of ‘s Heerenberg is more focused on Doetinchem. The
‘border’ of this municipality focus can be found in the “Montferland”, a foresty hill (Van Dinter,
2014). Since the municipal re-division a larger municipality was born.
The municipality Montferland already works closely together with Emmerich in the EMMMO
project. EMMMO is “unique cooperation” focused on attracting logistic parties. The major of
Montferland, Ina Leppink-Schuitema, encourages more cooperation. According to Werner van
3 Doetinchem, Bronckhorst, Montferland and Oude IJsselstreek 4 Region bordering the Achterhoek
47
Dinter (2014), we should not just be looking at a small region, like the Western-Achterhoek,
but we need to broaden our view (van Dinter, 2014).
The region Achterhoek in an important actor; both the municipalities of Doetinchem and
Montferland (and 6 other municipalities5) participate in the region. The major of Doetinchem
Niels Joosten is the current chairman of the region. With cross-border cooperation the main
focus of the region is on Kreis Borken; which is a logical choice. However for Doetinchem
Kreis Kleve is in closer proximity and due to the connection also more relevant. Emaus (2014)
states that since Doetinchem participates in the region Achterhoek the main focus should be
on Kreis Borken. However the connection with Emmerich is being enhanced (Emaus, 2014).
Cross-border cooperation traditionally takes place in the Euregions. The Euregions try to
increase cooperation between both sides of the border and make border areas less
‘peripheral’. Grants for projects also come from these agencies. As mentioned before
Doetinchem participates mainly in the Euregio, based in Gronau; Emmerich mainly in the
Euregio Rijn-Waal. Both take part in the Interreg program IVA Nederland-Deutschland. The
main focus of this program is to enhance economic cooperation. In order to achieve a better
cooperation, investments should be made in strengthening of social-cultural and territorial
cohesion in the border area (Interreg, 2014). Interreg wants to continue with successful cross-
border cooperation partnerships, but also wants to invest in new impulses and initiatives for
cross-border cooperation. Especially this last notion is important for the potential (enhanced)
partnership between Doetinchem and Emmerich. Interreg further notices that problems facing
regions with a declining population could better be taken care of in cooperation. Interreg
addresses the problems with demographic changes in the newest program (Spaargaren, 2014).
The province of Gelderland is an actor where both the municipality Doetinchem and the
Achterhoek have to deal with. The province (in partnership with the East-Dutch province of
Overijssel) receives money from the European Regional Development Fund. When the money
is received several projects can be sponsored from this (Provincie Gelderland, 2013).
The province is also responsible for the development and construction of provincial roads, like
the N317 (‘the missing link’). When this road is established the accessibility of Doetinchem
5 Aalten, Berkelland, Bronckhorst, Oost-Gelre, Oude IJsselstreek en Winterswijk
48
towards Emmerich, and vice versa, will significantly increase (Gerritsen, 2014; Cornelissen,
2014).
Apart from public authorities, companies also have much to gain from cross-border
cooperation. The municipality Doetinchem cooperates intensively with the business sector in
the so-called Economic Consult Doetinchem (Economisch Overleg Doetinchem, EOD). The
chamber of commerce (Kamer van Koophandel, KvK), Cooperation Industry, Wholesale and
Services (Industrie, Groothandel en Dienstverlening, IG&D), entrepreneurs of city center and
center management (Berenbak, 2014; Legtenberg, 2014).
Furthermore the municipality participates in parkmanagement-organisations, businessclub
Kleve, the ‘West-Achterhoekse’ cooperation ‘development Businessareas’, the Achterhoekse
lobby towards The Hague, cooperation with the Rhein-Waal Terminal and higher education
Kleve (Rhein-Waal Hochschule) (Gerritsen, 2014; Berenbak, 2014).
When we take a closer look at the business sector, there is special attention for the logistic
sector. First and foremost is the company Wim Bosman, nowadays part of Mainfreight, is a
very large business with its headquarters in ‘s Heerenberg. Most of the Euregional Business
Area (EBT) consists of Bosman. Apart from Bosman there are other large logistical firms with
their base in the area. Cooperation across the border is of great importance. For
transshipment of products accessibility is essential; not only via road, but also via rail, water
and air transport (Van Londen, 2014). The proximity of the Rhein-Waal Terminal,
Bundesautobahn A3 and the German railroad network are of main importance for these
companies.
For the municipality and their West-Achterhoekse partners it is important that the sites on
the new established business park A18 are being sold. Again, accessibility is essential; the rapid
transit via A18/A12 and Bundesautobahn A3 towards Dutch and German centers is of great
importance (Berenbak, 2014).
The business park A18 is managed by the four municipalities of West-Achterhoek
(Bronckhorst, Doetinchem, Oude IJsselstreek and Montferland). The partnership is expanded
with an intention statement that has been signed by Rhein-Waal Terminal and Stadt Emmerich
(Berenbak, 2014). The intention statement consists of cooperation between the partners in
the promotion of locations. When firms show an interest in the Rhein-Waal Terminal, the
49
Terminal will point out different locations, for instance Business Park A18 or EBT, which could
be also of interest to these firms (Van Dinter, 2014).
Finally education plays a part. Via education cross-border cooperation could become more
important. Language barriers could be overcome via bilingual education programs.
Furthermore the acceptance of diplomas could be promoted and students could learn the
procedures in the other country.
The region Achterhoek has no higher
education facilities, apart from Vocational
and Technical Education and Teacher
Education for Primary School, which
forces young talent out of the area.
However, across the border there are
possibilities to study at a university (Kleve
and Bocholt). Studying nearby in
Germany should be promoted since it
does not only benefit the local economy
but also the students themselves (gaining
intercultural competencies) (Legtenberg,
2014).
German students are plentiful in Dutch
border universities, but vice versa the number is low. Dutch students show a lack of interest in
Germany; the excellent reputation of German education is unknown, limited cross-border
public transport and language barriers are the cause (Euregio, 2014). Students from the
Achterhoek could benefit; it enhances their future possibilities and they can maintain their
social network and weekend-jobs. Firms in the region benefit from students with German
language skills, contacts across the border and German diplomas (Euregio, 2014).
1 Position of higher education from Doetinchem
50
8 Scenarios for the region
In this chapter I will present the different scenarios. First I want to look at some of the main
uncertainties concerning the cross-border cooperation between Doetinchem and Emmerich.
Continuing with the presentation of the three scenarios; first one where cooperation between
the two cities will continue in the same manner, second where the border is becoming of less
importance and we can see the establishment of a ‘circle’ region, and finally a scenario where
the border is intentionally strengthen.
8.1 Uncertainties
As we have learned in chapter 3, borders can be viewed in different ways. Also the future of
borders is yet unclear. There are those who believe that the border will eventually disappear,
at least its relevance. Supporters of this theory believe in “strong globalization”.
Others, including most of the geographers, believe that some borders might become less
relevant, like in the EU, with the EU promoting integration of economic markets. But on the
other side, there are also borders that become more significant. In a world where there is an
increasing fear of terrorism and ‘tsunamis of immigrants’ border security increases and the
border is very much relevant again. An example of these borders can also be found at the EU,
on the outer borders; fences and sharpened rules and regulations results in a firm preservation
of the border.
Not just policymakers attitude towards the border, but also the attitude of the people is an
uncertainty. As mentioned in chapter 4, people perceive the border when they look for
schools or jobs. The land across the border is ‘far away’ even though it might be physically
nearby. So to say, policymakers can decide whatever, if the attitude of the people remains the
same it is unlikely that people will search for jobs or education across the border.
Another uncertainty can be found in the question: ‘Who is responsible for future
developments?’ With a scaling down of the government and more responsibilities for the
private sector this question seems to be a logical one. As Dicken (2005) rightly states, ‘the
state does really matter’ (Dicken, 2005, p. 169). Lejour (2003) has a similar mindset and for the
creation of his scenario analysis for Europe he uses the responsibility-question on the x-ax. For
Lejour (2003) this is an important question since it is uncertain how governments will react to
51
developments that put the public sector under pressure, like ageing, divide between low and
high-skilled labour and individualization. What is clear is that the national governments are
unable to continue on the old footing (Lejour, 2003).
And although capitalist state that the role of the state should be minimized it is very unlikely
that the role of the state will disappear. For instance look what happened with the worldwide
economic crisis, many of the banks had to come running back to the state and ask for help.
Furthermore things like education and health-care will always be the predominant role for
states.
8.2 Scenario ‘Logistic corridor’ When the municipality Doetinchem and Stadt Emmerich, or more broader speaking the
cooperation between Germany and the Netherlands in this region will remain somewhat the
same, the status quo, what will then be the future?
Nowadays the region Achterhoek focuses on Kreis Borken. Since Doetinchem is part of the
Achterhoek and Emmerich part of another Kreis, namely Kreis Kleve, the cooperation
between the two cities will consist of only small projects. Emmerich separately cooperates
with the municipality Montferland, in the partnership EMMMO, and th is will continually be the
case. Doetinchem feels left out; there is no ‘D’ in EMMMO. Although there are some
partnerships with Emmerich; the intention-statement of the Rhein-Waal Terminal and business
park A18 being the most relevant one. There won’t be any public transport lines directly from
Doetinchem towards Emmerich, since this is not viable according to the municipality. The only
way to use public transport from Doetinchem to Emmerich includes a step -over in ‘s
Heerenberg.
Cooperation across the border between corporate lives, however, sees a boost. As Manuel
Castells already foresees; the political class is the most outmoded group in society
(Oosterbaan, 1997). Logistic companies find each other, and the Rhein-Waal Terminal, and this
will eventually lead to a Logistic Corridor. The regions around Doetinchem/Emmerich develop
in to a logistic corridor, perfectly located between the main ports of Europe; the harbor of
Rotterdam and the Ruhr area. With lots of place to expand further businesses and leading to
an increase in employment.
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8.3 Scenario ‘Made in Holland’ In this scenario the border is relevant. The scenario is based on the scenario ‘Longing’ of the
book Borderland by Eker & Van Houtum (2013). As mentioned in chapter 6 this scenario will
serve as a guideline for the scenario ‘Made in Holland’.
After years and years of experimenting cross-border community building, we must conclude
that it is not working. Germans will consider themselves Germans, and Dutch will consider
them to be Dutch. The differences between the countries are no longer considered as a
barrier or something that needs to be overcome. There can be a united European Union, with
all differences and borders maintained. The inhabitants of borderlands appreciate the role of
the border, since it can have several advantages. In the case of Doetinchem, many of the
Doetinchemmers will go grocery shopping and, particularly, alcohol-shopping across the
border. Also the prices for gas are lower on the German side of the border. The
Rheinpromenade with the restaurants and bars serves as a kind of holiday -experience.
Doetinchemmers come to enjoy large meals for low prices. People consider it to be a day out,
when they cross the border. Emmerichers will continue to come to Doetinchem, especially on
the monthly Sunday opening of the city center and the market on Tuesday mornings.
There is a different atmosphere, a different culture across the border. The houses look
different from what they are used to; the language, with a few exceptional dialects, differ. This
contributes to the feeling of being a day out. The container terminal at Emmerich will boost
economic development, though for the time being only on the German side. In order to make
the container terminal more accessible, the two motorways (A3/E35 and A57/E31) towards
the Ruhr area will be linked, enhancing accessibility towards Germany’s centers of gravity.
There will still be Dutch people moving across the border, the prices in Germany are lower
and there are less rules and regulations. However, the lives of these people will predominantly
take place in the Netherlands; Dutch enclaves amidst Germany (Eker & Van Houtum, 2013).
On government levels cooperation is limited. Both regions particularly turn away from each
other, keeping the main focus on national centers of gravity. The region used in this study will
therefore remain peripheral. The population will decline even further, leading to drastic
measures as the demolishment of existing houses. The regions will use the silence and
quietness as a marketing point for the region. Recreation and tourism will be the main benefits
for the regions.
53
On the borderland opportunities open up to build a large windpark, that will benefit the region
Achterhoek as well as the Kreis Kleve and Borken. There has been much complaining recently
towards the building of windmills close to the border. On the German side, many windmills
have been built in order to foresee in sustainable energy. The region Achterhoek and the
municipalities state in their future plans that they want to be a green region. When the
borderland is left empty, room opens up to place windmills on the Dutch side of the border as
well; resulting in a cross-border windpark, demarcating the borderland.
The forest of Montferland will have room to expand. The border is made visible in this forest
as a cultural point of interest. The cross-border forest also has historical ‘border’ value, since
the town of Hoch-Elten once was Dutch. In this forest you can experience the border.
The power of the nation-state is clear again. Both countries do what they do best; resulting in
clever marketing slogans, we can already observe on our televisions now, like that of Persil
‘German Quality’ or Opel ‘It’s a German’ or ‘real Dutch cheese’.
54
8.4 Scenario ‘Doetinchem am Rhein’
In this scenario the border will lose its barrier function. The scenario is based on the scenario
‘Community’ of the book Borderland by Eker & Van Houtum (2003).
The European Union has been proven successful in the way they tried to involve the
borderlands in national politics. The borderlands become regions of their own, with more
influence in what is happening locally. The EU seeks to guarantee free movement of people,
goods, services and capital. These are known as the ‘four freedoms’ for the EU internal market
(Europadecentraal, 2006). Two parallel and related processes have emerged. One is
regionalism, the other globalization; instead of working through national capitals, European
regions are linking themselves directly to the global economy (Newhouse, 1997).
Institutions like municipalities, regions, provinces and the Euregions remain responsible for
cooperation across the border, although the border has lost its relevance. Governments
implemented rules and regulations that exist on both sides of the border, making it easier for
workers and border region-inhabitants to work and live across the border.
The ‘circle’ around Doetinchem and Emmerich is considered to be full in this scenario. The
two cities now form a close
community, with both doing what
they do best. According to research
done by by Marlet, Ponds & Van
Woerkens (2013) proves that
Doetinchem will benefit most if the
border is removed; the second one
from the right represents the effects
on Gross Municipal Product (BGP).
Emmerich is not known for its cozy city center. The center is surrounded by several industrial
plants, giving the center a gloomy character. Since the two cities now cooperate in one region,
and therefore decide what is best for their own; Doetinchem will develop its center further
with a nice mixture of shops and hospitality services, Emmerich will develop its more industrial
site. Logistical sectors and heavier industry therefore move away from the surroundings of
Doetinchem towards Emmerich since there they can profit from the availability of the Rhein -
55
Waal Terminal, the international railroads and the Bundesautobahn A3. The businessparks
surrounding ‘s Heerenberg and Emmerich will increase. Doetinchems businessparks will serve
more of the service sector, providing a boom for the region since it brings higher educated
workers to the region.
The small villages and emptiness of the region will bring tourists, here they can enjoy their
rest, walk along the Montferland area and the Eltense Mountain, but can still enjoy the vibrant
city that Doetinchem now is.
Education is bilingual, given the inhabitants of the region an advantage over their neighboring
regions. Furthermore it will slowly remove cultural barriers that are still prominent between
the two former municipalities. Students are introduced in the procedures of the different
countries. Higher education is still limited in the region, but education in the, for the region
important, sectors is excellent.
This one of kind region attracts many companies and therefor creates new job opportunities.
Less young people will seek for jobs outside the region, since now their region is booming.
This will lead to less population decline, although many of the inhabitants are still of age. The
new generation will have a responsibility to reduce the mental distance of the different country
of the older generation.
56
57
9 Conclusion
In the previous chapters the theory and research data have been discussed in order to answer
the research question of this thesis. In the following and final part of this thesis the final results
towards answering the research question will be discussed. After the introduction an overview
will be given of the previous chapters, after which the research question will be answered and
recommendations will be suggested. Finally, I will reflect on the research.
9.1 Conclusions
First we can positively state that there are many chances for the municipality Doetinchem
across the border. This is not a new conclusion; a similar conclusion was drawn in the work of
Marlet, Ponds & Van Woerkens, and policy makers. In the ‘structuurvisie’ just a single
paragraph consisted of the future plans and benefits of cross-border cooperation. At the
municipality it was already clear that more attention should be given to the possibilities on the
other side of the border.
Both Doetinchem and Emmerich face an uncertain future, although some challenges are
already in process. Demographic changes, the aging and decline of the inhabitants, have begun
to cause problems. Furthermore the consequences from the global economic cris is are still
noticeable. Unemployment has risen and several sectors experience difficulties (UWV, 2012).
Moreover there are many similarities between both municipalities. Although the region points
its arrows towards Kreis Borken, and both municipalities participate in different Euregions,
there is much in favor of cooperation between Doetinchem and Emmerich. The proximity and
accessibility makes Emmerich a more logical partner that cities in Kreis Borken. Both
municipalities see the logistic sector as a solution to problems facing the lack of work for low-
skilled workers, who are plentiful in both cities. Both parties are clear in their statements that
cross-border cooperation is essential for the future.
But maybe, the municipalities could also benefit when the border is enhanced, the differences
between rules and regulation in both countries can have benefits. The borderland is purposely
left free and could function as cultural sights. Furthermore, with more attention given to
sustainable energy, windparks already existing on the German side of the border could be
expanded over the border and contribute to the green character of the region.
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Now I want to present a short overview of the questions asked in the chapters before. As
explained in the introduction the chapters will provide an answer to a key question. To
summarize the previous chapters I will give a short answer to each of the sub questions.
What is the current situation in Doetinchem and Emmerich am Rhein, their policies, governments,
cooperations, economies and interesting places? This question is answered in chapter 3. There are
many similarities between the two municipalities, but the chapter also concludes that there are
ways in which the two municipalities complement each other. For instance the city Emmerich
has an excellent connection via rail and water, with the Rhein-Waal Terminal as most
interesting place for the logistic companies surrounding Doetinchem.
What are borders, border-studies, borderscapes and cross-border cooperation?
This question is answered in chapter 4. It has given us insight in the many theories and ideas
about borders and border regions. Cross-border cooperation is a method the European Union
tries to promote, in order to make the border regions less peripheral.
What is a network and network-theory?
In chapter 5 this question is being answered. The theory of Koppenjan & Klijn (2004) is used in
order to give us more insight in the actors involved and the way networks operate. Power
relations and underlying perceptions need to be addressed to give a clear insight in the
network.
What is a scenario and scenario planning?
Chapter 6 gives us more information about scenario-planning. The method used for this thesis
is the one presented in the book ‘Borderland’ by Eker & Van Houtum (2013). The authors
present three possible scenarios for the borderland; status quo, relevant borders in ‘longing’
and a scenario whereby the border is no longer seen as an obstacle – community.
Which actors play a role with the development of enhanced cooperation between Doetinchem and
Emmerich am Rhein?
The network theory is applied to the case in chapter 7. In the chapter it becomes clear that
there is a tangled web of actors participating in the arena of cross-border cooperation.
Furthermore, all the actors have different perceptions, interests, strategies and sources.
59
What scenarios can be formulated with the knowledge gathered above?
In chapter 8 the scenarios are presented. Starting with an overview of uncertainties and
trends, the three possible scenarios are introduced. First is the scenario of status quo, ‘Logistic
Corridor’, whereby the governmental institutions continue on the same way as they are doing
now, but businesses move closer to another, yet still experiencing difficulties with rules and
regulations. The second scenario, ‘Made in Holland’, presents a future whereby the border
becomes relevant again, but not just as an obstacle or barrier. It has become clear that cross-
border integration is not working, but that it might have benefits. The ambition of the
municipality to be green has much potential in this scenario. The last scenario, ‘Doetinchem
am Rhein’, foresees a future of a local region. Doetinchem and Emmerich integrated in a
common region, benefitting from the strengths they have combined.
Finally I will present an answer to the key question of this research.
What should the municipality Doetinchem do to enhance cross-border cooperation with
Emmerich and could this cooperation face the challenges in the future?
We can draw two possible conclusions
- First that cooperation across the border can improve the economy of the municipality.
Both between firms and on a governmental scale the barrier of the border can be
reduced in order to profit from agglomeration benefits. From the horseshoe to a
circle; a region of Doetinchem and Emmerich. Employment could also be found across
the border; at the firms of Emmerich, or for the Germans in Doetinchem.
The municipality could increase cross-border cooperation by making deals with the
municipality Emmerich am Rhein. Certain rules and regulations need to be adapted, for
instance the acceptance of diplomas. The language barrier could be overcome by
investing in cooperation with the education sector. Bilingual, Dutch and German,
education should be the norm. Local companies in the region benefit from students
who manage the foreign language and are also aware of the procedures in both
countries.
- Secondly, that cooperation could also be decreased. After years of trying to cooperate
in the region, differences between culture, procedures, regulation, language and
education seem to be too large to overcome. The municipality wants to be green and
in this answer much room is open for becoming a more sustainable region. Windmills
60
are a well-known phenomenon at the border and a cross-border windpark contributes
to the green character. The serenity of the region attracts tourist from both countries.
In the Montferland-forest the border could be experienced as does the historical value
of ‘Hoch Elten’.
In the network theory it has become clear that there are many actors involved and they
participate in a tangled network. All the actors are also part in other networks, have different
policy areas and different perceptions, goals, interests and sources. To keep an overview of all
these lines and arenas is a challenge. However, it is essential that knowledge and contacts from
several networks are passed through. There should be one person responsible at the
municipality to oversee all the different links and initiatives, and who could also function as
central contact to connect the different actors, networks and initiatives. Furthermore this
person could ensure that agreements and goals are act upon or if some policy domains require
extra attention.
The scenario study provides us with information about the future. It is clear that cross-border
cooperation cannot be achieved by one sector; when different layers of government,
companies and education work together to reduce the barrier effect of the border, chances
are optimal that cross-border cooperation becomes successful. It is important that consensus
has been reached and sufficient popular support is needed. Research done by Marlet, Ponds &
Van Woerkens (2013) proves that Doetinchem will benefit most if the border is removed,
which provides motivation for this scenario. Then again, to become a green region there is
also motivation to intentionally increase the border.
9.2 Reflection on research
Looking back on the research, there are some things I would have done differently, obviously
looking back is always easier than looking forward. However, I would like to point out some
things for others to learn from
9.2.1 Value network-theory
In this research we used the network-theory of Koppenjan and Klijn (2004). Using this theory
we learn more about the actors and the background of the network. Perceptions, interests
and strategies are often not made clear by communicating with actors; we can find these in the
61
way they behave and act, which leads to uncertainties in the network. Furthermore some
actions that might be puzzling can be explained by the theory.
In this research underlying interest are tried to be identified. I tried to this by asking different
questions and carefully analyzing answers given. It is, however, possible that interest are
wrongly interpreted and that a distort image is created. Furthermore, most of the information
gathered is done whilst doing an internship at the municipality Doetinchem, which could
possibly has influenced my way of interpreting answers given by other actors.
9.2.2 Scenario-planning
Scenario-planning is a way to handle uncertainties about the future. First I used a well-known
method for scenario-planning, whereby four scenarios are established in a matrix. However
this resulted in a puzzling process over what should be the x and y -axes. I first tried to use
borders on one axe, companies versus government on the other axe. But I soon realized that
it is not that black and white. Companies cannot change rules, and government decisions are
always of importance. Then I decided to use the theory as presented in the book ‘Borderland’,
for the case this was a logical decision. The book presented ways in which the borderland
could be seen in the future. But since we are still just speculating in the creation of scenarios
this method is just a story. Scenarios might give uncertainties a place, but cannot take it away.
Scenarios cannot predict the future; it can only give certain possibilities.
9.2.3 Used methods
For this research several methods have been used. First and foremost I followed a four months
internship at the municipality Doetinchem. Most of the information used in this research is
gathered during my stay there. Of course, this results in a bit of a one-sided view of the
possible cross-border cooperation between Doetinchem and Emmerich, since I did not spend
an equal amount of time at the municipality Emmerich am Rhein. My lens is thus colored in
favor of Doetinchems efforts.
I have done an extended document analysis in order to get insight in the problems facing the
municipality and the region. Unfortunately the main document used for the municipality
Emmerich am Rhein dated back to 2006. This is the last ‘Leitbild’ that the municipality
62
presented, but does not elaborate on the problems after the economic crisis, since the crisis
did not set in for another 2 years.
Also I have spoken to many actors involved in cross-border cooperation. However, for a more
complete picture I would definitely had to do more in-depth interviews.
9.3 Recommendations
Considering the literature, the date and the conclusions that have been drawn, the following
part of this thesis will contain recommendations for the municipality and for improvement.
9.3.1 Suggestion for the Municipality Doetinchem
There should be one person who is responsible for maintaining and forming cross -
border cooperation. Now different policy domains work with different policy domains
across the border. There is no overview of who is doing what across the border. This
person will remain an overview, is the central contact, generate links and communicate
from the inside out.
A link should be created with people in Emmerich, to establish direct contact.
Known networks should be made transparent and comprehensible.
The differences in systems should be made transparent and comprehensible;
differences in information, certificating, diplomas and building- and milieu regulations.
Differences in rules and regulations should be put into perspective.
It should become clear what differences in culture and mentality exist in order to
prevent inconveniences.
Investments should be made in projects and programs to boost bilingual education.
Dutch students should be stimulated to study in Germany. This will result in
maintaining students in the region and boost local economy. Possibly masterclasses
‘German culture and language’ should be facilitated.
When links are improved and more cross-border connections are made, new
attention should be given to a public transport line between Doetinchem and
Emmerich.
The possibility of withdrawal from to much cross-border cooperation should be
considered. The creation of an empty borderland and large windparks could also be a
good alternative for future development.
63
9.3.2 Suggestion for improvement
This research could have been improved if an equal amount of time was spent at the
municipality Emmerich am Rhein, to get a more detailed insight in the workings of the
municipality, its standpoints and its views. Also the municipality Doetinchem had a quite
colored view of the willingness of the municipality Montferland. According to many people I
have spoken over the course of the internship I have heard several times that the municipality
Montferland is only willing to participate in cooperation’s if it will benefit their one
municipality. Sometimes Montferland sits at the table with city-region Arnhem Nijmegen,
sometimes with the Achterhoek. According to Gerritsen (2014) the municipality is not
interested in putting in the work for improving the entire region. Van Dinter (2014), rightfully,
states that it is not a point of willingness but of a short viewed eye. This is an example of how
staying in one place can give a certain lens.
More in-depth interviews should be held in order to get more knowledge of the standpoints of
all the actors involved. Now only three interviews have been held, apart from different ‘small’
conversations. When having more in-depth knowledge the scenarios could have been
extended and probably be more accurate.
64
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Annexes Annex 1 Interviews:
Interview with Jaap Berenbak
Function: Account manager, advisor Economic Affairs Municipality Doetinchem
Location: Town hall Doetinchem
Time: 28 August 2014 14.00
Before: After a short introduction in the research and a thanking for the cooperation in this
interview the following conversation started;
Summary:
Jaap Berenbak is advisor for economic affairs and manages account for corporations. He also
takes seat in the business-club of Kleve. First international policy of the Municipality
Doetinchem focused on the town-twinning’s with La Libertad - Nicaragua, Pardubice – Czech
Republic and Raesfeld – Germany. However over the years less focus is giving to twinning’s
and more focus on regional cooperation.
Berenbak was personally involved in the Millennium municipality of Doetinchem. However
when he received other tasks and had to delegate the tasks to someone who did not see this
as a priority. Therefore not much is done with the concept of Millennium municipality.
With Emmerich am Rhein a letter of intent is signed, meaning that the municipalities will
actively work together in promoting their locations. This letter of intent is signed by the
municipalities of Bronckhorst, Doetinchem, Oude IJsselstreek, Montferland and Emmerich and
also by the Rhein-Waal Terminal Emmerich. Whenever companies or organizations show
interest in for example the Rhein-Waal Terminal, they will also learn about Business-park A18
or Euregional Bedrijventerrein.
The problem with cross-border cooperation is for the most part that of the language-barrier.
Other problems, for instance problems in education-forms or rules and regulations could be
conquered, according to Berenbak. On education-forms there is already progress made, the
Dutch school of ‘Graafschap College’ works together with the German ‘Rhein -Waal
71
Hochschüle’. In cases whereby Dutch students obtain for work in Germany, a small
‘Praktikum’ or internship will be done in cooperation with the ‘Hochschüle’ and vice versa.
Continuing Berenbak speaks about an economic Euregion, somewhat a network-construction
between different organizations in the region. The Chambers of Commerce withdrawal from
these cross-border cooperation networks, and therefore a role for the municipalities and
other governments as facilitator is required.
Interview with Werner van Dinter
Function: Account manager Companies municipality Montferland
Location: Town hall Doetinchem – telephone
Time: 29 August 2014 09.30
Before: After a short introduction in the research and a thanking for the cooperation in this
interview the following conversation started;
Summary:
Werner van Dinter is manager over the account of companies at the municipality Montferland
and as such closely related to cross-border cooperation. Many of the logistic companies in ‘s
Heerenberg (Wim Bosman, JCL Logistics, Rabelink, Wincanton, HIT Starintex) chose the
location due to its proximity to the German-border. These companies expect a close
cooperation with the neighboring city and specific the Rhein-Waal Terminal.
Due to the concentration of logistic companies close to the border the region Liemers
(located south-west of the Achterhoek) started the ‘Logistiek Expertise Centrum (LEC)’. The
idea was that the organizations involved could learn from each other and so enhance their
companies. However three years past and it has become clear that the logistic centers where
not so kind on showing their competitors what they have had in store.
When asked about the cooperation in the region and who not and to include, van Dinter was
very clear. It is not about municipalities, he claims, but it is necessary to broaden the view. He
72
speaks about a delegation from Vietnam who recently visited the municipality and it was very
clear that people from Vietnam don’t care what municipality they engage with, but more in
what area (West-Europe, close to Randstad and Ruhr).
Interview with Joke Emaus
Function: Manager external affairs Regio Achterhoek
Location: Town hall Doetinchem – Telephone
Time: 07 October 2014 10.00
Before: After a short introduction in the research and a thanking for the cooperation in this
interview the following conversation started;
Summary:
Joke Emaus is responsible for the cross-border cooperation of the region Achterhoek. The
region primarily focuses on its direct neighbor of Kreis Borken. However there are initiatives
for more cooperation between Emmerich and Montferland and Kreis Kleve.
One of the main goals for the region is trying to stay attractive for young people. Especially
higher educated people tend to move out of the region due to a lack of jobs and opportunities.
This is also true for the region across the border. To tackle the problems arising from the
demographic changes the region has set up many projects; CIVON, ICER, Achterhoeks
Centrum voor Technologie, Fieldlabs, BICON, BIC, CJOOA, Achterhoek 2020 Jong. These
projects all serve the goal of maintaining a viable region. There are also programs in
cooperation with regions in Germany. The first one is with its partner Kreis Borken;
Actieprogramma Regio Achterhoek-Kreis Borken 2014-2020. This project will look at
opportunities to increase economic chances by cooperating with the region Borken. Emaus is
hoping to intensify the cooperation and the eventual fading of the border. For this project
money has been received from the ministry of interior affairs and Interreg V. Further financial
assets are received by the cooperating municipalities, the regions and the province.
Another project consists in cooperation with Niedersaksen and Nordrhein Westfalen; to
create cross border labor market and labor mobility.
73
Emaus states that cooperation in the European Union has its roots in the area. The region
Achterhoek and Twente together with the German Rhein-Ems Kommunalgemeinschaft were
the founding fathers of a trans-border parliament. Today the Euregion has parliament many
members and staff and all are willing to cooperate, despite language barriers. With closer
cooperation, the region will benefit and so will the municipalities.
