BEŌWULFBEŌWULF

FROM ORAL TRADITION TO FROM ORAL TRADITION TO WRITTEN NARRATIVEWRITTEN NARRATIVE

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The Dark AgesThe Dark Ages

““A time of bloody conflicts, ignorance, A time of bloody conflicts, ignorance, violence, and barbarism. (23)”violence, and barbarism. (23)”

Very few works of literature exist from Very few works of literature exist from this time period. These were the days this time period. These were the days before the printing press. before the printing press.

There was no unified language in the There was no unified language in the early years. early years.

Stories often featured an epic hero and Stories often featured an epic hero and his struggles in battle. his struggles in battle.

Roman InvasionRoman Invasion The The Romans Romans invaded in invaded in 55 B.C55 B.C. . After Caesar achieved victory, he quickly returned to After Caesar achieved victory, he quickly returned to

Rome, leaving the Britons to fend for themselves. Rome, leaving the Britons to fend for themselves. A century later, the Romans returned and introduced A century later, the Romans returned and introduced

cities, roads, written scholarship, and Christianity. cities, roads, written scholarship, and Christianity. When the Roman empire fell, the Romans pulled out When the Roman empire fell, the Romans pulled out

of Britain in of Britain in 409 A.D. 409 A.D. and it was left defenseless and it was left defenseless against invaders. against invaders.

As a result of no central government, much of the As a result of no central government, much of the developed civilization disappeared as other invaders developed civilization disappeared as other invaders entered the country. entered the country.

The Anglo- SaxonsThe Anglo- Saxons

The Anglos and the Saxons were two German The Anglos and the Saxons were two German tribes that migrated to England in tribes that migrated to England in 449 A.D. 449 A.D.

The Britons were driven to the outer The Britons were driven to the outer providences such as Wales and Scotland as providences such as Wales and Scotland as the Anglo-Saxons claimed land across the Anglo-Saxons claimed land across England. England.

The name changed from Briton to “Angle-The name changed from Briton to “Angle-land” or England. land” or England.

Anglo-Saxon culture took over as the basis for Anglo-Saxon culture took over as the basis for English culture, and the universal language English culture, and the universal language across the country became “Old English.”across the country became “Old English.”

The VikingsThe Vikings

In the In the 790s A.D. 790s A.D. the Vikings from Norway the Vikings from Norway and Denmark invaded England. and Denmark invaded England.

““The Vikings raided, looted, and burned The Vikings raided, looted, and burned down entire villages” (24).down entire villages” (24).

In the south, the Vikings were finally In the south, the Vikings were finally defeated by Alfred the Great, an Anglo-defeated by Alfred the Great, an Anglo-Saxon king.Saxon king.

Alfred unified England with Christianity Alfred unified England with Christianity and learning and culture thrived. and learning and culture thrived.

The Norman ConquestThe Norman Conquest The conflict: After Alfred died, Edward the Confessor The conflict: After Alfred died, Edward the Confessor

took the throne. Once Edward died, he had no children took the throne. Once Edward died, he had no children so the Anglo-Saxons decided to make Harold, an English so the Anglo-Saxons decided to make Harold, an English Earl, king of England. William, Duke of Normandy, Earl, king of England. William, Duke of Normandy, claimed that Edward stated he should be king before he claimed that Edward stated he should be king before he died. A church council of nobles and church officials died. A church council of nobles and church officials decided to make Harold king. decided to make Harold king.

As a result, William waged war on the English and As a result, William waged war on the English and defeated them at the Battle of Hastings in defeated them at the Battle of Hastings in 10661066. Harold . Harold was killed and William, known as William the Conqueror, was killed and William, known as William the Conqueror, became King of England. became King of England.

The Norman Conquest, as it became known, ended the The Norman Conquest, as it became known, ended the Anglo-Saxon rule in England. The once nobles of Anglo-Anglo-Saxon rule in England. The once nobles of Anglo-Saxon England became peasants as Norman nobles Saxon England became peasants as Norman nobles took their place. took their place.

ChristianityChristianity The early invader of Anglo-Saxon England believed in paganism. There The early invader of Anglo-Saxon England believed in paganism. There

was the belief in was the belief in wyrdwyrd, or , or fatefate, and that life ended at death. , and that life ended at death. Christianity brought new hope for the Anglo-Saxons by allowing a Christianity brought new hope for the Anglo-Saxons by allowing a

belief of an after life. belief of an after life. In In 597 A.D.597 A.D., St. Augustine arrived in Kent and created a monastery in , St. Augustine arrived in Kent and created a monastery in

Canterbury. Canterbury. By By 690 A.D690 A.D. virtually all of Britain believed in . virtually all of Britain believed in ChristianityChristianity, but many , but many

held on to Pagan beliefs. held on to Pagan beliefs. Organized schools were unknown, so Organized schools were unknown, so monasteries served as a monasteries served as a

center for learning, culture, and entertainment. center for learning, culture, and entertainment. Many literary works were created in the monasteries, the most famous Many literary works were created in the monasteries, the most famous

being being A History of the Church and People A History of the Church and People and and The Anglo-Saxon The Anglo-Saxon Chronicles Chronicles by the Venerable Bede. by the Venerable Bede.

When the Vikings invaded, they destroyed most of the monasteries When the Vikings invaded, they destroyed most of the monasteries and threatened to extinct all traces of cultural refinement, but and threatened to extinct all traces of cultural refinement, but Christianity thrived despite all of this.Christianity thrived despite all of this.

Mead Halls and Anglo-Saxon Mead Halls and Anglo-Saxon EntertainmentEntertainment

Mead HallMead Hall: large reception : large reception buildings that were a social buildings that were a social gathering space for kings to gathering space for kings to entertain nobles and other entertain nobles and other honored guests.honored guests.

Often large banquets with lots of Often large banquets with lots of food and ale. food and ale.

Entertained by Scops. Entertained by Scops.

Scops and the Epic PoemScops and the Epic Poem ScopsScops: Professional poet: Professional poet They often used a musical instrument and entertained the They often used a musical instrument and entertained the

nobles with lengthy poems. nobles with lengthy poems. ““The Scop’s performance was a history lesson, moral The Scop’s performance was a history lesson, moral

sermon, and pep talk all rolled into one, instilling cultural sermon, and pep talk all rolled into one, instilling cultural pride and teaching how a true hero should behave” (26).pride and teaching how a true hero should behave” (26).– Symbols such as Symbols such as gold gold (symbolizing (symbolizing honorhonor) were often used. ) were often used.

Epic Poems Epic Poems were memorized and recited as an oral art were memorized and recited as an oral art form. They were only recorded after Christianity spread and form. They were only recorded after Christianity spread and the monks in the monasteries decided to write them down. the monks in the monasteries decided to write them down. – Example: Example: BeowulfBeowulf

Lyric PoemsLyric Poems: reflect a more everyday reality : reflect a more everyday reality – Example: “The Seafarer”Example: “The Seafarer”

Characteristics of an Epic Characteristics of an Epic PoemPoem

Beowulf Beowulf is an is an epicepic poem. poem. Characteristics of an epic poem include:Characteristics of an epic poem include:• The The hero hero is a great leader who is identified is a great leader who is identified

with a particular people or societywith a particular people or society• The The setting setting is broad and often includes is broad and often includes

upper and lower worldsupper and lower worlds• The hero does The hero does great deeds great deeds in battle or in battle or

undertakes an undertakes an extraordinary journeyextraordinary journey• There are There are supernatural supernatural elementselements• The story is told in heightened languageThe story is told in heightened language

Other EpicsOther Epics

oGilgameshGilgamesh (Babylonian, (Babylonian, unknown)unknown)oThe Odyssey The Odyssey (Greek, Homer)(Greek, Homer)oThe Iliad The Iliad (Greek, Homer)(Greek, Homer)oThe Aeneid The Aeneid (Roman, Virgil)(Roman, Virgil)

Characteristics of an Epic Characteristics of an Epic HeroHero

Excels in skill, strength Excels in skill, strength and courageand courage

Succeeds in war and Succeeds in war and adventureadventure

Values honor and dutyValues honor and duty Usually has a guide or Usually has a guide or

a mentora mentor Battles demons or Battles demons or

monstersmonsters Descends into darknessDescends into darkness Achieves his goalAchieves his goal

Is generous with Is generous with followers, but ruthless followers, but ruthless with enemieswith enemies

Is a man of actionIs a man of action Accepts challenges and Accepts challenges and

sometimes invites sometimes invites problemsproblems

Sometimes makes rash Sometimes makes rash decisions and takes decisions and takes unnecessary risksunnecessary risks

Encounters women who Encounters women who tempt himtempt him

The Poem’s BeginningThe Poem’s Beginning

o Composed Composed sometime around sometime around the 8the 8thth century (700 century (700 AD)AD)

o Tells the loose Tells the loose history of events history of events that were to have that were to have occurred previously.occurred previously.

o Part of the oral Part of the oral narrative tradition.narrative tradition.

Creating the PoemCreating the Poem

o First, the story line and whole of the First, the story line and whole of the poem was created by a poet.poem was created by a poet.

o Then, the original poet performed his Then, the original poet performed his poem for audiences as he traveled.poem for audiences as he traveled.

o Bards used stories to not only entertain, Bards used stories to not only entertain, but also to retain their culture’s history.but also to retain their culture’s history.

o The stories gradually spread from village The stories gradually spread from village to village, bard to bardto village, bard to bard

The Poets’ TellingsThe Poets’ Tellings

o As the story of As the story of BeowulfBeowulf became became popular, it was told popular, it was told and retold by other and retold by other performers and performers and bards.bards.

o This is what the first This is what the first three lines of the three lines of the poem sound like in poem sound like in Old English.Old English.

Map of Anglo Saxon England courtesy of Map of Anglo Saxon England courtesy of www.bible-researcher.comwww.bible-researcher.com

What What BeowulfBeowulf Sounds Like Sounds Like

Hwæt! Wē Gār-dena   in geār-dagum, Hwæt! Wē Gār-dena   in geār-dagum, þēod-cyninga,         þrym gefrūnon, þēod-cyninga,         þrym gefrūnon, hū ða æþelingas    ellen fremedon. hū ða æþelingas    ellen fremedon.

So, The Spear-Danes in days gone bySo, The Spear-Danes in days gone by

and the kings who ruled them had courage and and the kings who ruled them had courage and greatness.greatness.

We have heard of those princes’ heroic campaigns.We have heard of those princes’ heroic campaigns.

Sound from www.engl.virgina.eduSound from www.engl.virgina.edu

The Poet’s The Poet’s AccomplishmentsAccomplishments

o Early Anglo-Saxons in England had no Early Anglo-Saxons in England had no written language.written language.

o The poet had to compose it and The poet had to compose it and rememberremember it entirely in his head. it entirely in his head.

o BeowulfBeowulf is very complex. is very complex. • stories within the storystories within the story• intricate details of family lineageintricate details of family lineage• centuries-old feudscenturies-old feuds• extremely detailed descriptions of settings extremely detailed descriptions of settings

and events.and events.

Oral Transmission of TextsOral Transmission of Texts

o Since the story was told from Since the story was told from memory, changes occurred. memory, changes occurred.

o Have you ever played “Telephone?”Have you ever played “Telephone?”

Effects of TransmissionEffects of Transmission

o Altered slightly with each telling and re-Altered slightly with each telling and re-telling.telling.

o The collective work of many different The collective work of many different poets and bards by the time is was writtenpoets and bards by the time is was written

o At least two—and possibly more—scribes At least two—and possibly more—scribes responsible for the surviving manuscriptresponsible for the surviving manuscript

o Human interpretation, addition, omission Human interpretation, addition, omission and error can only be expected.and error can only be expected.

The The Beowulf Beowulf ManuscriptManuscripto The Poet’s skill at The Poet’s skill at

remembering the poem remembering the poem and retelling it similarly and retelling it similarly every time led to every time led to BeowulfBeowulf becoming a becoming a complete and significant complete and significant part of the oral tradition part of the oral tradition of Anglo-Saxon Britain.of Anglo-Saxon Britain.

o The original Old English The original Old English text has 3,182 lines.text has 3,182 lines.

o Around the later 10Around the later 10thth or or early 11early 11thth centuries, two centuries, two scribes recorded the scribes recorded the story on vellum, a type story on vellum, a type of early paper made of early paper made from animal skin.from animal skin.

Beowulf Beowulf manuscript from the British manuscript from the British Library online gallery.Library online gallery.

Effects of Transmission: Effects of Transmission: Oral Tradition to Written Oral Tradition to Written

ManuscriptManuscripto Monastic scribes most likely created Monastic scribes most likely created

the written manuscript, since monks the written manuscript, since monks were the first literateswere the first literates

o The The BeowulfBeowulf poet infuses clear poet infuses clear references to Christian beliefs. references to Christian beliefs.

o Pre-Christian elements are still Pre-Christian elements are still present, demonstrating that cultural present, demonstrating that cultural change is gradual and not immediate. change is gradual and not immediate.

Pagan v. Christian ConceptsPagan v. Christian Concepts

Pagan Concepts Pagan Concepts o elaborate Germanic sea-burials, elaborate Germanic sea-burials,

grand feasts in the mead-halls, belief grand feasts in the mead-halls, belief in fate, material rewards. in fate, material rewards.

Christian Concepts Christian Concepts o reference to Cain (used in connection reference to Cain (used in connection

to Grendel), reference to the Flood, to Grendel), reference to the Flood, “God’s will be done…”“God’s will be done…”

Significance of the ManuscriptSignificance of the Manuscript

o That the story was substantial enough That the story was substantial enough to be written down is a testament to the to be written down is a testament to the importance of the oral tradition in importance of the oral tradition in Anglo-Saxon culture.Anglo-Saxon culture.

o The The Beowulf Beowulf manuscript is manuscript is o the only surviving written record of the the only surviving written record of the

storystoryo written in Old English written in Old English o one of the first ever recorded stories written one of the first ever recorded stories written

in in vernacularvernacular (language of the people) and (language of the people) and not Latin.not Latin.

Survival of the ManuscriptSurvival of the Manuscript

o No one is sure where the No one is sure where the BeowulfBeowulf manuscript was until the 16manuscript was until the 16thth century, century, though it was most likely held in though it was most likely held in monasteries.monasteries.

o At that point, it showed up in the collection At that point, it showed up in the collection of Laurence Nowell, a historian primarily of Laurence Nowell, a historian primarily interested in Anglo-Saxon Britain.interested in Anglo-Saxon Britain.

o In the 17In the 17thth century, Sir Robert Cotton, a century, Sir Robert Cotton, a collector, acquired the manuscript for his collector, acquired the manuscript for his personal library.personal library.

Survival of the ManuscriptSurvival of the Manuscript

o In 1700, Sir Cotton’s grandson gave the In 1700, Sir Cotton’s grandson gave the library collection including the manuscript library collection including the manuscript to the nation as a gift.to the nation as a gift.

o On October 23, 1731, a fire destroyed the On October 23, 1731, a fire destroyed the house where the manuscript was held.house where the manuscript was held.

o Though the edges of the manuscript’s Though the edges of the manuscript’s pages were heavily damaged, pages were heavily damaged, BeowulfBeowulf survived.survived.

Home at the British LibraryHome at the British Library

o In 1753, the manuscript In 1753, the manuscript was acquired by the was acquired by the British Library.British Library.

o Since its acquisition of Since its acquisition of BeowulfBeowulf, the Library , the Library has restored the has restored the manuscript and manuscript and produced an Electronic produced an Electronic Beowulf project so that Beowulf project so that readers may see and readers may see and read the original text…read the original text…in Old English!in Old English!

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www.bl.ukwww.bl.uk

TranslationTranslation

o Turning Old English Turning Old English text from a damaged text from a damaged manuscript to modern manuscript to modern English is no easy English is no easy task. task.

o Every time Every time Beowulf Beowulf is is translated, the result translated, the result is slightly different. is slightly different.

o For example, the first For example, the first word of word of BeowulfBeowulf in Old in Old English is “English is “HwætHwæt.”.”

o This one word has This one word has been given countless been given countless translations. The translations. The Seamus Heaney Seamus Heaney translation begins with translation begins with ““SoSo.” Variations .” Variations include “include “LoLo,” “,” “HarkHark,” ,” ““BeholdBehold,” and ,” and ““AttendAttend.”.”

BeowulfBeowulf Today Todayo The surviving manuscript The surviving manuscript

is still viewable today at is still viewable today at the St Pancras location of the St Pancras location of the British Library in the British Library in London. London.

o There are countless There are countless translations of the text translations of the text available in audio and available in audio and print. Of course, you can print. Of course, you can still buy the original Old still buy the original Old English too.English too.

o The story has been The story has been adapted for children’s adapted for children’s books, cartoons, and full-books, cartoons, and full-length feature movies.length feature movies.

Themes, continued…Themes, continued…

ViolenceViolence--this is a bloody and descriptive --this is a bloody and descriptive story. Violence is seen as valid in this story. Violence is seen as valid in this society. Consider the historical significance society. Consider the historical significance behind the violence. behind the violence.

Good vs. EvilGood vs. Evil--the idea behind good --the idea behind good conquering evil is played out between conquering evil is played out between Beowulf and the enemies he fights. Beowulf and the enemies he fights. – Beowulf vs. GrendelBeowulf vs. Grendel, , Beowulf vs. Beowulf vs.

Grendel’s motherGrendel’s mother, , Beowulf vs. the DragonBeowulf vs. the Dragon..

Themes cont…Themes cont…

KinshipKinship--The close relationship between --The close relationship between groups of men like the Danes and the groups of men like the Danes and the Geats. Men who are willing to die for each Geats. Men who are willing to die for each other without question. other without question.

HeroismHeroism--Beowulf is the ultimate hero of --Beowulf is the ultimate hero of his time demonstrating kinship and his time demonstrating kinship and fearless leadership. fearless leadership.

Consider how heroism is defined today. Consider how heroism is defined today. Why is Beowulf still considered a hero Why is Beowulf still considered a hero today?today?

The Anglo-Saxon oral poet also used the poetic device of alliteration.

Grendel gongan,         godes yrre bær; mynte se manscaða         manna cynnes

BeowulfThe Poetry of Beowulf

Find examples of alliteration in Burton Raffel’s translation of lines 1-5:

Out from the marsh, from the foot of mistyHills and bogs, bearing God’s hatred,Grendel came, hoping to killAnyone he could trap on this trip to high Herot.

BeowulfThe Poetry of Beowulf