Bertolt Brecht by Dr. Azher Suleiman

The AuthorDr. Azher Suleiman is an assistant professor of English Literature, University of Mosul, College of Arts, Department of English. He has been teaching English Literature and Modern Drama for more than 25 years. Books published by the author: Macbeth a translation from English into Arabic. Henrik Ibsen: The Father of Modern Drama George Bernard Shaw Bertolt Brecht

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Bertolt BrechtAzher Suleiman, Ph.D

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This publication is a creative work fully protected by all applicable copyright laws, as well as by misappropriation, trade secret, unfair competition, and other applicable laws. All rights reserved. No part of this publication may be reproduced, stored in a retrieval system, or transmitted in any form or by any means, electronic, mechanical, photocopying, recording, or otherwise, without the prior permission of the author.

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Bertolt BrechtFor the villainy of the world is great, and a man has to run his legs off to keep them from being stolen out from underneath him. (Bertolt Brecht, The Threepenny Opera , Act I Scene 3)

Socio-political Background to Bertolt Brechts Dramatic Works: Hegemony and Consent

A full understanding of Bertolt Brechts dramatic background needs to look at thesocio-political context in which he was writing such as the structure of the state, and the class struggle. Hitlers totalitarian dictatorship imposed complete control over Germany during 1933-1945, which had an enormous effect on the arts, education, religion and politics. Some intellectuals and artists recognized that the Nazi regime was repressive, and that it undermined the high standards of art, literature and science, but the work of those that held these views was highly censored, and was eventually banned. They were given a choice to emigrate or stay in Germany. But to stay in Germany meant that they had to yield to censorship and sacrifice their integrity. Brecht went into exile to Austria, Switzerland, Denmark, Finland, Sweden, England, then Russia and finally to the United States. Consequently, Brechts experience of exile and the cultural values of his time motivated him to create a theatre, which politicalized audiences and stimulated their consciousness through his dialectical influences. Brechts key debate was class equality, where the influence of Karl Marx, Louis Althusser and Antonio Gramscis theories were and still are evident in Brechts plays. Marxist philosopher L. Althusser states that law, education, police, government and the media are instruments of class control calling them Ideological State Apparatuses

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(ISA), which represent the main faade of hegemony. He argues that these institutions govern society to accept a controlling ideology and behave the way governments want them to, resulting in a consenting submissive society which readily accepts a capitalist ideology. He relates back to childhood and our experience of education, Why do children learn at school? They go varying distances on their studies, but at any rate they learn to read, to write and to add [] which are directly useful in the different jobs in production. (Althusser: 1971, 127). For Althusser, consciousness is determined by social existence. For instance, basic social skills such as reading and writing are deemed imperative in order to succeed in most capitalist societies. Not to have these skills is considered a form of degradation and thus the individuals sense of consciousness is affected by the values of a capitalist society. According to the capitalist ideology, to succeed in society we must work for a living, however Althusser suggests that by doing so we succumb to the capitalist regime. He proposes that the workforce is not only engaged in an act of working to receive money, but that workers buy into the idea that they are of an inferior status to the established hierarchy, and as a result workers become a tool of their own oppression, a reproduction of submission to the ruling ideology for the workers, and a reproduction of the ability to manipulate the ruling ideology correctly for the agents of exploitation and repression, so that they, too will provide for the dominant of the ruling class. (Althusser: 1971, 127-128) To extend ones learning is a declaration that one is not knowledgeable enough, however without this extended knowledge one cannot better ones present circumstances.

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Antonio Gramsci, an Italian political theorist, explains that the success of the capitalist ideology is dependent on one part of society owning the means of production, allowing them to dictate how much pay the workers earn; then the working class consents to this regime. Gramsci called this theory, hegemony and consent. Gramsci proposed that to overthrow capitalism the working class must work together to free themselves from their repressive situation, this however would require sacrifice in order to gain long term rewards. Therefore, Gramsci argues that the basis of hegemony is not a rigid set of rules, because the hegemony of the upper class lasts as long as it is able to ensure the cohesion of the system of alliances on which its rule is exercised, and to enlarge it to include the other classes, thus satisfying in one way or another their moral and material interests. (qt. in Pellicani: 1981, 32) Consequently, this repressive regime exists because the lower class consents to it. Influenced by Gramsci and Althussers ideas, Brecht argues that the capitalist system exists because forms of entertainment, education and the law attempt to hide the exploitation of the working class that is inherent in capitalism. Brechts theatre, therefore, exposes these forms of exploitation to encourage the spectator to question societys conventions, and he uses an unconventional aesthetic style to do this, The subordinate classes, [] must acquire consciousness of their own existence and of their own strength. (Gramsci: 1970, 73) Brecht was convinced that Capitalism was inherently a belligerent form of economic and social organization based on internal class warfare between the exploiters and the exploited and on external aggression towards competitors for markets or for sources of raw material or cheap labor. He believed fascism was a 6


symptom of Capitalism in crisis. (Speirs: 2000, 8) Nevertheless, Bertolt Brecht believed that whilst theatre provided entertainment for the spectator it should also engage the spectators reasoning rather than their feelings. Therefore, he used a dialectic theatre that intellectually engaged his audience through methods that echoed Marxs theory, namely that man and society should be re-examined in order to create an equal society. The task of theatre is not to reflect a fixed reality, but to demonstrate how character and action are historically produced, and so how they could have been, and still can be, different. (Eagleton: 2002, 60) Brecht was a committed Marxist (although famously never a member of the communist party) and believed that if Karl Marxs philosophy and social theory could be communicated to an audience, there was a possibility to end class warfare. Therefore, Brechts plays are vehicles for dialectics; they present a situation, which has the opportunity for rational debate within it, and encouraged workers to unite and rebel against a controlling capitalism. Terry Eagleton argues that Bertolt Brecht regards any attempt to define the literary work as spontaneous whole which reconciles the capitalist contradictions between essence and appearance, concrete and abstract, individual and social whole, as a reactionary nostalgia. (Eagleton, 2002, 65) The Hegelian and Marxist prints are very obvious here in emphasizing the role of the dialectical struggle of the opposites to generate a synthesis, which is usually left for the spectators themselves to formulate. The issue of hegemony and consent in the Brechtian plays always provokes the audience to find a synthesis out of this dialectical struggle between the thesis and anti-thesis, which is usually a revolution.

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The Threepenny Opera: The Ballad Opera and the Socio-political Criticism and ChangeBertolt Brechts aggressive political idealism and determination in using art to pose challenging questions about the conflicts between society and morality generated intense controversy throughout his lifetime. Technically, by his late twenties, Brecht had begun to visualize a new theatrical system that would serve his political and artistic sensibility. He saw the stage as an ideological forum for leftist causes and wanted to create theater that depicted human experience with the brutality and intensity of a boxing match. He rejected the conventions of stage realism and Aristotelian drama, which offer empathetic identification with a hero and emotional catharsis. Brecht did not want his audience to feel, but rather to be shocked, intellectually stimulated, and motivated to take action against an unjust society and to awaken them to social responsibility. Many critics regard The Threepenny Opera (1928) as an early example of his epic theatre, and as a point of departure in Brechts dramatic techniques which from then onward underlie all his works. Peter Demetz, for instance, considers this play as a first form of the epic theatre. (Demetz: 1962, 10) The play consists of theatrical innovations designed to sharpen the spectators critical ability and to shake him out of his complacency and expect more from the theater than entertainment. Epic theater uses alienating devices, such as placards, asides to the audience, projected images, discordant music and lighting, and disconnected episodes to frustrate the viewers expectations for simple entertainment. Ideologically, The Threepenny Opera grew out of its young authors experiences in Berlin during the Weimar Republic (19191933), when Germany struggled to establish a parliamentary democracy in the face of economic devastation, notorious decadence, and 8


bitter military defeat. More than ten million Germans were without any source of income, and crime proliferated as citizens were reduced to begging on the street. Horrified by the poverty and mounting violence, Brecht took The Beggars Opera by eighteenth-century English satirist John Gay and re-imagined it through the lens of his emerging dramatic theories. Kurt Weill* was asked to compose the score, and The Threepenny Opera was born. The play satirizes class differences and moral hypocrisy in society as inevitable products of the political system. Furthermore, The Threepenny Opera proclaims itself an opera for beggars, and it was in fact an attempt both to satirize traditional opera and operetta and to create a new kind of musical theater based on the theories of two young German artists, composer Kurt Weill and poet-playwright Bertolt Brecht.

John Gays The Beggars OperaThe term ballad opera is used to refer to a genre of English stage entertainment originating in the 18th century and continuing to develop in the following century and later. The earliest ballad opera has been called an eighteenth-century protest against the Italian conquest of the London operatic scene. (Lubbock: 1962, 467-468) It consists of racy and often satirical spoken (English) dialogue, interspersed with songs that are deliberately kept very short (mostly a single short stanza and refrain) to minimize disruptions to the flow of the story, which involves lower class, often criminal,

*

Kurt Julian Weill (March 2, 1900 April 3, 1950), was a German, and in his later years American, composer active from the 1920s until his death. He was a leading composer for the stage. He also wrote a number of works for the concert hall.

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characters, and typically shows a suspension (or inversion) of the high moral values of the Italian opera of the period. (Wainwright: 2004, 15) Brecht adapted The Threepenny Opera from The Beggars Opera* (1728), a brilliant and popular social satire written by British poet and dramatist John Gay (18651732) (reportedly with the encouragement or assistance of Jonathan Swift and Alexander Pope). Brecht and his collaborator Elizabeth Hauptmann thoroughly reworked Gays script and transferred the action to London in the 1920s. The original production used innovative theatre techniques and relied heavily on the musical genius of Kurt Weill, who wrote the score for the unusual opera. Gays The Beggars Opera is a comic farce, poking accurate fun at the prevailing fashion in Italian opera as well as the social and political climate of the age is concerned. It established a new genre, the ballad opera, of which it remains the only really notable example, though its popularity led to the work Sheridan and eventually Gilbert and Sullivan. Gay cuts the standard five acts to three, and tightly controls the dialogue and plot so that there are delightful surprises in each scene. The basis for The Beggars Opera is that the thieves and other low social people that inhabit Newgate prison are the same as to be found in the government. The play was a theatrical success and became the most popular play of that century. It is a harsh satire that daringly strikes against class distinction and members of the royal court. The harlots, burglars, and cutthroats are more important than the national governors. These low-lives

*

The Beggars Opera is a ballad opera in three acts written in 1728 by John Gay. It is one of the watershed plays in Augustan drama and is the only example of the once thriving genre of satirical ballad opera to remain popular today. Ballad operas were satiric musical plays that used some of the conventions of, but without recitative. The lyrics of the airs in the piece are set to popular broadsheet ballads, opera arias, church hymns and folk tunes of the time.

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have the manners of proper English lords and ladies, and gain power in much the same ways, proving that human nature is a constant throughout the world. It also pokes fun at the judicial system of the period. There was a high crime rate at that time in English history. The death penalty was handed out for the theft of pennies from a person, but acts of murder and arson were mere misdemeanors. In John Gays The Beggars Opera, for instance, the character Peachum was a lampoon of Sir Robert Walpole.* This satirical element meant that many of plays risked censorship and banning. The leading character of The Beggars Opera is the swashbuckler called Macheath. He is a smooth romantic with qualities of both a gentleman and a highwayman. He is a big womanizer. He says I must have women since "I love the sex. (Scene III, 30) He is a paradoxical character that speaks Kings English and dresses well, but prefers to live in the faith and company of cutthroats. He is polite to the people he mugs and steers away from violence. Even though he cheats on the adorable Polly, the spectators still believe his love for her is true. The opening prologue is a dialogue between The Player and The Beggar, who is posing as the plays author. They make humor of the Italian opera. The first scene takes place in Peachums establishment. Peachum sings a hymn about the dishonesty of everyone. Peachum is alarmed at the marriage between his daughter Polly and Macheath. His objection is for purely business reasons, for Peachum is a fence of stolen goods who occasionally informs on his patrons for the reward. He fears both the loss of Polly

Robert Walpole, 1st Earl of Orford, (1676 1745), known before 1742 as Sir Robert Walpole, was a British statesman who is generally regarded as having been the first Prime Minister of Great Britain. (Encyclopedia Wikipedia)

*

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from his business, who he related to a pretty bartender bringing in money from drunkards, and of Macheaths learning of any business secrets. Act II has Macheath and his men outside Newgate. He states his problem with Peachum, but when his gang want to do Peachum in Macheath explains how he is a necessary evil and that Business cannot go on without him. Macheath continues by giving justifications for cooperation with Peachum, He is a Man who knows the World, and is a necessary Agent to us. We have had a slight Difference, and 'till it is accommodated I shall be obliged to keep out of his way. Any private dispute of mine shall be of no ill consequence to my Friends. You must continue to act under his Direction, for the moment we break loose from him, our Gang is ruin'd. (Scene II, 29) Macheaths goal is to trick Peachum into believing he has left the gang, but Macheath himself is tricked by eight ladies who call the constable and have him arrested. In jail he bribes Lockit, the jailer, for looser chains. Macheath however, is a lover of Lucy Lockit, the daughter of the jailer. He promises her marriage in return for his escape and she agrees. The Third Act begins with Lockit discovering his daughters part in Macheaths escape. He and Peachum find Macheaths hiding place and go to re-capture him. As Macheath is brought back into custody, both Lucy and Polly beg their father for his life, but to no avail. Macheath is led off to Old Bailey for a trial. In prison Macheath drinks wine and sings portions of nine songs. Two of his gang come to pay respects and he instructs them to have Peachum and Locked hanged. When Polly and Lucy come to visit he tells them to travel to the West Indies and have a husband apiece.(Scene 14, 66) At

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this moment a jailer calls that four more wives have come to see him and a fellow gang member calls desperately for a hangman because at this moment Macheath will really need one. At this point the Beggar and the Player enter to argue whether Macheath dies or not. The Beggar states that Macheath must be hanged for poetic justice. The Player states that this would make the play a tragedy and operas have happy endings. The Beggar finally agrees and Macheath is released. The play concludes with Macheath stating that he is legally married to Polly alone and there is a joyful dance.

Bertolt Brechts The Threepenny OperaGays satire was an ironic reversal of the royal government and the criminals of old England, which could easily be converted to fit the Bourgeoisie and Proletariat of the twentieth century. In November of 1927, Elisabeth Hauptmann began to translate the English play to German for Brecht. Brechts main dramatic contribution resides in transforming Gays Macheath into his own Mackie Messier, also known as Mack the Knife. John Fuegi emphasizes Hauptmanns imperative role in presenting this dramatic work to the public by saying, Given the existence of this text, plus the fact that Hauptmann was the only person in the workshop to render such complex English into equally complex German, there can be little doubt that at least 80 percent of the fabric of the work that Felix Bloch Erben would soon globally market was hers. Both in a published article and in a recent interview with me, Klaus Volker, one of the most knowledgeable people in the world on the Brecht circle told me it was his view that Elisabeth Hauptmann was responsible for as much as 80 or even 90 percent of the published text of The Threepenny Opera. Though, later, Brecht would work on the text and contribute songs primarily taken from other authors, 13


though the lyrics of the song Mack the Knife are almost certainly wholly his, the fact remains that the text bought by Aufricht and later sold to Felix Bloch Erben was almost exclusively written by Elisabeth Hauptmann. (Fuegi: 1995, 195-96) The Threepenny Opera opens in the beggar shop owned by Peachum. Peachum has taken control of all the beggars in London and runs a shop that outfits the beggars and provides them with a location to beg in. A young man comes in and asks for a job. Peachum makes the man pay him first and then shows the man the five states of human misery before giving the man a costume to wear. Meanwhile, Polly and Macheath have just broken into a stable where they are getting married. The rest of Macs gang arrives and they bring in wedding presents. Everything has been stolen, including the stable. Soon the parson arrives and they sit down to eat. Polly provides them with some entertainment by singing a song. After she is done Tiger Brown the Sheriff arrives, but instead of arresting them all he greets Macheath as an old friend. Mac explains that he and Tiger Brown served together in the war and that he has paid Brown kickbacks on every job ever since. After Brown leaves the men present Polly and Macheath a large bed to sleep in and then leave them alone. Polly returns home to find her parents furious with her for marrying Macheath. She tries to defend the marriage, but they decide to take on Macheath and destroy him. Mr. Peachum tells his wife that he will go to Tiger Brown and make him arrest Macheath. Meanwhile, Mrs. Peachum agrees to go and bribe the whores whom Macheath goes to every week. She is hoping that the whores will turn in Macheath. Polly goes with her father and watches as Brown agrees to arrest Macheath. She then goes back to the stable where Mac is staying and tries to warn him. He does not 14


believe her until she produces the charges that are being levied against him. Instead of being emotional, Mac focuses on his business. He hands the business over to Polly and tells her what to do. Soon thereafter his gang arrives and Mac informs them that Polly will be their boss while he goes away. Matthew tries to challenge Polly's authority, but she threatens to kill him if he opens his mouth again; the other thieves applaud her and accept her leadership. Meanwhile, Mrs. Peachum approaches Low-Dive Jenny, a prostitute, and convinces her to turn in Macheath should he be foolish enough to show up at the brothel. One of Macs men is trying to convince the whores that Macheath would not be as foolish as to show up. However, Mac arrives and sits down. Jenny takes Macs palm and reads it, warning him that a woman will betray him. He thinks she means Polly. Jenny soon sneaks out while Mac is talking with the whores and gets the police and Mrs. Peachum. Constable Smith enters and tries to arrest Mac, who knocks the man down and jumps out the window. Unfortunately for him, Mrs. Peachum is standing there with the other police officers. They take him away. Now in prison, Mac is afraid that Tiger Brown will learn that he has been playing around with Browns daughter Lucy. She soon arrives and is horrified to see him in jail. To complicate matters further, Polly arrives and also claims Mac as her husband. Both women argue; Lucy indicates that she is pregnant and therefore has a better claim to Mac, but Polly is legally married to him and she has papers to prove it. Mac chooses to support Lucy instead of Polly because he is more afraid of Tiger Brown. Mrs. Peachum then arrives and drags Polly away. Lucy, happy to finally be alone with Mac again, hands him his hat and cane and leaves. When Constable Smith returns he tries to get the cane,

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but Mac is faster than he is and manages to escape. Brown enters the cell and is relieved to see it empty. However, Peachum also arrives and threatens to disrupt the coronation if Brown does not find Macheath and arrest him again immediately. That night Peachum outfits his beggars with signs and clothes in an effort to ruin the coronation parade the next morning. The whores arrive, led by Jenny, and ask for their reward for turning in Macheath. Peachum refuses to pay them on the grounds that Mac escaped already. Jenny, in a fit of rage, tells them that Mac is a far better man than any of them. She then accidentally reveals that Mac had gone straight to her place and comforted her, and that he is now with another whore named Suky Tawdry. Peachum is elated by this information and promises to give the whores the reward money. He sends one of his beggars to get the police. Tiger Brown arrives only a few minutes later. Brown has decided that rather than arrest Macheath it would be far easier for him to arrest Peachum and all the beggars, thereby preventing them from ruining the coronation. Peachum merely ignores Browns threats and points out that there are far more beggars than there are police. He asks Brown point-blank how if would look if several hundred men were clubbed down on the day of the procession. Unable to arrest Peachum, Brown realizes that he is caught in a bind. Peachum then demands that Brown arrests Macheath and gives him the address where Macheath is staying. Peachum lastly sends the beggars to the jail rather than that coronation. Polly goes to visit Lucy in an effort to find out where Mac is. It turns out that neither of them knows his whereabouts, causing Polly to laugh and state that Mac has stood them both up. They soon hear a noise in the hallway and realize that Mac has been

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rearrested. Mrs. Peachum shows up with widows clothing and makes Polly change into it. The next morning, the same day the coronation procession is set for, Macheath is brought out of his cell and locked into a public cell. He is going to be hung at six in the morning, and has only an hour to live. He offers Smith one thousand pounds in cash if Smith will let him escape, but Smith refuses to make any promises. Mac asks Jake, Matthew and Polly for money; they say that it will be hard to get anything so early in the morning but leave promising to find something. Having failed to get the money, Smith refuses to help Macheath. Soon thereafter all of the characters return and stand next to the cage. Jake and Matthew apologize for not getting the money in time and tell Mac that all the other crooks are stealing elsewhere. Even the whores have showed up to watch him die. Mac gives a last speech in which he claims all the small crooks are being pushed aside by corporate interests. Peachum then stands up and gives the final speech, arguing that since this is an opera and not real life, they will save Macheath. Brown enters in the form of a mounted messenger and brings a special order from the Queen. She has decided to pardon Macheath and to also elevate him to a hereditary knighthood. Mac rejoices his good luck while Peachum remarks that such a thing would never happen in real life. Brecht took many liberties in The Threepenny Opera. It is by no means just a translation of Gays play. The London setting is replaced by Soho in Victorian England. Peachum becomes a beggar king, outfitting, taxing, and reporting on his beggars for the reward. He prays on peoples sympathies and quotes Biblical verses with ironic dark comedy. Scenes are added, such as a wedding scene between Mac and Polly set in a

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stable with stolen goods for the reception. The police chief Tiger Brown, Brechts Lockit, an old army buddy of Macs, stops in to pay his respects. But most important is the changes that make Mack the Knife. The adaptation by Bertolt Brecht was composed in the Weimar Period of post World War One Germany. The World War had harsh effects on societys view of the arts and was the final that toppled the kingdoms of Europe. Starting with industrialism and ending with the war, new classes were rising to replace the aristocracy and peasantry. These classes were the Bourgeoisie and the Proletariat. New art movements called the avant-garde rose to address the new modern society. One of the big changes was in the concept of a hero in plays and literature. Before the outbreak, people thought of war as noble and honorable, a statement of national pride. Wars had to this point been quick, from six to eight weeks in length. But World War One lasted for six long years, destroyed a generation of European youth, and left a dirty scar across the earth between France and Germany that is still present to remind people today. After the disastrous war, in literature, including drama, a new understanding of the hero and heroism began to spring forth as far as the socio-political issues are concerned. The Threepenny opera was one of those great dramatic conversions into the avant-garde. Even though The Beggars Opera was over a century old, this unusual play had everything the avant-garde looked for. Gays rapid change of scenes was similar to the montage effect that Brecht and others were trying to achieve in drama. Brechts version of the character bears little resemblance to Gays Macheath. Gays Macheath is presented in The Beggars Opera as a dashing romantic, a gentleman pickpocket, a Robin Hood type. Brechts Mackie is unmannerly, cynical, and a toughened

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criminal. He is a gangster who refers to himself as a businessman. He praises efficiency, organization, and even keeps books. He stated that the only difference between a gangster and a businessman is that the gangster is not a coward. (Brecht: 1979, 92) Although he never enters the legitimate business world, he tells Polly that in a few weeks he will switch to banking because it is safer and more profitable. Thieves like himself are being edged out of the market by business and banks: We lower middle-class artisans who toil with our humble jimmies on small shopkeepers cash registers are being swallowed up by big corporations backed by the banks. Whats a jimmy compared with a share certificate? Whats breaking into a bank compared with founding a bank? Whats murdering a man compared with employing a man? (Scene 9, 76) Furthermore, Brecht turns Mack into a scoundrel who kills eleven people, seven children, two women and two old men and rapes a young widow all in one song and he continues to be immortalized in this song. He has become thoroughly bourgeoisie, not like Gays dashing romantic hero. In his notes to The Threepenny Opera, Brecht states that, the bandit Macheath must be played as bourgeois phenomenon. (Brecht: 1979, 92) Therefore, Brecht presents him as a short, stocky man of about forty with a head like a radish, a bit bald but not lacking dignity. (Brecht: 1979, 92) Brechts new style of theater allowed for the play to be more brutally harsh in its satirical attacks on the class than Gays play could achieve. Brecht allowed the audience to observe, judge, and decide how things could and should be different where as Gays audience got too involved with the characters follies. (Esslin: 1977, 133) Brecht offers alternatives in life rather than Gays mocking characters that just make the viewer laugh

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at their folly. Brecht wanted to make his characters amoral, but not immoral. Morality has nothing to do with action. To emphasize this point he switched the goals of his characters to be food and money, not power and like in Gays play. If there is a choice between morality and bread, it would be bread. It is not just coincidence that this sounds like Marxist theory, but Brecht did not have a utopian view like communists in Russia. He did however, have strong anti-capitalist views. In Brechts version, Peachum is no longer just an underworld dealer of stolen goods. Now, he is a tight-fisted capitalist who has built an industry of begging and regulates his myriad panhandler and pickpocket employees in their various professional endeavors throughout the London streets. His business is based upon the principle that hypocrisy is a marketing technique: I discovered that though the rich of this earth find no difficulty in creating misery, they cant bear to see it. Because they are weaklings and fools just like you. They may have enough to eat till the end of their days, they may be able to wax their floors with butter so that even the crumbs from their tables grow fat. But they cant look on unmoved while a man is collapsing from hunger, though of course that only applies so long as he collapses outside their own front door. (III, vii, 59) Peachum thus reveals himself a player in the very system he seeks to exploit. In Act One, Scene Three, Brecht introduces one of the most ironic moments in the play by having Peachum fire a beggar for eating too much. The reader or observer does a doubletake at this moment; after all, how can you become an out of work beggar except in a world where capitalism has taken over every aspect of society to such a degree that existence is no longer possible except within the system. Brecht subtly criticizes the 20


excesses of capitalism by showing a world where even begging is a profession that has its own rules and ethics. Brecht affirms that the character of Jonathan Peachum is not to be resumed in the stereotyped formula miser, (Brecht: 1979, 91) otherwise this character will lose its implication as the sharpest critiques of bourgeois society, who does not seek to change that society, he simply exploits it. As usual Brecht avoids the crude propagandistic tactic of presenting an idealized opposition to capitalism; rather he concentrates on arousing our indignation and inspires us to action by simply showing us a brutal world. Consequently, the synthesis that will be formulated in the modern spectators mind is definitely different from that dramatic presentation of Peachum in The Beggars Opera. The basic conflict in The Threepenny Opera is based on Peachum and Macheath, the former is in charge of all of Londons beggars, the latter is in charge of Londons thieves. Stealing Peachums daughter is thus a social insult, an attack on Peachums status in the London underworld. The theft of Polly will cause Peachum to openly declare war on Mac the Knife in an effort to regain his reputation. Thus, it is not an emotional conflict where Peachum is upset about losing Polly. Rather, it is a social issue. Macheath makes a similar observation as to the hypocrisy of the commercially successful, but from the point of view of one outside of the capitalist establishment. He and Ginny Jenny share a duet commenting on the inherent problem with social moralizing separate from social equality. Macheath opens with the statement: You gentlemen who think you have a mission To purge us of the seven deadly sins Should first sort out the basic food position Then start your preaching: thats where it begins.

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You lot, who preach restraint and watch your waist as well Should learn for all time how the world is run: However much you twist, whatever lies you tell Food is the first thing. Morals follow on. (II, vi, 55) The song that ends the act is one of the most famous. The line, Food is the first thing. Morals follow on, serves as a basis for much of the action in this play. It is an attack on the audience. Instead of morally judging what Macheath, the beggars, the whores and the thieves are doing, the song tells the audience to sympathize with them. By putting food before morals, Brecht is issuing a call to his audience to consider the actual circumstances of the characters instead of judging them abstractly. Brechts criticism of the bourgeois society of the Weimar Republic, so elegantly set in Victorian Englands Soho, remains one of the great plays today. The Ballad of Mac the Knife became a popular jazz tune in the 1950s and the work has inspired numerous artists. Attempts have been made to update the play, but Brecht himself left it mostly in the original form. It is one of the more difficult Brechtian plays to interpret. It is hard to reconcile Brechts outspoken later Communism with the flippancies inherent in the production, and with the fact that it has had repeated successes in bourgeois theaters. The problems stem from the fact that when Brecht wrote the play he was only beginning to explore Marxism and he did not yet identify with the class struggle. The issue is confused, however, by the fact that Brechts notes were all written after the play and also after his adoption of a committed Marxist stance in 1929. Nevertheless, through its display of the base elements of society, the play brought theater to the people rather than to the elite society.

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The Threepenny Opera is a commentary upon society from the vantage point of the underworld. The people that move across the stage are murderers, thieves, prostitutes, beggars, and corrupt officials. Each character is handled so as to arouse an emphatic response and at no point does the sordidness or immorality overshadow the inherent humanity, frailty, and lovability of each of the characters. Ones sympathy is with these people despite their open defiance of sexual proprieties, religious teachings, and the conventions of justice, marriage, and business. Bertolt Brecht describes people caught, trapped, and debased by life. An unseen thread of implied identity connects them to the world of light. They harshly mirror the weaknesses and limitations as well as the corrupt practices that typify people generally then and now. One of the main questions posed by Bertolt Brecht in The Threepenny Opera is: how are goodness and love possible amid so much misery? Indeed, this and some similar moral and socio-political questions preoccupied Brecht throughout his life. How, for example, can honesty and decency be demanded from people who have nothing to eat? And who, then, will be guilty of the evil they may commit? The prologue is the Ballad of Mac the Knife, which is sung while beggars, prostitutes and thieves are all enjoying a fair in Soho. The ballad describes many of the things that Macheath, known as Mac the Knife, has done. He is compared to a shark with sharp teeth, but unlike a shark he keeps his weapons hidden. Mac the Knife always wears fancy white kid gloves in spite of the dreadful crimes he has committed. See the shark with teeth like razors. All can read his open face. And Macheath has got a knife, but Not in such an obvious place.

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See the shark, how red his fins are As he slashes at his prey. Mac the Knife wears white kid gloves which Give the minimum away. By the Thamess turbid waters Men abruptly tumble down. Is it plague or is it cholera? Or a sign Macheaths in town? On a beautiful blue Sunday See a corpse stretched in the Strand. See a man dodge round the corner Mackies friends will understand. And Schmul Meier, reported missing Like so many wealthy men: Mac the Knife acquired his cash box. God alone knows how or when. Jenny Towler turned up lately With a knife stuck through her breast While Macheath walks the Embankment Nonchalantly unimpressed. Where is Alfred Gleet the cabman? Who can get that story clear? All the world may know the answer Just Macheath has no idea. And the ghastly fire in SohoSeven children at a go-

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In the crowd stands Mac the Knife, but he Isnt asked and doesnt know. And the child-bride in her nightie Whose assailants still at large Violated in her slumbersMackie, how much did you charge? (Prologue, 3-4) The song indicates that Macheath is to blame for killing many men, stealing cash boxes, murdering a prostitute, setting a fire in Soho that killed seven children, and raping a young bride. At the end of the song the whores laugh and a man steps out of their group. As he walks away, Low-Dive Jenny cries out that that was Mac the Knife. The introduction of Mac the Knife immediately sets him up in paradoxical terms. He is represented as a shark with bloody fins and hidden teeth, but at the same time he is described in terms of white kid gloves in order to cover his bloody hands. These white gloves, signs of pure hands, serve as a symbol of bourgeois society. Brecht is essentially saying that Macheath covers his crimes by pretending to be bourgeois Alternatively, this can also be interpreted as implying that bourgeois society commits the crimes and then pretends that nothing ever happened. By transforming the stable into an excessively luxurious room, Brecht again is using bourgeois decoration to hide the murders and thefts. The use of furniture is paralleled by the gang in suits, a comic image since they do not have the right manners. Thus we again see bloody deeds and bloody people parading around as if they were common, normal members of the successful society. One may note that Macheath does not deny his crimes; instead, he acts as if nothing is wrong.

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The fundamental theme that emerges is that business trancends love in this amoral, capitalist world. Love is made fun of by portraying it ironically. Normally a parent would be swayed by arguments of love, but Pollys parents instead advocate divorce for her. When she continues claiming that she is really in love with Macheath, Mrs. Peachum blames the books that Polly used to read. Polly: Look. Is he particularly handsome? No. but he makes a living. He can support me. He is not only a first-class burglar but a far-sighed and experienced stick-up man as well. Ive been into it, I can tell you the exact amount of his savings to date. A few successful ventures and we shall be able to retire to a little house in the country just like that Mr. Shakespeare father admires so much. Peachum: Its quite simple. Youre married. What does a girl do when shes married? Use your head. Well, she gets divorced, see. Is that so hard to figure out? Polly: I dont know what youre talking about. Mrs. Peachum: Divorce. Polly: But I love him. How can I think of divorce? Mrs. Peachum: Really, have you no shame? Polly: Mother, if youve ever been in love Mrs. Peachum: In love! Those damn books youve been reading have turned your head. (I, iii, 30) This attitude converts love into a form of business deal; there is no point in marrying unless you gain something financially. Polly realizes this and tries to point out to her parents that Macheath is financially well off, however, since he is a competitor to her father, Peachum chooses instead to take this opportunity to ruin Macheath.

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The reduction of love to mere business is furthered by Polly in her dream. She remarks that she dreamt about the moon, a symbol of her and Macs love. Oh, last night I had a dream. I was looking out the window and I heard laughter in the street, and when I looked out I saw our moon and the moon was all thin like a worn-down penny. (II, iv, 39) The moon is equated to a worn-down penny. This gives love two meanings and references, the first being that it equates love with capitalism. Second, love is compared to something old and not worth very much. This belief that love is worthless is held by all of the characters except for Polly who seems to the only character struggling to achieve worthwhile emotions. In Act Three, Scene Eight, the falseness of love and marriage is dealt with throughout the scene. Lucy, the Sheriffs daughter, admits that she lied about being pregnant and shows Polly the cushion. Oh, thats magnificent! Is it a cushion? Oh, you really are a hypocritical strumpet! (III, viii, 68) At the end, Mrs. Peachum has the gall to enter and make Polly dress as a widow before Macheath is even dead. Ha, Polly, so this is where I find you. You must change your things, your husband is being hanged. Ive brought your widows weeds. [Polly changes into the widows dress.] Youll be a lovely widow. But youll have to cheer up a little. (III, viii, 69) This brutal disruption of the sentimental interaction between Lucy and Polly serves again to make the audience feel less pity for Polly. The image of her as a sad, broken wife does not hold very long either; when Mac asks her for money in the last scene she is brilliantly evasive, implying that she has taken over his business and kept the money.

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Another example of that business supercedes love, marriage and other sentimentalities is presented in the cell meeting between Brown and Mac. Brown visits Mac in the cell to settle up their business first. Mac even explicitly states, The accounts, sir, if you please, the accounts. No sentimentality. (III, viii, 73) When Brown agrees, Mac yells at him for only caring about money. Macs final speech is quite important. In the speech he accuses big business of doing exactly what he does, namely being a thief. The only difference is that the big companies do it with more money and legally. Whats a jemmy compared with a share certificate? Whats breaking into a bank compared with founding a bank? (III, viii, 76) Actually, this is what he was planning to do: Mac wanted Polly to take the money and set up a bank with it, thereby getting rid of his men and entering a more reliable business. Lucy brings up the issue of class for the first time in the play. She tells Polly You should have stuck to your own class of people, dear Miss. (III, viii, 67) Lucy is implying that Polly married outside of her own class. The question then is which direction did she marry, up or down? The answer is not obvious because her parents are actually in a similar profession to that of Macheath. However, Polly clearly interprets it as meaning that she married down. She elevates herself into the business class by stating, I should have kept everything on a strict business footing. (III, viii, 67) This line has another meaning, though. It serves to accuse the bourgeois class, i.e. the business class, of being unemotional and marrying only for money. The issue of class re-emerges when the Queen raises Mac to the hereditary peerage. By giving him a knighthood she elevates him into the highest class, the leisurely class of aristocracy with guaranteed income. This further undermines the issues of class

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present in the play; Mac manages to leapfrog the bourgeois society and lands comfortably in the aristocratic class. It also serves as yet another sardonic commentary on Brechts own society which he saw rewarding people he considered to be criminals. Brown: I bring a special order from our beloved Queen to have Captain Macheath set at liberty forthwith [All cheers] as its the coronation, and raised to the hereditary peerage. [Cheers] The castle of Marmarel, likewise a pension of ten thousand ponds, to be his in usufruct until his death. To any bridal couples present. Her Majesty bids me to convey her gracious good wishes. (III, ix, 79) The songs in Brechts plays deserve some discussion because they are as famous as the play itself. Brechts use of songs does not represent any attempt aiming at intensifying or heightening the conflict of the play, rather it specifically intends to detach the spectator from suspense. Hence, when we argue that Brechts songs are designed in such a manner we do not mean, at any arte, that these songs are forcibly injected as isolated parts into the structure of the play. An examined reading of Bertolt Brechts songs makes one deduce that they are thematically linked to the action. Therefore, such technique helps the audience to question attitudes and behaviour which have been taken as expected and natural. The Brechtian songs always comment on the main action of the play; furthermore, it gives the spectators time to think of what has been said by other characters or by the singer himself since the tempo of the song is slower than that of the normal dialogue. Brechts final goal is that he wants the audience to leave his play with a logical desire to change society. By forcing the audience to not empathize with the characters, Brecht is trying to make people think about the play rather than feel emotions. This objectification of character is requisite for the work of art: Aristotelian forms

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which induce empathy, sympathy, and a perception of heroism, all create the illusion of reality (in actuality, an ideological construct), but only when the audience is at a distance, when they feel no personal kinship with the characters, can the destructive mechanisms of capitalist ideology be exposed and resisted. The songs are nonetheless bawdy, cabaret style works that invert the common perception of opera. The songs serve as social statements by combining high culture with low; they also are an attack on traditional Wagnerian opera. This is evident in the first scene where Mr. and Mrs. Peachum sing a song under spotlight which has nothing to do with their real characters. Peachum sings a morning hymn, basically a call for thieves and beggars to start their sinful employment. Peachum runs an outfitting shop for beggars; he provides them with props and slogans and is paid a part of their daily take. He laments the fact that humans are able to deaden their feelings, forcing him to constantly create new ways of arousing human sympathy. You ramshackle Christian, awake! Get on with your sinful employment Show what a good crook you could make. The Lord will cut short your enjoyment. Betray your own brother, you rogue And sell your old woman, you rat. You think the Lord Gods just a joke? Hell give you His Judgement on that. (Act, I, 5) Brecht here tries to remind the spectators from the very beginning of the play that what they are watching is just a game not a slice of life; it is a mere presentation of actors on a

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stage in a theatre. This is, in fact, one of many Brechtian preliminary attempts of initiating an epic drama and theatre, which will reach its peak and maturity in the 1940s. In Act Two, Scene Five, The Ballad of immoral earnings makes fun of bourgeois society by attacking its nostalgia. One of the main attributes of the middle class is a preference for an idealized past. This is reflected in a great deal of literature, with concepts such as the golden ages, the golden years, or the Romantic period playing a key role. There was a time, now very far a way When we set up together, I and she. Id got the brain, and she supplied the breast. I saw her right, and she looked after me A way of life then, if not quite the best. And when a client came Id slide out of our bed And treat him nice, and go and have a drink instead And when he paid up Id address him: Sir Come any night you feel you fancy her. That times long past, but what would I not give To see that whorehouse where we used to live? But in the end we flushed it down the sewer. That could not last, but what would I not give To see that whorehouse where we used to live? (II, vi, 44-45) Brecht attacks this naive view of the past by having Mac sing about his life with Jenny. Mac makes the couple seem idyllic even though if they live in a whorehouse. Jenny also wishes for the past again even while telling us how Mac used to knock her down the

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stairs. Thus Brecht uses the two of them to combine elements of bourgeois nostalgia with lower class crudity. Brechts theater is intentionally extremely political. (Esslin: 1977, 132) The Threepenny Opera places blame on the capitalist society for the criminal underworld that Gay presented merely in The Beggars Opera as a mirror-image satire of eighteenthcentury aristocracy. Brecht made some stylistic changes, transforming the protagonist, Macheath, into a morally ambiguous hero, emphasizing the parallels between Polly and Lucy Peachum, and creating the character of Sheriff Jackie Brown, a former army buddy of Macheaths who protects his friends criminal activity in exchange for a percentage of his spoils. Brecht writes in his Notes to The Threepenny Opera that, The Threepenny Opera is concerned with bourgeois conceptions not only by content, by representing them, but also through the manner in which it does so. It is a kind of report on life as any member of the audience would like to see it. Since at the same time, however, he sees a good deal that he has no wish to see; since therefore he sees his wishes not merely fulfilled but also criticized (sees himself not as the subject but as the object), he is theoretically in a position to appoint a new function for the theatre. (Brecht: 1979, 90) This means that Brecht is giving the bourgeois audience their fantasy of the criminal world, but, at specific moments, he gives them a dose of harsh reality. Brecht exposes his understanding of death penalty in the play. The dancers will be the ones to face the rich spectators with their hypocritical behaviour, demanding decorum today and abusing them tomorrow. And perhaps through that rudimentary feeling of moral tolerance towards the poor, the ray of hope which shines in this operas chaotic 32


closing moments could be explained. For when it seems that the leader of the gangsters is going to be executed, an unexpected pardon arrives, which moves the chorus to sing: Injustice should be spared from persecution: Soon it will freeze to death, for it is cold. Think of the blizzards and the black confusion Which in this vale of tears we must behold. (Act III, 79) Notice finally how, already in this earliest of works, Brecht is proposing a notable correction of the merciless machinery of justice, and, more directly still, of the death penalty, for this positive penal law seems inhuman to him. Thus, Brecht is not only expressing a profound feeling of compassion and mercy towards that poor criminal, the victim of social injustice, but also a great respect and compassion for every human creature, however perverse he or she may seem. Other critical views mix admiration and doubts of this Brechtian adaptation of the play. Lotte Lenya, one of the stars of the original production (and wife of composer Kurt Weill), recollected about the play in the1940s, Respected Berlin theatre oracles slipped out to spread the word that Brecht and Weill proposed to insult the public with a ludicrous mishmash of opera, operetta, cabaret, straight theatre, outlandish American jazz, not one thing or the other. (Lenya: 1960, xiii) She asserts that he was eclectic and unabashed about borrowing from other cultural sources as part of his own creative genius. Lenya describes what was Brechts tendency, As his admirers have it: to adapt, reinterpret, re-create, magnificently add modern significance; or in his detractors eye: to pirate, plagiarize, shamelessly appropriate to borrow at will from the vanished greats like Marlowe and Shakespeare and

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Villon, and even from his actual or near contemporaries like Kipling and Gorky and Klabund. (Lenya: 1960, V) As such, when the idea came to him to resurrect The Beggars Opera but in a satirical manner that would ultimately highlight Brechts socialist ideals, the borrowing of Gays story and characters was not only convenient, it was quite appropriate. After all, Gays original production had been laced with political satire itself. To conclude, all these dramatic modifications have been made to suit and serve two main purposes: the Brechtian ideological attitude of how human relations are affected or determined by economic, social and political forces and that is one of the main themes of The Threepenny Opera, and to borrow from opera a dramatic form and adapt it so that it reached to a new audience; and in so doing they created a new type of musical theatre.

The Good Woman of Setzuan: Goodness vs Money, Greed and PowerThe Good Woman of Setzuan*, written during Brechts exile and set in Communist China, is a parable of a young woman torn among goodness, money, greed and power, between obligation and reality, love and practicality, and between her own needs and those of her friends and neighbors. The story of the play is dramatized by Brecht from an old Chinese parable. The play consists of an epilogue and ten fragmentary Acts. The various situations of the play deal with the idea of changing a world where goodness cannot exist by itself amidst money, greed and power. Therefore, the basic problem that faces Shen Te is how to be good and rich and yet to live.

*

Der Gute Mensch Von Setzuan was first produced in Zurich, 4 February 1943.

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Three gods descend from heaven in search of good human beings on earth in order to justify the continuation of the world. As they enter Setzuan town, they ask Wong, the water seller, to find someone who can give them shelter for the night. The selfish people of Setzuan refuse to offer a place for these three gods. Only the penniless prostitute Shen Te accepts to offer them a room. The next morning the three gods show their gratitude by giving her a thousand silver dollars, which sets her up with a petitbourgeois status.(Thomson and Sacks: 2002, 121) Shen Te, then, buys a tobacco shop but she is immediately surrounded by parasites, would-be relations, and beggars who threaten to bankrupt her. To protect herself, she disguises as a brutal males cousin, Shui Ta. Shui Ta manages to drive the sponger away. But the situation is more complicated when Shen Te saves Yang Sun, the unemployed airman, from suicide and she falls in love with him. After their marriage, Shen Te learns that Yang Sun is only after her money. She is now pregnant, therefore she pretends, as the male cousin Shui Ta that Shen Te is away on a journey. In order to provide her future child with a good standard of living, she starts a tobacco factory and then she becomes the king of tobacco. Shui Ta employs Yang sun who becomes a foreman and begins to exploit the workers by making them work harder. Shen Tes long absence arouses suspicion. Shui Ta is arrested and accused of imprisoning Shen Te. At the trial where the three gods act as judges, Shui Ta reveals that he is Shen Te in disguise. The three gods are delighted and relieved that the only good person is still alive. But the confesses that she could only have survive by alternatively being the bad cousin Shi Ta, Shen Te:Im telling you Im the bad man who committed all those crimes! 35


First God: [using or failing to use his ear trumpet] The good woman who did all those good deeds? Shen Te: Yes, but the bad man too! First God: [as if something had dawned] Unfortunate coincidences! Heartless neighbours! Third God: [shouting in his ear] But how is she to continue? First God: Continue? Well, shes a strong, healthy girl Second God: You didnt hear what she said! First God: I heard every word! She is confused, thats all! (Sc.10, 105) As Shen Te asked for their advice, the gods told her not to disguise herself too often and to keep being the good woman of Setzuan. After the gods said those words to Shen Te, they flew away. The play is ended and no resolution in the traditional sense is given. Bertolt Brechts The Good Woman of Setzuan has been written as a response to the unjust treatment of the lower classes and as a result, the play attempts to bring the whole issue about social change. The play explains that to be good results in unconditional giving of labor, however this generosity does not give you any position in society. This is demonstrated through the character Shen Te, who tries to please her neighbours and friends, but never receives anything in return. Shen Tes kindness and generosity results in her nearly ruining her business and, in order to survive, she must reinvent herself as her ruthless male capitalist cousin, Shui Ta*. This powerful capitalist ugly face is the only means that can survive amidst greed and voracity. As a result of her transforming into a man, Shen Te is able to regain her status and rebuild a successful business. Brecht believes that evil is not an outside force, but one of human origin, the

*

The name Shen Te, in Chinese, connotes gentle rain. The name Shui Ta suggests the rushing waters of a flood tide. The generous Shen Te rains her small gifts on those around her.

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same as goodness, and, therefore, it is up to humans to stem it. (Abbotson: 2003, 118) This evil lurks in every corner of the play where money, greed and power are interwoven to face goodness in any possible shape. Brecht not only highlights the lower classes constant struggle to improve their lives, but also questions the females inferiority, Shen Te is split into the good exploited female and bad exploiting male. Accordingly, the main dramatic conflict emerges from this socio-political situation. Furthermore, to be kind or not to be kind and to help people or not to help them, are two major powers that push Shen Te to have a decisive attitude to protect her money. She would rather be kind than be wicked. However, as more and more people exploited her generosity, she felt somewhat undervalued and not respected. Her benevolent deeds did not win her others respects but invited more people trying to make use of her. One of the major dramatic conflicts of the play, for instance, takes the shape of class struggle as far as money, greed and power are concerned. As Louis Althusser suggests, Shen Te succumbs to the middle class, a capitalist regime. In order to succeed in society, she buys a shop that will ultimately exploit either the workers who work for her or the people who buy from her. Brechts audience is predominantly petit-bourgeois, who has the potential to become capitalists. The petit-bourgeois believed they are neither being exploited nor exploiting and therefore they consent to the system rather than taking a stand against it. The character Shen Te illustrates the simple step from working class status to capitalist status when her male cousin transforms the shop into a factory. Brechts compelling argument highlights that a good, honest person who pays taxes and looks out for others, is likely to fail in a capitalist society. Like the audience, Shen Te consents to exploitation. Brechts messages are overtly clear; he highlights that to break

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out of this unfair cycle his audience must stop consenting to the system and, as Marx suggests he or she must sacrifice their social situations and revolt against the regime. Thus, the only solution, to Brecht, is revolution. The prologue establishes the basic dramatic question around which the entire play is organized. Shen Te tells the three gods that she wants to be good, but theres the rent to pay. And thats not all: I sell myself for a living. Even so I cant make ends meet, theres too much competition. Id like to honour my father and mother and speak nothing but the truth and not covet my neighbours house. I should love to stay with one man. But how? (Prologue, 26) In the Prologue, for instance, one of the solutions to Shen Tes inquiry how to be good is presented by the Third God who suggests that, Isnt it true she might do better if she had more money? (Prologue, 26) This suggestion will undergo a number of investigations and it will set the action itself in motion. In short, the whole action of the play represents an answer to this inquiry. The gods might well represent the capitalists who offer small ways to help the poor, but ultimately leave them to struggle after their interference. For example, despite Shen Tes desperate plea for help at the end of the play, the gods still proceed to exit on their cloud, First God: And now...[He makes a sign and music is heard. Rosy light.] Let us return. This little world has much engaged us. Its joy and its sorrow have refreshed and pained us. Up there, however, beyond the stars, We shall gladly think of you, Shen Te, the good woman 38


Who bears witness to our spirit down below, Who, in cold darkness, carries a little lamp! Good-bye! Do it well! (Sc. 10,107)

Due to their more fortunate circumstances, they are happy to leave Shen Te to suffer, and sort out her own problems. This may be a metaphor for the middle class who, as long as they were living in their comfortable homes, and visiting the luxurious opera houses, were disinterested in the suffering of the lower classes. But at the same time the gods could represent the spectators, who are distanced from the situation. Therefore, Brecht may be highlighting that the spectator should not float away onto their clouds and forget the important issues raised in the play. Instead, they should engage in critical thought and take action. The spectators should think of an end of the capitalistic powers and of a way to change their world. But in Brechts view, as Martin Esslin believes, [the world] simply cannot be changed slowly and gradually: only violence can bring about really fundamental change. (Esslin: 1977, 233) It is the role of the spectators to reach this synthesis through many theatrical and textual means used by the playwright, and they are usually fall under the technique of Alienation Effect. According to Claude Hill, the action of the play as a whole moves on three dimensions or levels in revealing its theme. First, the dramatic dimension which emerges from Shen Te / Shui Tas encounters and involvements with other characters. Second, the philosophical dimension which is obviously presented in the Prologue and in the several short scenes, which reflect and comment on the action. The third dimension is not seen in the text but is created by the reaction of the spectator, which Brecht frequently stimulates by means of direct appeals and questions, by making the spectator an unseen judge in the last trail act, and by challenging him, in the Epilogue, to find a solution which Brecht 39


deliberately withholds. Consequently, The protagonists judge each other on level one; they, in turn, are judges on level two; and we, on level three, judge level one and, at the same time, level two judging level one. (Hill: 1975, 126-127) Obviously, the last word is left for the audience. Dialectically speaking, Shen Te mentally and physically suffers from her existential dichotomy that it is impossible both to have money and to be good and to continue living. She wants to be good, but she cannot, with her goodness, to confront the egoism and the greed of our abnormal world. Hence, Shen Te the good woman finds that she needs a kind of power or protection. Therefore, she needs her ruthless cousin more and more often in order to reconcile her impulsive generosity with the interests of selfpreservation. Shen Tes conflict then starts. She wants to practice her altruistic impulse without the mask of her brutal male cousin but she finds this ambition impossible in a world of poverty, hatred, egoism, and hardship. Her goodness is unable to drive the parasites away or to resist Yang Suns love although she discovers, as Shui Ta, that he is marrying her for her money. She tells the audience,* I want to go with the man I love I dont want to count the cost I dont want to consider if its wise I dont want to know if he loves me I want to go with the man I love. (Sc. 5a, 71) The only one who can confront all these problems is the ruthless male cousin, Shui Ta. It means that in such a world goodness cannot survive by itself. The conflict of

*

Directing the speech to the spectators by the actors is one of the Brechtian theatrical means to achieve Alienation Effect, that is, to make the spectators conscious of what is going on stage, and ready to use his critical ability.

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the play, according to K. A. Dickson, shows that, individual goodness is not only inadequate to deal with the evil in the world, but, in extreme cases, suicidal. (Dickson: 1978, 141) The wealth is the main reason of this socio-political conflict among the characters. This wealth incessantly brings more and more parasites to Shui Ta hoping of getting a share in her fortune. Brecht sees the need for an analytical spectator who, whilst being entertained, becomes a thinking human being and as a result of seeing a piece of theatre would want to bring about a change. He clearly presents the unfair ideology, in which the working class has to exist. He illustrates that a capitalist society will always corrupt and that abiding by repressive laws will ultimately lead to corruption also. As a result, the only synthesis the spectator may conclude out of this dialectical conflict is that: to exist in a society without corruption, we must live in a society without wealth. As an alternative, we must live in an utopian communist society, where everyone shares everything equally. Brecht would ask that the world be changed so Shen Te can be offered a better option. By this he questions the rightness of Christian principle, being a determined believer in Marxism, which considers Christianity the opium of the people, (Singer: 2000, 28) and unsuitable as a workable social system. In other words, other ethics, morals and beliefs do not work as a solution for such socio-political dilemma. Finally, the conflicts between Shen Tes altruism and self-interests, which are indicated in her tendency to help people, her love story, and her desire to protect her unborn child from need, are not resolved. She tells the three gods, Oh, dont illustrious ones! Dont go away! dont leave me! How can I face the good old couple whove lost their store and the water-seller with his stiff hand? And how can I defend myself from the barber who I do not love and from Sun whom I do love?

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And I am with child. Soon therell be a little son wholl want to eat I cant stay here! (Act 10, 107)

To all these worrisome conflicts and problems of Shen Te, the First god answers in coolness, just be good and everything will turn out well. (Act 10, 107) Brecht seeks the Marxist synthesis of man rather than the Marxist synthesis of the gods. In other words, the will of history, which is made by man, not the will of gods, will resolve all these contradictions. He believes that simple goodness is the natural state of man. He feels that it is only the mechanics of the capitalist society which restrict and pervert this goodness. Brecht suggests, therefore, that man should strive for a society of the future in which simple goodness will be possible. Galileo verdict, unhappy is the land that needs a hero, can also be applied to Shen Te: Unhappy is the land that needs goodness as a virtue; that is in excess. (Hill: 1975, 124-125) Therefore, Shui Ta represents the paradoxical fact of our society: that to be good, man must also be bad. Because of her love for Yang Sun, who is worthless and insensible in return, Shen Te destroys the old couple who lend her money and then need it repaid when the man falls ill. This allows us to question even her goodness, and wonder how much the gods might be to blame by sullying her with money in the first place.(Abbotson: 2003, 122) They forced her to become part of a capitalist system in which she must constantly struggle to keep her head above water, frequently resorting to the wicked practices of her alter ego, and at times having to sacrifice others to stay afloat herself. Brecht wishes us to recognize that when the good are so easily destroyed in this manner, we have come to accommodate evil within the social system, and the humanitarian response should be to seek better justice in the world and make crucial changes. But since Brecht believed in Marxism, maybe it

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takes a new structure of society to change the economic environment and the plights of people.

The Premise of War and Its Ramifications in Mother Courage and her ChildrenWhat are the purposes and consequences of war? Is it for religion, for power or purely for business? Where is the hole once the cheese has been eaten? There are those who use it to make their destiny. Brecht, himself a victim of war, wrote the play in direct response to the escalating conflict in Europe in 1938-39, and it emerged as one of the most significant artistic works inspired by that period in twentieth century history. It is a damning portrait of materialism, where commerce is equated with violence and opportunism makes a mockery of ideology. In the war-torn world of the play, only the scavengers survive; by picking on the literal and metaphorical bones of those who fight (and die) in the name of causes labeled as religious or political. War and peace tussle with each other throughout the pages of human history.* If war is generally defined as armed conflict between two conflicting groups, states, or tribes, then one would have to say that war has always been a part of human experience and is perhaps even a defining characteristic of human beings. Many people have pointed out that peace presents special difficulties. It is harder to define than war and it is more difficult to cultivate and maintain. Aside from being the absence of war, peace is often

*

War fascinates humankind and has occurred throughout history. No culture has ever been immune to it, and the stories and experiences of many cultures around the world combine to create a global view of war and peace. Despite differences in time and geography, many of the sentiments expressed in world literature about war or peace closely echo similar thoughts in the contemporary world. Not only do these stories, some passed down for centuries, allow readers a glimpse into the past, but they also contribute to how the modern world sees war and peace today.

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understood to include the stable presence of law, order, and justice. Law, for example, is the product of centuries of tolerant human experience gained throughout the history of a given society. Justice is the fruit of reflection on the way humans relate to one another in society. A learned sense of justice cannot be acquired overnight. Social order follows from understanding, specifically from awareness that reliable, established patterns of behavior are useful to both individuals and societies. Brechts attitude towards war is derived from Marxism. The Communist Manifesto** is, at its heart, a critique of the corrosive moral changes brought about by the rapid industrialization of Europe. Marx and Engels were highly critical of the new wealthy class, the bourgeoisie. This class made its wealth from the misery of workers, the proletariat, who, for the bulk of their lives, worked up to eighteen hours a day in factories and mines. The authors revolutionary ideas came from their observation that the workers were uniting and educating themselves to better their conditions. Marx and Engels predicted a time when the bourgeoisie would become so corrupt that the workers would rise up against them in a great revolution that would destroy the bourgeoisie and result in a workers paradise. This placed workers in an explosive position, suggesting that lasting peace could only be achieved by starting a war that would completely uproot and overturn European society.

**

Manifesto of the Communist Party (German: Manifest der Kommunistischen Partei), often referred to as The Communist Manifesto, was first published on February 21, 1848, and is one of the world's most influential political manuscripts. Commissioned by the Communist League and written by communist theorists Karl Marx and Friedrich Engels, it laid out the League's purposes and program. It presents an analytical approach to the class struggle (historical and present) and the problems of capitalism, rather than a prediction of communism's potential future forms. (Wikipedia)

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Though Marx and Engels did not directly advocate violence, their ideas, known as Marxism, spread throughout the world and inspired others to attack unjust and corrupt regimes by any means possible. The modern bourgeois society that has sprouted from the ruins of feudal society has not done away with class antagonisms. It has but established new classes, new conditions of oppression, new forms of struggle in place of the old ones. Our epoch, the epoch of the bourgeoisie, possesses, however, this distinctive feature: it has simplified the class antagonisms: Society as a whole is more and more splitting up into two great hostile camps, into two great classes, directly facing each other: Bourgeoisie and Proletariat. (Marx: 1969, 7)

This created the ideal of communismin which each person worked as he or she could and received what he or she neededwhich has only dissipated since the fall of the Berlin Wall and the end of the Soviet Union in 1989. Even though The Communist Manifesto inspired change and revolt against oppression, it also inspired oppression itself, producing some of the worst totalitarian regimes of the twentieth century. Marxism has permanently altered modern views of war and peace. Between the years of 1618 and 1648, the 30 Years War migrated across Central Europe from the original rebellion in Bohemia to its conclusion in Westphalia. Seeing as how this was war so lengthy, it is no surprise that it has left such a lasting mark in history. It must have also left a lasting impression on Bertolt Brecht since he decided to set his play Mother Courage and Her Children during this conflict, nearly 400 years after the event. Perhaps his inspiration for this play came about as he witnessed World War II unfolding across Europe. The political wheels in his head began to turn as he pieced this play together. He did not forget to illustrate the social, political and economical 45


ramifications that come about in a war, including the changing roles of women and children as well as the practice of religion. Mother Courage and her Children (Mutter Courage Und Ihrekinder was first produced in Zurich Schauspielhaus, 19 April 1941) is an anti-war socio-political play, which is set during the Thirty Years War in the 17th century*. It shows a mother who tries to profit from the war in order to help her family, but loses all of her children in the attempt. Furthermore, the term socio-political mainly refers to the dialectical interrelationship between politics and the social environment of the play. Thus, the social circumstances are governed, regulated and directed by the political will and power of the authority. War is one of those political decisions taken by such authorities, which later will turn the whole social life upside down and make its own system and laws. The play opens with a recruiting officer and an army sergeant standing together, talking in the freezing snow. The recruiting officer complains bitterly about the difficulties of recruiting an army. Threatening suicide, he tells the sergeant that his difficulty finding honest, willing men to recruit has led to the loss of his faith in humanity. The sergeant explains, at length, that war is the only way of creating order. This dialogue shows wars effect on the little people. To the sound of a Jews harp, a covered cart rolls onto the stage. It is pulled by Mother Courages two sons, Eilif and Swiss Cheese. Mother Courage is sitting aloft with Kattrin, her daughter, as she sings her opening song.

*

The Thirty Years War (1618-1648) was part of the political upheaval that followed the Reformation which had divided Christian Europe into Protestant and Catholic states and killed off half of Germanys population. In the play, the Swedes stand for the Protestantism, and the Imperial forces represent Catholicism. See: Paul Harvey, ed. The Oxford Companion to English Literature (London: Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1967), p. 815.

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Mother Courage, unable to produce a valid set of papers, explains why she is called Courage (her real name is Anna Fierling): she once drove her cart through the bombardment of Riga in order to sell fifty molding loaves of bread. Mother Courage immediately attempts to make a sale. The recruiting officer, however, is more interested in her son than the belt buckle she tries to sell him. Mother Courage reacts violently, pulling a knife and insisting that the soldiers keep away from her children. An argument ensues between Mother Courage and the sergeant about the rights and wrongs of Eilifs signing up for service in the war. The sergeant points out that he has had a good life in the army, having joined at seventeen, but Mother Courage dryly comments that he is yet to reach seventy. Mother Courage then draws black crosses (signifying death) on slips of paper, and she invites the sergeant to select one. He is shaken when he draws a black cross. When Eilif seems keen to enlist, Mother Courage marks up several more black crosses and has each of her children draw one. She obviously has rigged the slips of paper, but in doing so she proves a prophet. All of her children are to die in the war, and Eilif is about to be taken from her under her nose. Now distracting her by haggling over a belt buckle, the sergeant occupies Mother Courage while the recruiting officer leads Eilif off into the fields. He tells Eilif, Ten gilders in advance and youre soldier of the King and a stout fellow and the women will be mad about you. And you can give me a smack in the kisser for insulting you.

(Sc. 1, 19) Dumb Kattrin jumps from the cart, making hoarse noises to warn her mother of what is going on behind the cart, but Mother Courage is occupied with her trade and pays no heed. By the time she has pocketed her profits, her son is gone.

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The slogan of scene two announces that two years have passed and that Mother Courage is about to meet her son Eilif again. The stage is split in two, with on one side the Generals tent and, on the other, his kitchen. In the kitchen we meet Generals cook, to whom Mother Courage is attempting to sell a capon that she swindled from the peasants in the nearby village. Eilif successfully killed some peasants and stolen the oxen they attempted to hide from the Generals army. The General, absolutely delighted with Eilifs heroic deed, pours him expensive wine. Mother Courage, astonished to hear her sons voice again, comments that the General-being obsessed with the heroism of his troops-must be a very poor General. That is, if good battle strategies were in place, there would be no need for heroism. Mother Courage slaps her son around the face. She does so not, she explains, because he took the oxen, but because he put himself in danger. The scene finishes in the middle of this reprimand, with the General and the Chaplain ominously laughing in the doorway. Later on, Eilif repeats the same heroic action by killing innocent peasants taking their cows a meat for his soldiers during a short interlude of peace, but he is now regarded as a war criminal and executed. Courages second son, the all-too-honest Swiss Cheese, is lost because of her mercantile inclination. She places the value of her business operationher cart full of goodsabove his life. As paymaster of a Finnish regiment Swiss Cheese hides his cash box during a successful attack by Catholic troops. When he is taken prisoner Courage can win his freedom by paying off his ransom. However, her haggling over the price of the bribe costs him his life. When Swiss Cheeses corpse is brought in, his motherto save her own lifehas to deny she even knows him. The Catholic sergeant says, Chuck him in the pit. Hes got nobody knows him. ( Sc. 3, 42)

48


Kattrin is killed as well when she is attempting to warn the sleeping town of Halle from a sudden Catholic attack. She has succeeded in awaking the townsfolk, though she has given her own life in doing so. The slogan of Scene eleven comments on her heroic deed as The stone begins to speak (Sc. 11, 80) referring to her dumbness and her beating on drum from a rooftop. Mother Courage sings a lullaby over Kattrins dead body. It is time for her to get back on the road. The peasants advise her to follow the regiment immediately. Fetching a tarpaulin from her cart, she covers Kattrins body. She pays the peasants to bury her. Mother Courage harnesses herself to the cart, hoping that she can pull it alone, Hope I can pull cart all right by meself. Be all right, nowt much inside it. Go to get back in business again. (Sc., 12, 87) The noise of a regiment passes by, and Courage follows along with it, pulling the cart. From offstage, the song that introduced Courage in Scene One is repeated to end the play. Tennessee Williams has commented, I doubt that any other play has paid such homage to mankinds greatest virtue, its heroic determination to somehow, almost anyhow, keep on pulling the wagon further on. (qt. in Bentley: 1981,120) What Brecht underlines is wars omnipresence in capitalist civilization. For capitalists, war is just a business like any other business, a source of getting money and other economical profits. It is worth noting that at the early stage of the play, the first military deed the play introduces us to, is not really a military conquest but an illegal robbery carried out so that a hungry army could eat. The victims of this destructive machine of blood and death are always the innocent citizens. One of war themes of the play is that little people cannot profit from a war which runs only for the profit of the greater authorities.

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Since Mother Courage and her Children is an anti-war socio-political play, it stimulates the audiences consciousness and states that, men are indeed mostly motivated by concern for their own material and physical well-being (Spiers: 1990, 94). The play explains that war presents an opportunity for profit, ranging from politicians and world leaders through to civilians. Brechts protagonist Mother Courage is a civilian, who exploits the war by selling food and clothing to soldiers, giving her petit-bourgeois status. Comfortable in her status she ignores the damaging effects of her business and as a result her business costs Mother Courage her children. Consequently, Brechts play explains that Mother Courage consents to the system that murdered her children, the harm done to her children is associated with her business dealings. These business dealings, however, are the means by which she attempts to fulfill a mothers obligation to provide for her family. (Spiers: 1990, 99). The audience is not being asked to identify with Courage, although some of them would have been shop owners etc, but to stand back and think about the actions and how they could have been avoided. By placing the action in a historical situation the audience can be made to think: Is this how things are? This is terrible, the suffering must stop. Ergo Brechts dialectics encourages his audience not to consent to such damaging systems. In the Brechtian theatre, themes and dramatic techniques are dialectically welded together to produce the final premise of the play. When we come to Bertolt Brechts epic drama, we actually come to a modern exploitation of the episodic plot technique. The traditional cause and effect plot with its pattern of exposition, conflict, climax and resolution is generally ignored. As an alternative, Brecht should have something rather than cause and effect to connect the separate parts of

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