Benchmarking, Target setting & Evaluation of a Belt … · Benchmarking, Target setting ... This process is very well explained in graph below ... Advantages: 1. No requirement of

DOI: 10.23883/IJRTER.2017.3313.SJSF4 317

Benchmarking, Target setting & Evaluation of a Belt Driven Starter

Generator (BSG) for 2.0 L Diesel Engine

Saurabh D. Belsare1, Dr.H.P. Khairnar

2, Mr. Priyamvad Mishra

3

1M.Tech. Automobile Engineering, VJTI Mumbai

2Assistant Professor, Dept. of Mechanical Engg, VJTI Mumbai

3Adaptation Responsible, FCA Engineering India Pvt. Ltd

Abstract—in the era of today’s polluted cities, hybrid vehicles have become necessary. They help in cutting down emissions and also improve fuel economy. Higher cost limits commercial viability of hybrid vehicles. Hence, a large number of OEM’s are coming up with Mild Hybrid vehicles. This paper explains about one such mild hybrid application, a 12V BSG (Belt Driven starter generator) which works as a smart motor-alternator device. The BSG assists the engine while acceleration, enables start-stop function and also converts kinetic energy of vehicle into electricity during deceleration. This paper focuses onBenchmarking and Target setting of a Belt Driven Starter Generator (BSG) for FIAT 2.0 L Multijet Diesel Engine. Index Terms— Mild Hybrid, BSG (Belt driven starter generator),AGM (Absorbent Glass mat),EFB (Enhanced flooded battery), architecture, SHVS, IDC, FE (fuel economy), ESS (Engine start stop), SAM (Smart Alternator module), Recuperation, torque assist.

I. INTRODUCTION here are various types of Hybrid vehicles available in market. The hybrid Levels (Fig. 1) are

explained below.

Fig. 1: Hybrid Levels [11]

As we go down, level of electrification increases so is the cost of implementation. FE and emission gains in full hybrid are remarkably better than mild or micro hybrid. BSG equipped vehicles come under Mild-Hybrid category. The conventional alternator is replaced with BSG. It assists the engine while acceleration, enables start-stop function and also converts kinetic energy of vehicle into electricity during deceleration. This process is very well explained in graph below (Fig. 2).

T

International Journal of Recent Trends in Engineering & Research (IJRTER)

Volume 03, Issue 06; June - 2017 [ISSN: 2455-1457]

@IJRTER-2017, All Rights Reserved 318

Fig.2: BSG Functions[25]

As engine is switched off every time we come to stop, fuel is saved. While accelerating, BSG supplements to engine torque (e-Boost function) thus help toreduces fuel consumption. While it draws energy from battery to accelerate, it also restores energy through regenerative braking during deceleration.

II. 12V VS 48V BSG SYSTEM ARCHITECTURE

Currently worldwide there are two types of BSG system architectures present in automotive industry. A. 12V BSG B. 48V BSG A. 12V BSG Architecture:

This architecture can be classified as: a. Single Battery system (lead acid) b. Dual Battery System (lead acid + Lithium ion) c. Dual Battery System (lead acid + Lead Acid) a. Single Battery system (lead acid) : Single battery architecture (Fig. 3) as used invehicles like Maruti Suzuki Ciaz SHVS. It uses single 12V 70Ah Enhanced flooded Battery which supports vehicle electrical loads as well as supplements engine torque during acceleration phase.

Fig. 3:SHVS Suzuki - Single Battery - 12V Enhanced Flooded Lead Acid battery (70Ah) [12]

b. Dual Battery System (lead acid + Lithium ion): Dual battery architecture (Fig. 4) as used in vehicles like Suzuki baleno ISG (UK market). It uses 12V 55 Ah conventional flooded Battery which supports vehicle electrical loads and BSG start-stop function in combination with 12V 3Ah Li-ion Battery supporting further BSG load (torque assist and recuperation).




Fig. 4:SHVS Suzuki - Dual Battery (12V Flooded Lead Acid battery (55Ah) + 12 V Li-ion (3Ah) [13]

c. Dual Battery System (lead acid + Lead Acid): This type of Dual battery architecture is used in vehicles like Nissan Serena Hybrid [14] (Japan & Malaysia market). Nissan Serena uses 12V / 27 Ah Normal flooded Battery who supports auxiliary loads and another 12V / 65 Ah conventional flooded battery for BSG torque assist, regeneration and start-stop function. The pros and cons of using 12V BSG architecture are [18]: Advantages: 1. No requirement of mandatory DC-DC converter (to connect 48V grid to 12V). 2. For small systems 12V is convenient because 12V DC loads can run directly from the batteries. 3. 7-8% improvement in fuel economy. 4. Cost effective. 5. Simple adaptation in absence of any major modifications needed. Dis-advantages: 1. At 12V standard (14V charging at 300A), maximum of 3kW power is available from a motor-generator due to which e-assist, regeneration functionality is limited. 2. While considering high current losses, it constrains the electrical power and torque available. 3. it also constrains kinetic and thermal energy recovery hence Low recuperation power. B. 48V BSG Architecture (Dual Battery):

This is more complex architecture as it includes two different system voltages and DC-DC converter is required to balance load on both sides. As explained in Fig. 5, auxiliary loads run on 12V battery while power intensive loads like 48V BSG, electric turbocharger, active chassis runs on 48V grid.

Fig. 5: Dual Battery 48V BSG system [14]




The pros and cons of using 48V BSG architecture are [28]: Advantages: 1. A nominal 48V grid (54V charging at 300A), maximum of 16 kW power is available from a motor-generator for enhanced e-assist and regeneration. 2. DC voltage remains well below the safety critical level of 60V. 3. High recuperation Power. 4. 15-20% improvement in FE. 5. Power intensive auxiliaries like electric turbocharger, AC compressor, and active chassis systems can run on 48V grid. Dis-advantages: 1. Need of DC-DC converter (to connect 48V grid to 12V). 2. 48V Li-ion battery is required which is costly. 3. Depending on Battery size, separate battery cooling arrangement is required. 4. Cost of additional equipment increases total cost. Hence, it is shown that selection of BSG architecture is highly dependent on availability of required battery as well as feasibility of added cost. The following section explains in detail various battery technologies used for mild hybrid applications.

III. BATTERY TECHNOLOGIES FOR MILD-HYBRIDS

Mild-Hybrids are new for Indian Market but there are quite a few mild-hybrid vehicles available worldwide and following are the battery technologies used for them. A. Lead Acid Battery Technologies: a. Flooded (Wet cell) Battery b. Enhanced Flooded Battery c. AGM Battery B. Lithium-ion Battery Each battery Technology is explained in brief below: A. a. Flooded (Wet cell) Starter Battery:

Flooded Starter Battery has simple construction (fig. 6) with Pb & PbO2electrodes flooded with Sulfuric acid.Deep discharging causes erosion of electrodes reducing life and performance of Battery. Application:Primary vehicle battery

Fig. 6: Flooded Battery (sealed and vented) [15]




Fig. 7: Enhanced Flooded Battery (EFB) [16]

A. b. Enhanced Flooded Battery(EFB):

In contrast to conventional wet-cell batteries, EFB batteries feature a unique polyester scrim (Fig. 7). The scrim holds the active electrode material in place inside the plate. This reduces the loss of active material and Results in higher cyclic stabilitylife (2X than regular flooded battery). Also improves charge acceptance and discharge ratings. Application:Start-stop application.

Fig.8: AGM Battery [17]

A. c. Absorbent Glass Mat (AGM) Battery:

AGM batteries differ from flooded lead acid batteries in that the electrolyte is held in the glass mats, as opposed to freely flooding the plates (Fig. 8). Very thin glass fibers are woven into a mat to increase surface area enough to hold sufficient electrolyte on the cells for their lifetime. AGM technology prevents corrosion due to acid stratification.It provides highest Performance among all batteries. Ithas extreme cycle life (3X than regular flooded battery)&is spill-proof. Electrolyte held in glass fleece separator exerts a uniformly high contact pressure & allows for fast charging and discharging. Application:Micro-mild-hybrid vehicles.

International Journal of Recent Trends in Engineering & Res

A. d. Lead acid batteries construction

Fig. 9: Flooded & EFB (sealed and Vented)

Fig. 10: Absorbent Glass Mat(

In Flooded & EFB Batteries, Hydrogen and Oxygen can escape and acid level decreases even if it is sealed (Fig. 9). AGM Battery uses a recombination reaction (H2O formation) to prevent the escape of hydrogen and oxygen gases normally lost in a flooded leadapplications) (Fig. 10). B. Lithium-ion Battery:

Li-ion battery has higher charge density than Lead acid batteries. In Lielectrodes made of Lithiated form of a transition metal oxide (lithium cobalt oxidelithium manganese oxide LiMn2O4). Negative electrode is made Electrolyte used is solid lithium-salt electrolytes (LiPF(ether) (Fig. 11).

Fig. 11


Volume 03, Issue 06; June - 2017

. Lead acid batteries construction comparison:

: Flooded & EFB (sealed and Vented) [20]

Absorbent Glass Mat(AGM) Battery [20]

gen and Oxygen can escape and acid level decreases even if it is

AGM Battery uses a recombination reaction (H2O formation) to prevent the escape of hydrogen and oxygen gases normally lost in a flooded lead-acid battery (particularly in de

ion battery has higher charge density than Lead acid batteries. In Li-ion battery, Positive form of a transition metal oxide (lithium cobalt oxide

. Negative electrode is made of Carbon (C), usually graphite (Csalt electrolytes (LiPF6, LiBF4, or LiClO4) and organic solvents

Fig. 11: Lithium-ion Battery Electrodes [21]


[ISSN: 2455-1457]

gen and Oxygen can escape and acid level decreases even if it is

AGM Battery uses a recombination reaction (H2O formation) to prevent the escape of hydrogen acid battery (particularly in deep cycle

ion battery, Positive form of a transition metal oxide (lithium cobalt oxide-LiCoO2 or

of Carbon (C), usually graphite (C6). ) and organic solvents




Advantages with respect to lead-acid batteries: � Higher charge density (150-250 Wh/kg). � Less sensitive to high temperatures (specially with solid electrolytes) � Lighter (compare Li and C with Pb) � They do not have deposits every charge/discharge cycle (that’s why the efficiency is 99%) � Fewer cells in series are needed to achieve some given voltage. Disadvantages: � Cost

IV. BATTERY PERFORMANCE COMPARISON

A. Lead acid battery comparison:

Here, all lead acid batteries will be compared on various parameters (Table 1). Since, Li-ion battery is best in all aspects than lead-acid battery, it will be compared with best performing lead acid battery. All battery parameters listed in the below table are defined at end of paper in section Abbreviations on page 8. All batteries are rated on scale of 0 to 5 (0-worst, 5-Best).

Sr. No. Battery Rating Criteria Flooded Starter EFB AGM

1 Starting Efficiency (@ 0°F) 4 2 3

2 Reserve Capacity (@ 25 amps) 1 2 4

3 Deep Cycle Capabilities 0 2 3

4 Dual Purpose Capabilities 0 2 4

5 Non-Spill able Rating 0 4 4

6 Minimal Gassing 3 4 4

7 Recovery – Discharged Service (below 50%) 1 3 3

8 Quickest Recharge Time @ 14.1 V 1 3 4

9 Quickest Recharge Time @ 14.5 V 2 3 4

10 Storage/Shelf Life 4 3 4

11 Deep Cycle Life (BCI 2 hr. life) 0 3 3

12 Less Sensitive Charging 3 2 2

13 Low Initial Cost 4 2 2

14 Long Term Value - Cycling 0 2 3

15 Durability – Overcharge Situations 0 0 0

16 Durability – Ultra-Deep Discharge 0 3 4

17 Water Retention 4 3 4

19 Terminal Corrosion Resistance 3 4 4

Total 30 47 59

Table 1: Lead acid battery comparison[22]




As seen from chart above, AGM battery is best performing battery for automotive applications. Hence, it is recommended for start-stop and mild-hybrid applications. B. AGM and Li-ion battery comparison:

Li-ion battery is compared with AGM battery:

Sr. No. Battery Rating Criteria Unit AGM Li-ion

1 Energy density Wh/kg 30-50 150-250

2 Initial cost per capacity $/kWh 221 530

3 Cost per life cycle $/kWh 0.71 0.19

4 No. of cycles to 80% State of Health (SOH) 200-650 1000-4000

5 Typical SOC window 50% 80%

6 High Temperature sensitivity Degrades above 25°C 45°C

7 Available constant current power 0.2C 1C

8 Fast charging times Hrs. 4-8 2-4

Table 2: AGM and Li-ion battery comparison [33]

Fig. 12: Li-ion battery future trend ($/kWh) [42]

Above table 2 and Fig. 12 illustrates that Li-ion battery has: 1. Higher energy density 2. Higher current initial cost (expected lower cost in future). 3. Lower initial cost over life cycle of battery 4. More life than AGM battery 5. Superior high temperature stability 6. Access to higher discharge current 7. Faster charging times than AGM Battery Hence, Li-ion battery is best battery available in market but its higher cost adds to total vehicle cost. It may be used in future when cost of Li-ion battery becomes competing. But for C-SUV 2.0L, Li-ion battery is not used. C. Batteries available for 2.0L BSG Application:

Following battery options are currently popular for ESS/BSG applications. The details are mentioned below (Table 3).(All terms used below are defined in section abbreviations).




Sr. No.

Battery Specification AGM EFB (ISS) Flooded

Vehicle Application/

Market ESS-UK BSG-India Non-ESS - India

1 Capacity in Ah 60 70 70

2 Maximum Depth of Discharge

69.44% 20.83% 71.42%

3 Life in cycles SAE J2801 11 weeks

30000 cycles as per SAE J2801

SAE J2801 7 weeks

4 CCA 650 630 600

5 Weight of battery 21.3 Kg 19.5Kg 19.3Kg

6 Cost of battery $71.97 $68.53 $47.98

7 Alternator rating 160A 160A 160A

8 Vehicle 1.6L and 2.0L

ESS (UK) 2.0L BSG (India)

2.0L Non-ESS (India)

9 Maximum Charging rate

Charging at 14.4 V

Charging at 14.6 V Charging at 14.4 V

10 Maximum Discharging rate

25 A for 100 minutes

25A for 35 min 25 A for 120

minutes

Table 3:2.0L BSG C-SUV battery comparison [25] 1. Cold cranking Amperes (CCA): CCA rating of battery is important performance parameter for start-stop, cranking and e-Boost events. It can be seen that AGM battery has highest CCA rating and flooded battery has lowest CCA. 2. Depth of discharge is set lower in EFB batteries to extend the battery life. However, AGM batteries can provide long cycles life even with greater depth of discharge. Flooded batteries will have higher DoD at cost of reduced battery life. 3. Life in cycles:Less depth of discharge allows EFB battery to have impressive life of 30000 cycles when compared with AGM or flooded battery. It is important to know that total charge drawn is less in EFB as compared to AGM or flooded batteries with nearly 70% depth of discharge. Hence, EFB batteries can be used. 4. Price:From price prospective, AGM batteries are most expensive of all. 5. Overall charging voltage ishighest for EFB while AGM and flooded have same charging voltage. It should be noted that current acceptance rating of AGM is higher than EFB while flooded battery having lowest charge acceptance rate. Based on above quantitative comparison, AGM battery is considered suitable for 2.0L BSG applications.


V. MILD-HYBRID ARCHITECTURE

For the above mentionedarchitecture andfollowing conclusions: Ideal scenario:

It is recommended to go with 48V Liauxiliary loads in 48V BSG architecturebenefits.

• The AGM batteries coming under Sealed Lead Acid Batteries are known for deeper depth of Discharge.

• Also due to inbuilt Smart Alternator Module of the BSG unit, combined charging rate for Liand AGM batteries is faster than conventional SLI batteries.

• This helps to deliver an effective boost of power and quicker recharging, resulting in overall FE and emission benefits. Existing scenario: In India, AGM battery technology is not available commerciawarranty concerns and added cost. Also, India is price sensitive market. 48V system will add much more cost to price of vehicle than 12V systemengine. Hybrid architecture: 12V BSG with single batteryBattery: Enhanced flooded lead acid battery

VI. BENCHMARKThe benchmark vehicle selected was theFollowing tests were performed to evaluate IDC FE test to measure overall BSG benefit

The benchmark vehicle was tested on IDC (India Driving Cycle) a13.

Fig. 1

• IDC – Fuel Economy for BSbalance method). • Fuel economy improvement is in line with the OEM claim for BSG benefits.• FE measurement however is inferior to the OEM BSG variants. Hence, it is proven that BSG functions do help in improving the fuel economy. 12V BSG also helps to improve FE improvement


Volume 03, Issue 06; June - 2017

ARCHITECTURE AND BATTERY SELECTION FOR

ENGINE architecture and based on battery technology comparisons

48V Li-ion battery for primary loads and 12V AGM battery for in 48V BSG architecture. It will give much more performance, FE and emission

The AGM batteries coming under Sealed Lead Acid Batteries are known for deeper depth of

Also due to inbuilt Smart Alternator Module of the BSG unit, combined charging rate for LiGM batteries is faster than conventional SLI batteries.

This helps to deliver an effective boost of power and quicker recharging, resulting in overall FE

technology is not available commercially and importing them will and added cost. Also, India is price sensitive market. 48V system will add much

than 12V system. Hence, following system is being adopted for 2.0L

re: 12V BSG with single battery Battery: Enhanced flooded lead acid battery (EFB)

BENCHMARK VEHICLE FUEL ECONOMY RESULTSark vehicle selected was the only BSG equipped vehicle available in India market.

evaluate benefitsof various BSG functionalities.

to measure overall BSG benefit:

vehicle was tested on IDC (India Driving Cycle) and results obtained are plotted fig.

Fig. 13: Fuel Economy on IDC [25]

Fuel Economy for BSG variant is 7.5% higher than non-BSG variant (by Carbon

Fuel economy improvement is in line with the OEM claim for BSG benefits.however is inferior to the OEM declaration by 12-13% for both non

t is proven that BSG functions do help in improving the fuel economy. 12V BSG improvement.


[ISSN: 2455-1457]

FOR 2.0L DIESEL

comparisons we can derive

ion battery for primary loads and 12V AGM battery for , FE and emission

The AGM batteries coming under Sealed Lead Acid Batteries are known for deeper depth of

Also due to inbuilt Smart Alternator Module of the BSG unit, combined charging rate for Li-ion

This helps to deliver an effective boost of power and quicker recharging, resulting in overall FE

and importing them will lead to and added cost. Also, India is price sensitive market. 48V system will add much

. Hence, following system is being adopted for 2.0L

RESULTS only BSG equipped vehicle available in India market.

lts obtained are plotted fig.

BSG variant (by Carbon

Fuel economy improvement is in line with the OEM claim for BSG benefits. 13% for both non-BSG &

t is proven that BSG functions do help in improving the fuel economy. 12V BSG system




The importance of individual BSG function is explained below with help of selected events during IDC test. A. Smart-Alternator module (SAM) FE improvement:

Smart alternator is another function which improves FE. Conventional alternators continuously generate electricity even if not required in order to maintain set battery voltage. But smart alternator monitors battery SoC and charge the battery only if required i.e. when battery SoC is low, it will charge the battery (even if vehicle is idling). Below graph (fig. 14) explains the practical working of SAM alternator. During IDC cycle, the highlighted small trapezium represents SAM functioning observed by charging ofbattery. Since, it does not charge the battery continuously; it reduces load demand on engine and hence, improves FE overall.

Fig. 14: SAM alternator and Torque assist functioning [25]

B. Recuperation:

During coasting, the benchmark vehicle performs Recuperation function (refer fig. 14) in which BSG convertssome of kinetic energy into electricity used for charging the battery which would have lost in friction. This function minimizes energy wastage while decelerating. Thus, indirectly improves fuel economy. C. Torque Assist FE Improvement:

As observed from fig. 14, during acceleration, BSG supplements the engine torque. Hence, this helps to reduce the load on engine and improves FE.




D. Start-stop benefits:

At each stop, vehicle will shut the engine off and restart it when clutch is pressed. This saves fuel wasted in idling and improves fuel economy. It is difficult to quantify the individual FE benefits of SAM, Start-stop system, torque assist & regenerative braking for the benchmark vehicle as there is no access to the diagnostic CAN (Control Area Network) details. From above analysis, it can be clearly seen that 12V BSG system helps in improving FE.

VII. PROJECT VEHICLE FUEL ECONOMY SIMULATION

This section details the fuel economy simulation results for a 2.0L engine equipped with BSG and without BSG unit. Fuel economy simulation for the project vehicle C-SUV Diesel 2.0Lis done for both BSG and non-BSG variants of the same vehicle. A preliminary assessment 12V BSG machine is presented for C-SUV Diesel 2.0 (M6 556 APAC) FWD MT applications on BS4 cycle in following phases. Vehicle Configuration I: The base vehicle configuration with default alternator, no engine stop & start and without SAM function is simulated for Fuel economy. Vehicle ConfigurationII: The BSG machine has been considered just as a high efficiency alternator and belt starter, thus enabling engine stop & start without SAM function. Vehicle ConfigurationIII:The BSG machine is simulated for FE considering the ESS function combined with SAM feature. Vehicle Configuration IV:The Extended ESS function is simulated with SAM feature for best case FE simulation. Assumptions for FE simulation analysis:

1. In absence of Physical mule/ prototype vehicle the vehicle parameters, e.g. A & B coefficients from road-load equation has been accounted (with incremental load addition due to BSG system). 2. An increase of FEAD (Front End Auxiliary Drive Belt) losses by 1 Nm has been considered in this simulation analysis on account of cranking torque transmission losses on account of Engine Start Stop function. 3. No hybrid operation such as torque assist and recuperation has been simulated (due to unavailability of suitable mathematical model representing unique BSG functions like torque assist and regenerative braking). 4. For all simulations with SAM feature, the state of charge of 12V battery is assumed to remain unchanged after the test cycle, as per Indian regulations for Hybrid vehicles.




VIII. RESULTS AND CONCLUSION

M6-12V BSG Consolidated FE

Results

Vehicle Configuration For Simulations-12V BSG

AWD

M6-2.0Famb(170hp,C635, 3.833 FDR)

Sr

No Parameters Units

w/o

ESS

w/t

ESS

w/t ESS &

SAM

w/t extESS, SAM,

iSTAR

1 Kerb weight kg 1656 1656

2 Test Weight kg 1806 1806

3 Engine Displacement Cc 1956 1956

4 Engine Power PS 170 BHP @ 3750 rpm

5 Engine Torque Nm 350 Nm @ 1750 rpm

6 Transmission Manual Manual

7 Tire size 225/60 R17 225/60 R17

8 Simulation Model Go FAST Go FAST

w/o ESS

w/t ESS

w/t ESS & SAM

w/t extESS, SAM, iSTAR

9 MIDC

kmpl kmpl kmpl kmpl kmpl

MIDC (AC OFF) 16.2 17.0 17.2 17.4

10 Improvement on Base

Vehicle % 0% 4.93% 6.17% 7.4%

Table 4:FE simulation C-SUV 2.0L BSG [25] 1. The ESS operation results in improved fuel economy by approximately 5%. (Refer Table 4 and Fig. 15). 2. SAM functionality alone contributes from 0-1.24% 3. Both BSG functionalities (ESS and SAM) combined with extended ESS contributes to FE benefit of 5-7.4%.




Fig.15: % FE improvements [25] It should be noted that torque assist and recuperation function is not simulated. This can further improve fuel economy. Since the vehicle program is in early days, on road results are not available. Benchmarking and simulation analysis for target setting of a 12V BSG system with 2.0L diesel engine concludes that 1. 12V BSG system can deliver fuel economy benefits up to 5-7% for vehicle of given inertia class (1810 kg). 2. The benchmark vehicle has shown FE benefits up to 7.4%. Hence, it can be concluded that torque assist and recuperation do not have major impact in fuel economy improvement. The system being easily adaptable is planned to be implemented on C-SUV 2.0L DIESEL. Novelty of the paper:

This paper attempts to correlate the Fuel Economy simulation results (using BSG based FE model) to real world Fuel Economy achieved on a reference vehicle equipped with a 12V BSG system. The correlation is proved on account of benefits derived from SAM and Start-stop function of a BSG, which combined together help to achieve ~7.5% fuel economy improvement over the conventional diesel powertrain. Based on correlation from target setting exercise (conducted on similar architecture (BSG) reference vehicle) and FE simulation (completed using BSG model), had built confidence to industrialize a 12V Belt driven starter-generator system on a C-SUV platform.

IX. FUTURE SCOPE FOR VEHICLE OPTIMIZATION The 12V BSG with single EFB battery is being adopted for 2.0L diesel engine. Following are vehicle optimizations possible: Since, addition of Li-ion battery will add to cost of vehicle, dual battery solution with both being EFB batteries can be made possible. It will have following advantages: 1. Higher torque assist and recuperation potential due to dedicated BSG battery.

0% 5% 10%

w/o ESS

with ESS

w/t ESS & SAM

w/t …

Improvements over Base Vehicle

Improvements over Base Vehicle




2. Higher FE benefit than 12V single battery system.

DECLARATION The authors declare that there is no conflict of interest regarding the publication of this paper.

ABBREVIATIONS 1. Starting Efficiency rates the ability of the battery to provide high amperage to “crank the engine” up to the starting RPM. This current must be delivered quickly and as long as thirty-seconds at a time at 0°F. This power comes off of the surface of the plates; therefore, many thin plates will deliver the highest starting power. 2. Reserve Capacity @ 25 Amps @ 80°F represents thetime the battery will continue to operate essential accessories if the alternator or generator would fail. High reserve capacity ratings allow the use of more accessory power demands. This slower, lower discharge comes from the thickness of the plates. Thicker plates will deliver a higher reserve capacity. 3. Deep Cycle Capabilities represents the ability of thebattery to deliver small amounts of current over longer periods of time allowing the battery to withstand long, deep discharges and long, slow recharges. Again, thicker plates perform better than thinner plates, typical of starting applications. 4. Dual Purpose Capabilities represents the ability of abattery to provide ample starting power and moderate deep cycle service. This design is a compromise between a starting design and a true deep cycle design. 5. Non-Spillable Rating is the degree of which the batterydesign ensures the prevention of leaks and spills allowing for added safety and numerous installation options. 6. Minimal Gassing is attributed to the battery’s ability tocontrol internal gas pressure, preventing capacity loss from extra gas seepage and allowing care-free use around sensitive electronic equipment. This assumes proper charging, because over-charging will drive hydrogen and oxygen from any battery design. 7. Recovery from Discharge Service (below 50%) demonstrates the ability of the battery to be continually recharged from a discharged state below 50% of its full capacity without significant loss of capacity or life cycles. 8. Quickest Recharge Time @ 14.1 V or 14.5 V shows theefficiency of a battery’s re-charge ability allowing for shorter charging times. Gel batteries are required to charge at a maximum of 14.1 V, but only need to have 105% of the amp hours returned because they recharge so efficiently. In contrast, AGM batteries are required to be charged at a maximum of 14.5 V, but will need 110% of the amp hours returned. A flooded battery can usually be charged at yet a higher voltage, depending upon lead alloy; however, they will require 120-130% of the amp hours be returned to the battery by the charging system 9. Storage/Shelf Life represents the rate at which a fullycharged battery that is not being used can retain its charge. If the battery has a long storage life it will have a low self-discharge rate and will be able to be inactive for a longer period of time (typical of off-season storage) without losing its capacity ratings or experiencing a significant decrease in its level of charge.




10. Deep Cycle Life (BCI 2 hr. life) shows the battery’sability to be discharged to a low state of charge and then recharged for numerous cycles in controlled lab test conditions. 11. Less Sensitive Charging shows the degree at whichbattery charging requires strict voltage control in order not to damage or shorten the battery’s life. For example: Gel cell batteries must be limited to 14.1 V while AGM batteries can withstand up to 14.5 V recharge voltage. 12. Long Term Value-Cycling determines the long-termvalue of the battery by comparing the initial price in relation to the life cycles the battery design will deliver. 13. Durability – Overcharge Situation evaluates the battery’sresistance to damage or capacity loss when it is overcharged many times. 14. Durability – Ultra Deep Discharge evaluates thebattery’s resistance to damage or capacity loss by continually discharging it close to its zero capacity rating. 15. Water Retention shows the ability of the battery designand alloy composition to decrease the amount of water lost during the battery’s life. Some batteries are designed to loose very little water during their life eliminating the need to add water. 16. Water Replacement indicates if the vent caps or fillerplugs can be removed to replace water that may be lost due to excessive gassing from overcharging situations. 17. Terminal Corrosion Resistance is the battery’s designattributes that prevent acid residue that might cause unwanted corrosion on the terminals and attached wiring and/or nearby equipment. Terminal corrosion can also be relative to the battery’s non-spill able rating. 18. Cold Cranking Amperes- Since it is more difficult for a battery to deliver power when it is cold, and since the engine requires more power to turn over when it is cold, the Cold Cranking rating is defined as: The number of amperes a lead-acid battery at 0 degrees F (-17.8 degrees C) can deliver for 30 seconds and maintain at least 1.2 volts. 19. Depth of Discharge- Depth of Discharge (DOD) is an alternate method to indicate a battery's state of charge (SOC). The DOD is the complement of SOC: as one increases, the other decreases. While the SOC units are percent points (0% = empty; 100% = full), DOD can use Ah units (e.g.: 0 = full, 50 Ah = empty) or percent points (100% = empty; 0% = full). As a battery may actually have higher capacity than its nominal rating, it is possible for the DOD value to exceed the full value (e.g.: 55 Ah or 110%), something that is not possible when using state of charge.

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