TEACHER BELIEF SYSTEMS TOWARDS COMPUTEX-MEDIATED LANGUAGE LEARNING:

COLLEGE ESL INSTRUCTION

Geoffrey Philip John Lawrence

A thesis submitted in the conformity with the requirements for the degree of Master of Arts

Department of Curriculum, Teaching and Leaming Ontario Institute for Studies in Education of the

University of Toronto

O Copyright by Geoffrey Philip John Lawrence 2000

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Teacher Belief Systems towards Cornputer-Mediated Language Lemming: College ESL Instruction

Submitted for the degree of Master of Arts November, 2000

by Geoffrey Philip John Lawrence

Department of Curriculum, Teaching and Lemiing Ontario Institute for Studies in Education of the

University of Toronto

Abstract

This research suweyed college-level English-as-a-Second instructors to

define the nature of second language teacher belief systems towards computer-

mediated Ianguage leaming. Focus group interviews and questionnaires

revealed two principal factors influencing belief systems: affect and the

perceived utility of computers in second language education. A theoretical

framework defining belief systems and the demographic, contextual and

experienfial constructs directing belief systems and consequent actions using

computer technology is outlined. The majority of partiapants reported having

used computer teduiology in their practices, and demonstrated positive attitudes

towards computers in E L instruction. The reguiar use of computers kvas found

to positively influence both teachers' attitudes and perceptions that cornputer

technology is an effective teadùng tool. Teachers with 10 to 20 yem of teaching

experience most positively perceived computers as valuable resources in ESL

instruction. Gender, age, education level, college affiliation and cornputer

training did not significantly iduence teacher belief systems towards computer-

mediated language leaming.

Acknowledgements

In no way is an academic thesis a solitary work. My journey in

completing this research was greatly facilitated by several individuals who

deserve my u h o s t thanks.

1 owe a substantial part of the success of this paper to my thesis

supervisor, Miles Turnbull, who guided and encouraged me throughout ths

often arduous process. 1 have been so fortunate to have such an accessible,

conscientious and dedicated supervisor, willing to share his time, energy,

experience and wisdom with me throughout this process. I also thank Jim

Cummins for his inspirational comments, his advice and his participation in

reviewing my thesis. 1 would like to thank my professors throughout my

graduate program who have helped expand my knowledge in the area of second

language education and educational technology, allowing me to focus and direct

h s research.

1 would also like to thank al1 the college ESL teachers who shared their

time, experience and opinions while participating in this research. Without their

insight, 1 would have littie to share. 1 sincerely thank al1 my friends and

colleagues in the colleges who helped me throughout this process, faalitating my

access to ESL faculty and allowing me the opportunity to address their staff and

promote this research.

Thanks also to Jeanie Stewart and Sue Elgie who shared their respective

manuscript preparation and statistical knowledge with me in order to help me

prepare this thesis manuscript and understand and present the data that 1

obtained.

And last, but not least, 1 want to thank Jim for his guidance, inspiration

and tolerance whose love, friendship and support empowered me throughout

this joumey.

Dedica tion

This work would never have been possible without the continued

inspiration, support and love from my parents. 1 dedicate this work to you,

Mom and Dad, who have always inspired me to enlighten myself about the world around me, expand my horizons and contribute fully to society. The

confidence you have both shown me throughout my Iife has enahled me to

undertake and succeed in such projects and 1 ultimately owe the success of this

thesis to your continued love, support and guidance.

Table of Contents . . ......................................................................................................................... Abstract ii

... .................................................................................................... Acknowledgements 111

.................................................................................................................... Dedication iv

Chapter 1 Introduction and Rationale ................................................................... 1 .............................................................................................................. Introduction 1

............................................................................................. Research Objectives 2 Rationale for this Study ........................................................................................ 3

.......... Computer-Mediated Language Leaming and ESL Instruction: My Story 6 Surnmary ................................................................................................................... 9

..................................................................................... Chapter 2 Literature Review 10 The Nature of Teaching, Teacher Belief Systems and Educational Innovation 10

.............................................................................. Ins ti tu tionalised Resis tance Il ........................................................... The Changing Classroom Environment 13

Lack of Training and Support ....................................................................... 14 ............................................ Underuse of Educational Compter Technology 14

Reported Benefits of Computer Technology and ................................................... ...................... Second Language Leaming ...... 16

Second Language Teacher Belief Systems and ............................. ...... Cornpu ter-Mediated Educational Enviromnents ... 1 7

..................................................................... Inadequate Training and Support 19 Defining Teacher Belief Systems ......................................................................... 20

Ajzen's Theory of Planned Behaviour .............................................................. 22 Teacher Belief Systems Towards Educational hovation: A Theoretical Definition .................................................................................... 23

................................................................................................................. Summary 26

Chapter 3 Research Methodology ........................................................................ 2 8 ..................................................................................................... Research Design 28

Partiàuants ........................................................................................................ 2 9 A

................................................................. Focus gr ou^ Interview Partiauants 29 ~uestionnake Participants ................................................................................. 31

.............................................................................................. Research Procedures 32 Focus Group Interviews .................................................................................... 32 Questionnaire Research Procedures ................................................................. 33

.................................................................. Questionnaire piloting 34 .............................................. Questiomaire collection and analysis 35

Summary ................................................................................................................. 37

Chapter 4 Results and Findings ................................................................................ 39 Contextual Factors in Surveyed Teaching Environments .................................. 39

..................................................................................... Focus Group Interviews 4 1 Focus Group Data ............................................................................................... 41 The Impact of Focus Group Data on the Questionnaire ................................. 43

Questionnaire Findings ......................................................................................... 44 Questionnaire Distribution ........................................................................... 4 5 Questionnaire Participants .......................................................................... 4 5 Teacher Belief Systems Towards Cornputer-Meciiated Language Leaming . 48

Reliabili ty analysis of theoretical conshcts ....................................... 50 Factor analysis of belief system data ................................................ 51 Reliability analysis of factors and theoreticai constmcts ....................... 54

C Factor-defined belief systems ......................................................... 37 Differences in prrtiapant belief systems ........................................... 59

Reported Uses of Computer Technology ..................................................... 62 Non-users of computer technology .................................................. 65 Non-users' intentions to use cornputers ............................................ 66

Summary of Questionnaire Data ........................................................................ 67

Chapter 5 Discussion ............................................................................................. 6 9 Second Language Teacher Belief Systems Towards Cornputer-Mediated Language Learning ....................................... 69

Theoretically Defined Belief Systems ........................ .... ............................ 69 ESL Teacher Belief Systems Towards Cornputer-Mediated Language Learning ............................................................................................................ 74 Demographic and Expenential Influences on Belief Systems ........................ 75

Computer use and belief systems .................................................... 75 Teaching experience and belief systems ............................................ 77 The likelihood of computer use and belief systems .............................. 77 Factors not impacting on belief systems ............................................ 78

Teacher Belief Systems and Their Muence on Reported Practice or Intended Practice Using Computer-Mediated Language Learning ................................. 80

Location of Computer Use ................................................................................. 82 Limitations of This Research ................................................................................. 85 Recommendations For Future Research .............................................................. 85 Concluding Remarks ............................................................................................. 87

References ................................................................................................................. 9 0

Appendices

Appendix A: Focus Group Information Letters and Consent Forms .................... 97 Appendix B: Focus Group Participant Screening Questions ............................... 101 Appendix C: Focus Group Procedures and Questions ........................................ 103 Appendix D: Participant Questionnaire ................................................................ 107

List of Tables

Table 4.1: Table 4.2: Table 4.3:

Table 4.4: Table 4.5: Table 4.6: Table 4.7: Table 4.8: Table 4.9: Table 4.10:

Table 4.11:

Table 4.12:

Table 4.13: Table 4.14:

Figure 1:

Figure 2:

Figure 3:

Figure 4:

................ O v e ~ e w of S w e y e d College Teadùng Environments 40 .................. Questionnaire Distribution and Collection per College 45

Descriptive Statistics on Teachers' Level of Education. Ages and Experience ......................................... 46

............ Reported Weekly Use of Compu ters among ESL Teachers 47

............ Types of Cornputer-Based ESL Teacher Training Received 47 ............................. Instmctor Response to Belief System Statements 49

Alpha Reliability Andysis of Original Theoretical Constnicts ....... 51 Factor Loadings for Belief System Variables .................................... 53 Factor-Defined Belief System Questionnaire Statements ................ 56 Resul ts of One-Way ANOVA Analyses Comparing Partiapant Betief Systems in Demographic

............................................................... and Experiential Groupings 61 Participant Belief System Means by Weekly Hourly Cornputer Use ..................................................... 62 Reasons Given for Using

......................................... Computer-Mediated Language Learning 64 .... Exphnations Given for How Cornputers Helped ESL Learners 65

Reasons for Not Having Used Cornputers in ESL Teaching ........... 66

List of Figures

Factors influenang teacher behaviour towards educational innovation ........................................................ 24 Frequency of means of participant belief systems as defined in Factor 1 .............................................................................. 58 Frequency of means of participant belief systems as defined in Factor 2 .............................................................................. 59 Factors influenang teacher behaviour towards

....................................................................... educational innovation 73

Chapter 1

Introduction and Rationale

When it cornes to technology in education, you can create it, you can design it, you can produce it, you can legislate it, you can order it, restructure it, give it standards, and write outcornes for it. But the bottom line is that if it is going to happen, teachers have to make it happen.

. . .Jacqueline Goodloe, Teacher (I~ivesti~ig in tendiers, 1995, p.1)

Introduction

As this educator's quote illustrates, the power of teachers to direct and

shape educational environrnenb should not be underestimated. Teachers play a

key role in the success or failure of educational innovation. Over the last

century, the teaching profession has been regularly confronted with change in

the form of new methodologies, approaches, organisational structures and a

wide range of technological innovations. From the technological promises of

radio, television and audio-cassettes of the Iast century, the cornputer now offers

educational systems a broad-based electronic medium with the potential to

dramatically transform, individualise and enhance education programs

(Armstrong, Yetter-Vassot, College, & College, 1994; Chun, 1994; 11ivestbig i~ i

tencliers, 1995; Mes kill & Mossop, 1997; nie nehuork remlut ion, 2000; Warschauer,

1998b). While the cornputer has made some inroads into educational systems in

many developed countries, its progress in schooling has not reflected its

transformative impact elsewhere in so&t-y, where e-mail communication, web

surfing and online businesses have become cornmonplace.

With the recent explosion of Internet use and continually evolving

technological applications, the potential computer technology offers second

language education is enormous. Uses of the computer medium in its many

manifestations have shown increased student-centred participation in this

motivating environment (Warschauer, 1996a, 1 9 9 6 ~ ) ~ increased exposure to

authentic target language material (Moore, Morales, & Carel, 1998; Wen, 1996).

opportuni ties for increased target language output (Chun, 1994; Nagata, 1996),

and for collaborative, cross-cultural interaction and rnulti-modal second

language input targeting a variety of learning styles (Brett, 1997; Grace, 1998; 1

Viteli, 1989). Nevertheless, in spite of these grandiose promises, many second

language education programs operate without any integrated technological

support. In many colleges in urban Canada, Engiish-as-a-Second language (ESL)

programs are still mainly based on text-based, blackboard cumculum where

teachers remain the principal deliverers of the target language. Given the

compter 's reported benefits in the area of second language education, what

continues to prevent this broad-based medium from transforming our second

language educational systems into more empowering, progressive

environments? Could part of the answer be the belief systems of second

language teachers?

Research Obiectives

This study aims to provide insight into the issue of undenise of computer

technology in second language education by examining the complex nature of

teacher belief systems towards computer-mediated language learning. The

multi-faceted nature of belief systems and the effects of these belief systems on

educational innovation using computer technology will be analysed in the

context of college-level ESL instruction. Specifically, ths research will examine

the Çollowing questions:

What are second language teachers' belief systems towards computer-

media ted language leaming?

How do contextual factors, personal experience and perception of others'

expectations contribute to second language teachers' belief systems towards

the use of computers in second language education?

How do these belief systems affect second language teachers' intentions and

reported practices using computers?

Relatively few studies have examined the belief and/or attitudes of

second language teachers and specifically ESL language teachers towards

cornputer-mediated language leaniing (Akbaba & Kurubacak, 2000; Albaugh,

1997; Cuban, 1986; Lam, 2000; Lowther & Sullivan, 1994). Fewer studies have

explored the multi-faceted nature of second language teacher belief systems; how

these multiple factors define belief systems and the effect of these belief systems

on directing action using educational technology. In contrast, a wealth of

research has explored students' attitudes and beliefs towards computer-use in

second language classrooms (Brett, 1997; Chun, 1994; Warschauer, 1996a. 1996c,

1998a). While students, as the receivers of educational delivery prograrns, and

their reactions to technology are undoubtedly important, the reaction of teachers,

as educational deliverers. is equally important. As the quote at the beginning of

this chapter illustrates, the importance of the teacher to transform educational

practices using educational technology cannot be underestimated. Scholars have

noted the fact that when educational technology is first implemented, it has been

commonplace to examine student reaction first, followed by teacher reaction

much later, if at al1 (Cuban, 1986, 1990; Schofield, 1995). As cornputer technology

becomes a much more established form of educational technology, 1 think the

time has come to better define teachers' reactions to this potentially

transfomative educational innovation.

Rationale for this Studv

I t has been said that the teacher's attitudes towards any educational

innovation are the most critical factors in determining the success of that

innovation in the educational environment (Akbaba & Kurubacak, 2000; Collins,

1991; Cuban, 1986, 1993; Dwyer, Ringstaff, & Sandholtz, 1991; Fullan &

Hargreaves, 1992; Investing in tenclters, 1995; Kennedy & Kennedy, 1996).

Teachers and their beliefs dictate how students are taught, what they learn and

the success or failure of any educational approach. (Armstrong et al., 1994;

[itvestittg in tenchers, 1995; Kennedy & Kennedy, 1996; Larson, 1999; Nabarra &

Shaw, 1994). The growth of any educational technology as an instructional tool

is influenced by the teacher's attitudes towards this technology. Teacher beliefs

are crucial to the success of any educational innovation and their attitudes can

also influence students' attitudes towards technology (Akbaba & Kumbacak,

2000). While educational scholars generally agree on the importance of teacher

beliefs and attitudes in directing teaching practices and ultimately learning

outcomes, the definition of these common conceptual constructs remains i11-

defined in much research (Akbaba & Kurubacak, 2000; Chisholm, Irwin, &

Carey, 2000a; Dwyer et al., 1991; Kennedy & Kennedy, 1996; Mitra, Hazen,

LaFrance, & Rogan, 1999; Nabarra & Shaw, 1994). The question remains what

exactiy are beliefs and what exactly are attitudes?

The term beliefs and attitudes are often used interchangeably, referring to

either affective feelings towards an innovation or a degree of cognitive

acceptance over that innovation. The term beliefs is also sometirnes used to

describe composite conceptual dimensions that are both affective and cognitive,

conveying the idea of simultaneously valuing and understanding an innovation

(Dwyer, Ringstaff, & Sandholtz, 1990; Schofield, 1995). Other scholars examine

only the concept of attitudes which they say are influenced by a number of

contextual factors induding social, political and cultural influences, and one's

expectations or perceptions of other individuals' opinions about an innovation

(Akbaba & Kumbacak, 2000; Chisholm et al., 2000a; Green, Kluever, Lam,

Staples, & Hoffman, 2000; Mitra et al., 1999; Morris, 1988). While, at the same

time, others define beliefs as incorporating affective and evaluative dimensions

(Lowther & Sullivan, 1994; Nespor, 1987). The vague definition of these key

constnicts that form the foundation of educational practices and influence the

integration and use of educational technology make generalisations and

cornparisons of educational belief-based research difficult.

In their discussion of teacher attitudes and change implementation,

Kennedy and Kennedy (1996) discuss a tlieory of plcziz~zed belinviour, proposed by a

social psychologist, Ajzen, who develops a theoretical mode1 illustrating the

relationship between behavioural intentions and action. Ajzen (1988) defines

beliefs towards a specific behaviour as the cognitive foundation of a system

combining attitudes towards that behaviour with one's perception of societal

views of tha t behaviour and one's sense of behavioural control (Ajzen, 1988).

Kennedy and Kennedy use Ajzen's framework to propose a similar theory

behind the system of beliefs guiding teacher behaviour towards educational

innovation. Here, teachers' actions using educational technology are desa-ibed

as being directed by a system of beliefs. These belief systems are based on core

cognitive knowledge about this innovation that in turn are influenced by the

affective dimension, or attitudes towards that innovation. These cumulative

beliefs are then shaped by the educator's perception of extemai opinion over the

innovation and his/her sense of control over the use of the innovation. This

systematic theoretical definition attempts to clarify the multiple factors

contributing to a system of beliefs that in turn influences an individual teacher's

behaviour towards an innovation, such as computer technology.

My study will attempt to further clarify this definition of teacher belief

systems and the influence of these belief systems on reported practices and

intended practices using computer technology in secend language education.

Computer technology is becoming increasingly ubiquitous in Our North

American societies and, in many ways, its pewasiveness in Our societies has

minimally infiltrated educational systems. Computer networks, despite their

benefits, rernain unused by most schools as reported in a report by the Amencan

National Academy of Sciences and National Academy of Engineering

(Re iment iq sdzools: nie tedinology is nozu!, 1995) In the area of second language

education, where global access to target language communities and native

speakers are just a mouse click away, it seems distressing that computer

technology is not more fully integrated into second language educational

programs. Computers often remain superficially used, adjunct teaching tools

often used for their entertainment value in second language programs, rather

than pedagogical tools fully integrated into second language curriculum

(Lawrence, 1999). Ln colleges around urban Canada the large majority of ESL

programs use cornputers in an isolated, laboratory-based setting, often at the

whim of a motivated technology-savvy teacher. With the promise of making the

language learning process more empowering, more individualised, more

collabora tive and more student-centred, a great potential is being left untapped.

1 hope that my research will enlighten the relationship between teacher belief

systems and pedagogical practice, and will explain some of the barriers and

influencing factors that prevent the more productive exploitation of this

educational technology.

Com~uter-Mediated Laneurne Leamine and ESL Instruction: Mv Story

My interest in investigating the use of educational technology in second

language learning originated in my childhood. As a dùld learning second and

foreign languages, 1 was always thrilled and fascinated when my French or

Spanish teacher would bring in audio-cassette tapes or show us films depicting

the lives of people who 'actually' spoke the language we were studying. Finally,

'real' speakers and members of these language groups would communicate

indirectly to us and finally we could listen to someone other than the teacher,

someone with a 'real' accent - which was often very difficult to understand!

When 1 began teaching ESL to adults, 1 began to appreciate the benefits of

educational technology. As an ESL teacher, 1 developed the habit of speaking

relatively clearly and slowly to faalitate my students' comprehension, and was

somewhat surprised when my students would come to me and express their

concern that they could understand me perfectly, but they could not understand

a word anyone else says outside of class. This comment made me value and

realise the potential that educational technology offered second language

learners in classroom-based education. From that moment forward, 1 would

make an effort to integrate educational technology such as cassette tapes of the

Iatest radio news broadcasts, Canadian singers, and bnng in films and

commercials on video to enhance the target language exposure 1 could offer my

ESL students.

My experience with cornputer-mediated language learning began in 1994

when 1 was teaching a LINC (Language Instruction for Newcomen to Canada)

program to new immigrants. In addition to fulfilling the basic LINC wriculum

guidelines, I was responsible for teaching basic computer skills to my students

along with exploring the use of a number of drill and practice ESL software

programs. Whle teaching computers and ESL was sexy at the time, 1 remember

being so unbelievably hs t ra ted at having to teach computers and ESL, as the

majority of students had no knowledge of computers, keyboarding skills and

Iittle interest in learning these skills. My students would often become frustrateci

at having to wait for me to come around and help them as 1 was alone with over

20 computer naïve students. They would often begin pressing every button on

the keyboard until the whole cornputer network would crash and the computer

component ~ o u l d have to be postponed. As a result, 1 would often leave work

wondering why 1 had got myself in this mess. Nevertheless, in spite of my initial

frustration, the computer component eventually evolved into a welcomed

opportunity for collaborative projects, content-based wnting enhancement and

for fun, student-centred grammar and spelling practice.

Since those early days of cornputer-rnediated language leaming, 1 have

made an effort to inform myself about the evolving potential of educational

technology ranging from video to cornputers. My principal motivation for

pursuing graduate studies was to hrther investigate the use of educational

technology in second language education. Throughout my studies, 1 have been

continually impressed with the potential that appears to exist using these

technologies (Brett, 1997; Chun, 1994; Levy, 1999; McCain, Morris, Green, & Al-

Najran, 1999; Moore et al., 1998; Warschauer, 1998a). However, as a practising

teacher, 1 can sincerely relate to the concerns expressed by second language

instructors when discussing their hesitation to use this educational technology in

their practices. My mernories of my own frustration are still very fresh and 1

appreciate teachers' reluctance to explore this technology when access is so

limited in many educational contexts and when computer integration demands

so much additional time and planning to integrate this technology into a

cumculurn designed without any predisposition to technology use. 1 have been

amazed in reading Cuban (1986) who chronicles the continual resistance

educational systems have demonstrated when confronted with educational

technology and innovation. 1 have been amazed when 1 see myself contributing

to this resistance, teaching ESL in a class using a chalkboard and standing in the

cenh-e of the classroom, listening to one student speak, while 29 others listen. 1

have been amazed when realising that al1 students in my writing classes are

destined to leam English writing skills kom communicating with only me, the

teacher, in a written form in a relatively artifiaal linguistic context.

Yet, 1 have also been amazed at the potential this computer technology

offers second language learning. In an advanced college-level English dass I

have been teaching recently 1 integrated a cornputer conferencing medium into

the curriculum. While the experience was often frustrating, as it took so much

additional preparation and t h e to prepare my students, guide them in the use of

this medium and so much more time to read through everyonefs comments each

week, 1 \vas thrilled at what 1 saw unfold in my class. Finally, 1 began seeing

examples of what scholars had been reporting (Brett, 1997; Chun, 1994; Levy,

1999; McCain et al., 1999; Moore et al., 1998; Schofield, 1995; Viteli, 1989;

Warschauer, 1 9 9 6 ~ ~ 1998a, 1998b). My students were writing in an authentic

context. No longer was the communication artificial. My students were

connecting with each other, becoming motivated to wnte and interact and

conshuct knowledge together, independent of me, in bue Vygotskian style

(Vygotsky, 1962). 1 saw an immediate and surprishg decentralisation of power

in our class and 1 saw how this medium offered a less threatening, more secure

communication medium for those students who rarely communicated in our

face-to-face classroom. For my second language learners, it was a perfect

medium where they could expenment with the target language and extend their

output without substantial fear of embarrassrnent (Swain, 1993). Their writing

demonstrated their enriched online interaction, exhibiting more in-depth

analysis of the topics being discussed than a similar dass 1 had that was not

using the online instructional medium. Students who hl ly participated in t h s

cornputer-enhanced environment demonstrated superior writing skills

incorporating more advanced lexical and grammatical structures, and building

upon ideas presented by other classrnates.

As a result of my increasing exposure to the potential of computer-

mediated language learning, I have chosen to examine what lies beneath the

motivation of second language instructors to use or reject the use of computer

technology. Based on my own expenences with college-level ESL instruction, 1

have chosen to examine teacher belief systems towards computer technology

among college-level adult ESL insfructors. Recognising the lack of research in

this area, 1 hope that this research will somehow enlighten teacher educators,

administrators and teachers themselves about the complex nature of second

language teacher belief systems toward computer technology. It is hoped that

this study will assist in revealing the constitution of these belief systems and how

these systems influence action using educational innovation such as cornputer

techology .

Summarv

The rationale for this research is based simultaneously on my own

persona1 interests and expenence using educational technology in second

language learning and my recognition of a gap that exists in Our understanding

of teacher belief systems and how those belief systems promote or restrain

practices using educational teduiology. This research will attempt to further

define teacher belief systems towards cornputer-mediated language learning and

examine how these belief systems influence practices in the context of college-

level ESL education. Chapter 2 will examine previous research in this area and

define a proposed theoretical framework of teacher belief systems towards

educational innovation.

Chapter 2

Literature Review

This chapter will review research that examines the nature of teacher

belief systems and the effect of teacher belief systems on teaching practice and

the use of educational technology. The first section will examine the nature of

the teaching profession and its impact on defining teacher belief systems and on

classroom practices using educational technology. The second section will

explore the evolving uses of educational computer technoiogy in general and in

second language education specifically and the reactions of teachers to this

innovational technology. A proposed theoretical framework defining teacher

belief systems towards educational innovation will be outlined in the third

section, followed by examples of how this applies to second language

educational contexts.

The Nature of Teachine Teacher Belief Svstems

and Educational Innovation

It is generally accepted that teachers' belief systems significantly affect

their classroom practice (Cuban, 1986; Fullan & Hargreaves, 1992; Kennedy &

Kennedy, 1996; Nespor, 1987; Newman, 1987). These belief systems guide

teachers in their classroom behaviour, and act as support when change and

innovation threaten this behaviour (Cuban, 1986; Nespor, 1987). The

introduction of the computer medium into educational contexts can significantly

transform educational environments, often necessitating dramatic redefinition of

teacher and learner roles (Bumett, 1998). In order to effectively integrate this

technology into the dassroom context, teachers must adjust their practices, often

entailing a redefinition of belief systems. As a result, computers, like other forms

of educational innovation, have often met with institu tionalised resistance that

has been cultivated within the teaching profession (Cuban, 1986).

Institutionalised Resistance

Throughout the past century the teaching profession has been confronted

with change and attempts to revitalise educational practices resulting from

evolving perspectives on the psychology of learning, political influences, and

technological innovation. In spite of these repetitive attempts to transform

educational systems, the nature of teaching has in many ways remained

relatively immune to these threatened changes. Contributing to this resiliency is

the nature of the teaching profession itself, which is uniquely steeped in tradition

and culture. Teaching is one of the few professions where every new employee

has learned first-hand about the job for an estimated 13,000 hours, and has been

totally conditioned into the culture of teadung. Those going into teaching have

usually been cornfortable with the teaching practices they have experienced and

have tended to reaffirrn rather than challenge educational systems (Cuban, 1986).

As a result, teacher belief systems have remained deeply ingrained and

perpe tua ted through the generations.

Teaching is also a profession with vague and often contradictory goals

that are characterised by a paradox of constancy and change (Cuban, 1986).

Teachers are often responsible for ensuring their students obtain learning

ou tcomes that are qui te contradictory. These conflicting expectations of

educational systems have induded goals such as:

socialise d l children, yet cultivate individual crea tivity

teach literature, classical knowledge but ensure practical skills for

marketability

demand obedience to authonty but encourage individual thought and

aï ticism

cultivate cooperation, but prepare children to compete (Cuban, 1986, p.2)

In order to cope with these conflicting messages, teachers have

constructed a practical pedagogy, based largely on their belief systems that

provide a supportive framework in such chaotic environment. Many of the

problems that occur in the contexts in which teachers work are "ill-defined" and

"deeply entangled", reinforang their reliance on individual belief systems which can make relative sense of such contexts (Nespor, 1987, p.324). Beliefs and

attitudes therefore become a source of guidance in times of uncertainty and "play

a major role in defining teaching tasks" (Dwyer et al., 1990, p.39).

Given the ins titutionalised nature of teacher belief sys tems, the stagnancy

that has characterised educational systems is somewhat understandable.

Teachers have developed a pedagogy that functions well in these continuously

threatened contexts and has maintained continuity between generations while

encouraging individual change in duldren (Cuban, 1986). When confronted with

innovation and change as in the case of educational technology, teachers are

understandably resistant. Resistance to change has been instilled in an

educational environment where comfort and security have been continually

threatened by outside influences and a practical pedagogy has been constmcted

in defence (Henson, 1987).

Within this defensive pedagogical environment, scholars have noted a

number of specific reasons for resistance to computer-based innovations within

the general teaching profession. In his review of the recurring cycle of resistance

to technological innovations over the past eighty years, Cuban (1986) states that

teachers opera te under a system of "constrained choice", altenng classroom

behaviour selectively to the degree that technologies help them solve problems

they define as important (p.70). Teachers will evaluate technological innovations

according to a developed "practicality ethic", which measures persona1 cost to

integrate the technology versus its return and efficiency. If the innovation is not

compatible with the educator's beliefs, attitudes, past experiences and / or

teaching context, the likelihood of the innovation's success is substantially

diminished (Kennedy & Kennedy, 1996). Teachers, as practical professionals,

have been suspitious of daims and promises surrounding technical innovation

such as cornputers, without clear proof of their effectiveness. There has been a

tendency to question the legitimacy of video-based cornputer software and

innovations that resemble forms of popular entertainment rather than serious

educational tools (Albaugh, 1997).

The Chaneing Classroom Environment

Adding to these reasons for resistance, computers, unlike previous, more

passive technological innovations su& as radio and television, have been shorvn

to significantly affect the social environrnent of the dassroom (Bumett, 1998;

Cuban, 1986,1993; Dwyer et al., 1990; Schofield, 1995). A hiadic relationship has

been reported to develop in computer-mediated environments where the

computer CO-produces the learning dong with the teacher and students (Burnett,

1998). The computer acts as a third participant in the dassroom, dramatically

altering the social dynamic within the dassroom by trawforming teacher-student

interaction and teacher-student roles. Consequently, the role of the teacher

redefines itself and requires substantial organizational change and psychological

preparation to adapt to this new educational environment. Learning

environrnents using computers have been known to become increasingly learner-

centred, shifting teaching methodology away from a transmissive, teacher-

fronted approach into a more collaborative, constructivist method (Armstrong et

al., 1994; Starr, 1996; Warschauer, 1998a). Distractions resulting from noise,

monitors and the nature of the computer medium transform teachers into

facilitators, necessitating considerable changes in teacher practice, often

fundamentally challenging teacher belief systems. As a result, the intense

human interaction between teacher and students that has characterised teaching,

where imagination, improvisation and teacher-student rapport are highly

esteemed, is transformed by machine-student exchanges that teachers can find

disillusioning (Cuban, 1986; Schofield, 1995).

Cornputers as an educational innovation can also significantly threaten a

teacher's sense of authority and cornpetence in the classroom. As the computer

is a relatively recent form of technology, many teachers feel uncomfortable using

a computer and have little experience and training integrating this technology

into the classroom. It has been reported that teachers receive less technical

support than does any other group of professionals (Investing i ~ z tenclters,l995).

While computers occupy the desks of most professionals in North Amenca,

teachers are often left with limited access. In classrooms, it is generally students

using computers who have been brought up in technological environments, and

are often much more comfortable with computers than teachers, contributing to

the loss of authority felt by teachers and the potential threat educators face from

this technology.

Lack of Trainine and S u ~ ~ o r t -

The majority of teachers who do venture into cornputer-assisted

instruction often do so at their orvn expense, using their own resources, time and

equi pmen t (Inves f ing in tendiers, 1995). As educational budgets tighten, career

development is often one of the first areas to be eliminated, leaving educators

lvi thout any significant technical and pedagogical training to comprehensively

integrate this technology into their practices. A study on sources of training for

teachers familiar with computers (11zvesti?tg in tediers, 1995) found that 96

percent of these teachers report being self-taught with fa. fewer undergoing any

established, comprehensive, institutionally-based training. Given this endemic

lack of professional development to prepare teachers for the integration of this

dynamic educational medium combined wi th the insti tutionalised belief systems

cultured into this profession, teachers are often reluctant and unprepared to

modify their practices to include this te ch no log^ for benefits that are largely

undefined and uncommunicated (Kassen & Higgins, 1997).

Another factor shaping teachers' belief systems towards cornputer

technology has been the fact that the introduction of this innovation has often

been dictated from external authonties. By its nature, teaching has been a

relatively independent, often isolated profession where teachers have had to

exercise persona1 control over their classroom environment, and are therefore

reluctant to accept innovations initiated from higher authorities in a top-down

manner that may in tum threaten their authority (Terrell et al., 1995).

These perceived threats that computers have on conventional teaching

practices have contributed to a documented underuse of cornputer technology in

educational settings. A number of studies examining the use of computers by

educators and their belief systems towards this new medium found that, even in

schools where computers were readily available, this technology was rarely used

(Marcinkiewicz, 1994; Moore et al ., 1998; Sofranova, 1993). Sofranova (1993)

found that, in spite of a positive attitude among teachers regarding the use of

cornputers, the technology was used on a regular basis by less than eight percent

of the teachers in the schools studied. Marcinkiewicz (1994) exaniined 170

teachers in elementary school settings, in which computers had been readily

available for over three years, and found that nearly half (45%) did not use

computers at all, rvhile almost the remaining half (47%) used computers

minimally and not integraliy to their teaching. This is significant as Cuban (1986)

describes elementary s&.ool environments as the most conducive to innovation

given teachers' increased flexibility with scheduling and their increased contact

hours with students. Reasons for this underuse of computer technology,

included pragmatic considerations such as la& of accessibility, training, time or

familiarity with computers (Moore et al, 1998; Sofranova, 1993), and an absence

of specific personality traits among some teachers who lacked innovativeness

and self-confidence (Marcinkiewicz, 1994). In survey research conducted to

identify qualities among teachers who had adapted to using computers in their

instruction, Marcinkiewicz (1994) conduded that high degrees of i~ovativeness

and self-cornpetence were characteristic among the smail percentage (8%) of

teachers who substantially integrated computers in their practice.

In a longitudinal study, sponsored by Apple Cornputer Incorporated,

researchers found that it was not until teachers had undergone one or two years

of working in a dramatically reformed and supported educational environment

that their inherent belief systems towards teaching and learning began adopting

more constructivist approaches, characteristic of the cornputer environrnent

(Dwyer et al., 1990). These researched environments were specifically designed

and supported to facilitate cornputer-mediated iearning. Each teacher and

student was given a laptop computer and al1 participants underwent

comprehensive training to familiarise themselves with the technology. The

results from this research, reporting a substantial adjustment period for the

adaptation of teacher belief systerns in such a dramatically transformed and

unreal is ticall y supported environment, demonstra tes the challenge to e ffectively

integrate computer technology into educational environments. Understandably,

Dwyer and colleagues paint an optimistic picture of computer integration in

these ACOT (Apple Classrooms of Tomorrow) schools given the biased nature of

this corporate sponsorship. However, the revelation from this study is that in

spite of the exaggeratedly comprehensive implementation, that would be quite

unli kely in the majority of educational environments, i t took substantial effort,

resources, support and time for teachers to become confident with this modified

teaching environment.

Contributing to this difficulty in adapting teaching practices to the

transformed computensed dassroom is the fact that much of current educational

curriculum has been principally designed to be delivered in conventional

teaching and learning environrnents. As a result, the integration of the computer

medium, which tends to encourage constructivist, more student-centred

learning, requires substantial effort on the part of teachers to adapt computêr use

to this conventionally designed curriculum. Dwyer and colleagues noted that

"although the sheer number of computers in ACOT classrooms radically

transformed the physical environment, for the most part student learning tasks

remained unchanged in the early years" (p.10). One teacher in the ACOT study

summarised the challenge that teachers face when integrating computer

technology by stating, "1 guess 1 have to redise that what 1 am doing is leaming

how to undo my thinking" (p.23).

Reported Benefits of Cornouter Technolopv and Second Laquage Learning

Despite these factors inhibiting pedagogical innovation using computer-

assisted instruction, there has been a gradual, increasing awareness of the

benefits that the computer medium can afford leaming environments. In the

area of second language learning, the computer's use has evolved through

various stages, refiecting technological developments and historical changes in

second language pedagogical theory. The computer, like the book, is essentially

a medium through which any format of educational delivery can take place. As

a result, cornputer-mediated language learning approaches have ranged from

behaviounstic form-focused learning to cross-cultural exchanges, multi-modal

simulation-based language practice, to collaborative learner-centred activities

(Brett, 1997; Cardillo, 1997; Chun, 1994; Levy, 1999; Moore et al., 1998;

Vvarschauer, 1998a).

Throughout the recent history of computer-mediated language learning,

the reported benefits of computer integration on student learning have been

wide-ranging and varied. Benefits have included increased target language

comprehension through the cornputer's rnulti-modal presentation of language

(Bre tt, 1997; Wen, 1 W6), increased linguistic competence (Cardillo, 1997; Nagata,

1996; Nu tta, 1999), and increased cultural understanding through Intemet access

to authentic, target language cornrnunities (Burnett, 1998; Lee, 1997; Osuna, 1998;

Singhal, 1998). Networked computer environments have encouraged leamers to

adopt more active roles in discourse management, and have promoted greater,

more egalitarian participation and increased peer interaction (Chun, 1994; Kern,

1995; Warschauer, 1998b). Computer-mediated second language learning

environments have been shown to provide a positive affective environment,

offering an empowenng, learner-centred, motivating atmosphere, that actively

engages learners in the language learning process (Chun, 1994; Warschauer,

1996c, 1998a). This environment has been shown to provide increasingly

individualised insûuction, targeting individual learner styles where leamers can

work at their own pace in an anxiety-reduced context, resulting in increased

second language intake (Grace, 1998; Shen, 1999; Vi teli, 1989).

Second Lamuane Teacher BeIief Svstems and

Cornputer-Mediated Educational Environments

However, despite the reported benefits of computer integration in second

language educational programs, research has demonstrated that the computer

remains minimally used in second language dassrooms as observed in the few

studies available (Harvey, 1987; Hopwood, 1989; Leh 1995; Moore et al., 1998;

Olsen, 1980). Reported reasons for the undenise of the computer medium

principally result from cultural, organizational and pedagogical constraints, and

research only minimally alludes to constraints denved from teacher belief

systems. Issues discussed underlying this lack of use range kom computer

illiteracy, technophobia among teachers and computer inaccessibility to

entrenched teacher-fronted methodologies reinforced by educational

administrative bodies and local communities (Cormor, 1984; Dunkel, 1987;

Easûnent, 1986; Pickard, 1994). In a study of 388 public elementary and high

school foreign language teachers' use of technology in teadiing foreign language

culture, Moore, Morales and CareI (1998) identified the characteristics and

experiences of teachers and their resulting use of technology in the dassroom.

Their analysis revealed that teachers of Japanese integrated technology most

frequently into their curriculum, compared to teachers of other foreign

languages, likely due to their familiarity with computer networking software

used during the in-service training programs of these Japanese instntctors.

While this hypothesis suggests that familiarity with technology made these

teachers appreciate and value the potential that computerised approaches offer

their teaching practices, nothing was expliatly analysed concerning the effect

this previous cornputer experience had on influencing these teachers' belief

systems.

In a discussion of technophobia among language teachers, Connor (1984)

equates technophobia with a defensive response to innovation, observations that

have been echoed by other scholars examining general teacher resistance to

technology (Cuban, 1986; Dwyer et al, 1990; Henson, 1987). In an examination of

the use of concordancers' in Hong Kong schools, Pickard (1994) described the

surprising degree of cornputer phobia arnong teachers, who see the computer as

a subject to be taught, rather than a tool to be used in teaching (p.308). She also

noted that the traditional Hong Kong classroom culture socially constrains the

introduction of computers into non-cornputer-based subjects, as teachers fear a

loss of authority. Pickard noted that as many English second language teachers

are less than fluent in English in Hong Kong, as in many other parts of the world,

their dependence on fixed, more conventional, secure classroom methods

increases, making the threat of more constnictivist approaches introduced by

computers increasingly threatening.

' Concordancers are simple cornputer prograrns that can quickly analyse electronic texts to find occurrences of a given word, part of a word or phrase and display it within its irnmediate context.

Much of the research on second language teacher belief systems towards

computer technology notes positive, someivhat enthusiastic attitudes towards

this medium among many teachers, but observes little integration of the

technology into tead-iing practices (Diamond, 1997; Harvey, 1987; Hopwood,

1989; Leh, 1995; Moore et al., 1998). For example, in her survey of foreign

language inshctors attending technology training sessions at Arizona State

University, Leh (1995) noted that while the 12 teachers questioned had positive

attitudes towards computer technology before and after the training, few had

used it in their practice. Çhe condudes that the integration of technology

requires a major adjustment to teaching practice that conhadicts conventional

practice in many ways and therefore requires considerable adjustment in

teaching philosophies (p. 334). Dunkel (1987) summarises some of the issues

concerning teacher resistance to computer integration in her discussion of the

past dilemmas and future prospects for CALL and cites the issue of redefinition

of teacher roles prompting skepticism among teachers. She also notes attitudes

that viewed cornputer-assisted instruction (CAI) as an unsuitable academic

instructional tool, that teachers would often interject themselves between

programmed instructional materials and students, in an attempt to regain some

control (p.251). Dunkel concludes by stating that "a further impediment to

rvidespread adoption of CA1 surfaced in the perceived threat to the classroom

teacher in the teacher-versus-machine shuggle for stage centre in the dassroom"

(p.259), reinforcing the presence of institutionalised resistance among the

teaching profession against a more constnictivist transformation. Harvey (1987)

noted generai enthusiasm about cornputer technology used in foreign language

composition instruction in a survey of 208 instructional faculty, but a significant

number of instmctors felt threatened by the computer and some questioned the

quality of writing done using this technology.

Inadequate Training and Suv~ort

Contributing to this fear of cornputer technology is the pervasive lack of

û-aining, professional development and required time for this development in

second language educational institutions that have incorporated computer

technology. In 1991/92, Michael Levy (1999) surveyed 104 CALL practitioners

from 18 countries to establish factors for successful use of this educational

technology. In addition to prodaiming the teacher as the most important factor

in the success of CALL, respondents agreed that time for staff education and

matenals development was of the utmost importance in ensuring successful

integration of this innovational technology. Aside from time as the most

important factor, whch Levy says is often the most overlooked, appropriate

facilities must be provided and teachers must harbour a sincere understanding

and appreciation of the potential of this teduiology in their teaching practice for

it to be effectively integrated. In order for this to happen, Levy reports that

respondents strongly acknowledge the need for institutional decision-makers to

be convinced of the value of CALL. Only then will enough support be

coordinated along with staff release time for educational and materials

development purposes. Unfortunately, given the current cornmitment to CALL

in many language institutions, technology is integrated to Save money on

teachers or to provide a less costly educationai service, further compounding

teacher negativity and resistance to t h s educational technology (Levy, 1999).

de fin in^ - Teacher BeIief Svstems

WhiIe issues of second language teacher resistance to computer

technology have been discussed in a number of studies (Diamond, 1997; Dunkel,

1987; Harvey, 1987; Hopwood, 1989; Lam, 2000; Leh, 1995; Moore, 1998). the

nature of the relationships among factors contributing to teacher belief systems,

which ultimately influences teachers' use of technology, remains ill-defined.

Earlier research generally limits its analysis to attitudes or beliefs which are often

discussed interchangeably, neglecting hrther analysis of the multiple factors that

may be contributing to those belief systems, thereby failing to define belief

terminology (Cuban, 1986; Diarnond, 1997; Dwyer et al., 1990; Harvey, 1987;

Hopwood. 1989; Leh, 1995; Moore et ai., 1998; Olsen, 1980; Schofield, 1995). Even

within the literature that discusses the impact of computer technoiogy on

educational environments in general, very few scholars specifically attempt to

define the complex, multiple variables that create belief systems.

Within the literature that attempts to break down the complexity of factors

directing teacher behaviour, there appears to be little consensus and substantial

confusion over definitions of factors constituting belief systems, and their

composite impact on teaching practice. A number of scholars take a

comprehensive view of attitudes as being made up of cognitive and affective

elements, not referring to beliefs (Kennedy & Kennedy, 1996, p.355). For

example, a study by Kluever, Lam, Hoffman, Green and Sweanngen (1994)

revealed that teachers' attitudes towards computers have distinctive affective

and evaluative components. Nespor (1987), on the other hand, in her discussion

of teacher belief systems, defines beliefs as relying heavily on affective and

evaluative components. Sofranova (1993) who specifically studied teacher

attitudes towards computer technology, defines attitudes as a somewhat

subconscious state which would be revealed "without thinking too much" (p.7).

Newman (1987) writes of the importance of uncovering assumptions when

teaching, again implying that subconsaous belief systems influence teaching

practice. In a discussion of teacher belief systerns, Lowther and Sullivan (1994)

acknowledge that numerous factors including teachers' needs, wants, beliefs,

and practices, as well as educational settings are important in determining

attitudes towards the use of technology in teaching. In a study examining

teacher attitudes towards an innovational teaching approach in Hong Kong

schooIs, researchers found again that despite positive attitudes towards the

innovation, contextual constraints, attributed partly to soaological and cultural

biases, limited the integration of this innovation in the curriculum (Morris, 1988).

A number of studies have more recently identified specific factors

influencing teacher attitudes, beliefs towards computers and subsequent use of

computer applications in education by teachers. A study examining Mexican

teachers and high school students across different states in Mexico found that

teacher and student attitudes towards computers were influenced by issues of

access to computer technology and the degree of quality of computer equipment

(Morales, 1998). In this shidy, more general access and better quality and variety

of computer applications resulted in more positive attitudes towards computers

among both students and teachers.

Two studies found that perceptions of the functionality or uG:ity of

computers had an influence on teacher attitudes and beliefs towards computer

technology in education (McEneaney, Soon, & Linek, 2000; Mitra et al., 1999).

One of these studies examined pre-service teacher attitudes towards computer

technology and found four factors intluencing these attitudes. These four factors

consisted of the teachers' general attitudes towards computers, positive feelings

about computers, negative reaction towards computers and their perceptions of

the utility of computers (McEneaney et al., 2000). This study based itself on an

earlier study by Woodrow (1991) that had identified three significant factors, one

representing positive attitudes toward cornputers, the second defining the soaal

and educational impact of computers and the third desaibed as a manifestation

of computer anxiety. Another study (Mitra et al., 1999) concluded that positive

expectations about the functionality of cornputer technology positively affected

the degree of computer use among college faculty. A study by Lam (2000) found

that the principal reason affecting second language teacher choices to use

educational technology in practices stems from teachers' persona1 beliefs in

technology's benefits. Lam found that the main reason underlying a second

language teacher's intention to use technology depended on whether that teacher

rvas personally convinced of the benefits of technology in second language

insbuction.

Increased computer experience has also been linked to more positive

attitudes towards computers in education (McCain et al., 1999). Research

examining relationships between expenence with networked computing and

attitudes towards computers (McCain et al., 1999) found that increased

experience with networked computers lead to a higher sense of power and

control over this technology and more positive attitudes towards compu ters.

Aizen's Theorv of Planned Behaviour

As can be seen, there are many interpretations of the numerous factors

influenang teacher behaviour and to what degree attitudes and beliefs represent

cognitive, affective or evaluative qualities. In a discussion of factors influenang

teacher behaviour, Kennedy and Kennedy (1996, p.354) cite Ajzen (1988), a soaai

psychologist, who proposes a theory of plamed behaviour that attempts to

clarify the complrx inter-relationships between beliefs, attitudes and actions,

suggesting that one's behaviour depends on a number of internaliy motivating

factors. In the context of implementing educational innovation, Ajzen's theory

distinguishes between attitudes and beliefs, stating that beliefs are cognitive and

reflect the knowledge or information an individual has about a specific

innovation, whereas attitudes refIect an individual's affective and evaluative

response to that innovation (p.355). Beliefs form the foundations of not only

attitudes, but also what Ajzen refers to as subjective norms and perceived

behavioural control. Subjective norms are an individual's perceptions of what

authority figures and others believe about that innovation. Perceived

behavioural control describes an individual's perceptions of one's degree of

conh-01 over his/ her capability of implementing the innovation. This perception

of control can be internai, relating to one's confidence and/or skills necessary to

implement the innovation, or can be extemal constraints limiting an individual's

conbol over the innovation. These three factors: attitudes, subjective norms and

perceived behavioural control, al1 influenced by one's beliefs, together shape an

individual's intentions whch eventually translate into specific actions applying

the i ~ o v a t i o n .

Teacher Belief Svstems Towards Educational Innovation: A Theoretical De finition

Kennedy and Kennedy (1996, p.359) note that while Ajzen's theory

clarifies the complexity of beliefs that underlie behaviour, it lacks a dynamic

quality integrating factors such as past expenence including positive and

negative feedback, and increasing familiarity with an innovation, that can in tum

shape one's attitudes. In response to this lack of a comprehensive model of

teacher belief systems, 1 have proposed the following diagram (Figure 1)' which

presents a more fluid and comprehensive interpretation of the relationships that

exist among the complex factors influencing teacher behaviour towards

educational innovation. This model is based on Kennedy & Kennedy's (1996,

p.354) interpretation of Ajzen's theory of planned behaviour, in the context of

teacher behaviour towards educational innovation, but is enhanced with

influential factors such as past experience, which c m significantly affect core

beliefs and attitudes towards an innovation. The model illustrates more fluid

and interconnected re!ationships arnong the multiple factors that influence

teacher practice in the context of educational innovation such as computer

technology .

Belie f Sy stems

Past experience

Attitudes

Beliefs Perceived expec tations Intentions

3 + L Actions Perceived control

Figure 1

Factors influencing teacher behaviour towards educational innovation

In this model, teacher belief systems originate from beliefs or acquired

knowledge about the innovation, which are cognitive in nature and form a

central part of the belief system. These beliefs then combine with a number of

factors including: perceived feelings of control over the innovation (perceived

control), perceptions of societal, cultural and collegial beliefs about the innovation (perceived expectations), and attitudes which are affective and

evaluative feelings about the innovation. A teacher's past experience is also

significant in this mode1 as 1 believe it influences a teacher's core beliefs about the

potential of the innovation and at the same time becomes part of the more

affective, evaluative attitudes towards the innovation. In addition, a teacher's

perceptions of both interna1 and external control over the innovation will

influence actions using the innovation. This is particularly relevant in the context

of technological innovation, for no matter how enthusiastic a teacher is towards

an educational innovation, confidence using the innovation and accessibility to

that innovation are centrai factors in its use in his/her teaching practice.

Together, these intercomected factors direct intentions and achid practice using

the innovation.

To further clarify this theory of the multiple factors shaping a teacher's

behaviour, let us consider an example of an individual second language teacher

ivho reads an article by a prominent scholar such as Mark Warschauer (1996a) on

the effectiveness of computer networking in second language learning.

Accepting Warschauer's conclusions, the teacher then adopts the belief that using

computer networking in a second language classroom encourages increased

participation and increased target language writing quality. While the teacher

believes in the potential of this innovation, the teacher's attitudes and subsequent

beliefs derived from this newly accepted knowledge will be affected by his/her

past expenence using computer multimedia software, when the systems kept

crashing, students were continually distracted and wouldn't stay on task (past

experience). His/her intentions will also be influenced by feelings of

unfamiliarity and lack of self-confidence with this networking system and

perceptions that a number of students in the class use cornputers regularly and

will be mucli more familiar with the system than him/her, resulting in potential

embarrassment (perceived control). His/ her intentions to implement this

networking activity may however be favourably influenced by perceptions that

external authority figures such as the educational ministry and school

administration have encouraged the use of computer applications in curriculum

over the past year (perceived expectations), as witnessed by the recently

completed computer lab faalities and newsletters on integrating teduiology into

the classroom. These factors will together shape this teacher's intentions and

subsequent actions to adopt or reject the use of these computer faalities into

his / her second language cumculum.

Should perceived community opinions favouring computer use and

his/ her new knowledge of the benefits of networking outweigh this teacher's

persona1 insecurity and negative experience with the technology, computer

technology will likely be integrated into his/her curriculum. Over time, this

teacher's subsequent perceptions of the effectiveness of the technology will

further influence hs/ her attitudes and beliefs positively or negatively towards

the use of this technology, based on increased experience. However, ths being

said, should the recently installed computer laboratory be unavailable, as a result

of maintenance problems for example, the teacher's actions will be constrained

by this situation (perceived control), despite favourable intentions to use the

technology. This issue of accessibility which falls under perceived control is

extremely significant in the area of computer technology, as many teachers, with

the best of intentions, who wouid Iike to use this technology in their teaching, are

constrained by issues of technology access in their teaching environments.

This proposed model attempts to offer a more holistic definition of the

causal relationships among the varied contextual and behavioural factors that

define teachers' intentions and actions concerning educational innovation such

as cornputer technology. It is evident that more than attitudes or beliefs shape a

teacher's behaviour when confronted with educational innovation. This model

helps to explain why there often exists a mismatch between expressed attitude

by teachers and their actual teaching practice (Kennedy & Kennedy, 1996).

Summarv

As has been shown, teacher belief systems are a network of multi-faceted

factors originating from a variety of sources. The insular nature of the teadiing

profession is one factor that has conhibuted to institutionalising teacher belief

systems that in tum have sheltered the teaching profession from undergoing

dramatic change over the last century (Cuban, 1986). Teacher belief systems

have been charactensed by a resistance to change and have been reported to

contribute to resistance to educational innovation su& as educational technology

( Albaugh, 1997; Cornor, 1984; Eashnent, 1986; Schofield, 1995; Sofranova, 1993).

Despite the xsearched potential of educational technology such as computer

technology, this technology often remains minimally used (Moore et al., 1998).

In second language education programs, a range of potential benefits of

cornputer-mediated language learning has been documented (Cardillo, 1997;

Singhal, 1998; Warschauer, 1998a). However, this technology has rarely been

used and little research has analysed the influence of second language teacher

belief systems on integrating this technology into second language teaching.

In an attempt to clanfy the complex nature of teacher belief systems

towards educational innovation, a proposed theoretical definition of these belief

systems was outlined. This mode1 illustrates the influencing factors of cognitive

knowledge about an innovation and the impact of attitudes, past experience,

perceived expectations and perceived sense of control over the innovation and

how thêse factors direct intentions and action using the innovation. This

framework will provide the theoreticai foundation of this research and will be

further exarnined and defined in the discussion of the results of this study. It is

hoped that this research will furiher refine the definition of teacher belief systems

towards edwational innovation and show the impact of these belief systems on

action and intended action to integrate the technology into teaching practices.

Chapter 3 outlines the methodology used in ths research.

Chapter 3

Research Methodoiogy

This chapter, divided into three sections, describes the research design, the

participants and the methods used in this survey research. The first section

describes the research design for the shidy. The second section describes the

participants. The third section describes the procedures adopted for the study,

including the instruments used for data collection (locus group questions,

questionnaires), along with the analysis of the focus group data and the

quantitative and qualitative analyses of questionnaire data.

Research Desi=

In order to obtain a broad oveMew of the multiple factors contributing to

college-level ESL instructors' belief systems towards cornputer-mediated

language, I adopted a survey research approach for this study. Surveys are

described as ideal research approaches for obtaining quantitative and qualitative

data on issues such as attitudes and beliefs, behaviour and for the measurement

of the intensity of feelings towards an item such as an educational innovation

(American Statistical Association, 1998). Suwey research appeared the best

suited to the research goals of this study, as survey research is knovvn to be an

efficient, effective means of eliciting a wide number of issues from a

representative subset of a sarnple population (Johnson, 1992).

As the goal of this research was to identify and desaibe second language

teacher belief systems towards cornputer-mediated language learning, a two-fold

approach was adopted beginning with initial focus group interviews, followed

by questionnaire-based survey research. Focus groups excel at providing in-

depth qualitative insights gleaned from a relatively small number of participants

(American Statistical Association, 1998). As a result, 1 decided that focus group

interviews would be appropriate instruments to effiaently obtain a broad variety

of second language teacher perspectives on cornputer-rnediated language

learning and an overview of the issues influencing teacher belief systems and

reported practices using cornputers. The information obtained from these focus

groups would then be used to modify and refine a draft version of a

questionnaire designed to examine individuai teacher belief systems and

reported action or intended action using computers in ESL practices.

Partici~ants

Al1 participants in this study were ESL instmctors with college-level

teaching experience. Partitipants were recruited from five college teaching

environments in an urban setting in Canada. These five surveyed ESL teaching

environments were based in four community colleges from the same urban

setting in Canada. Pseudonyms will be used to protect the confidentiality of the

participants in the study. The five coilege environments indude Turner College,

MacGregor College, Monfort College, Jadcson College and participants from an

English Language Institute within Jackson College, Jackson College English

Language Institute (ELI). These five college teaching environments offered a

range of computer access to ESL instructors and students, and offered a varied

and limited degree of computer integration in their ESL curriculum. For the f i rst

stage of this research, participants were recruited kom among two of these

college teaching environrnents for partitipation in focus group interviews. in the

second stage of this research, participants were recruited from ESL faculty within

the five college teaching environments and were invited to individually complete

questionnaires.

Focus Group Interview Participants

Two focus group interviews were conducted, one at Monfort College and

one at Jackson College ELI, to identify issues influencing second language

teacher belief systems towards cornputer-mediated language leaming and action

using computers in college-level ESL teaching. These two college environments

were selected as the Monfort College ESL teaching environment was

characterised by a general absence of computer integration in ESL cumculum,

while Jackson EL1 offered the most comprehensive integration of computer-

enhanced language leaming in their ~ m c u l u m among the five environments.

Monfort College had computer labs that ESL inshvctors could use, that were

reportedly rarely used on a voluntary basis. On the other hand, Jackson EL1 had

a minimum of seven hours weekly of cornputer-mediated language learning use

integrated into their ESL curriculum, two hours of which were instructor-driven.

Given these two substantially different degrees of computer accessibility and

integration, 1 thought that instructors working in these two different

environments, with a variety of computer exposure, may be able to present a

range of perspectives and information on the factors influencing teacher belief

systems towards computer-mediated language learning.

In order to ensure a variety of perspectives on these issues, a screening

process was developed to ensure individual focus group participants brought

with them to these interviews a range of teaching experience, exposure to

cornputer-mediated language learning and computer familiarity. A notice

informing potential participants of the purpose of this research, inviting them to

participate in these focus group interviews, was distributed to ESL faculty at

these two colleges (see Appendix A). Stipends of $30.00 were offered to selected

participants as compensation for their time and participation. Signed consent

forms were then revierved and potential participants were contacted and

questioned with a series of screening questions to ensure a range of teaching and

computer experience in each focus group (see Appendix B). Ten potential

participants were screened at each college. This screening procedure informed

potential participants of the research objectives, confirming their willingness to

participate, and ensured that focus group participants represented a wide range

of expenences and perspectives on cornputer-mediated language learning.

Following this screening process, six participants were selected for the

focus group interview at Monfort College and five participants were selected for

the interview at Jackson ELI. The six participants at Monfort College were al1

female ESL college instxuctors and possessed teaching expenence ranging from

hvo years to over 20 with a range of exposure to and expenence with computer-

mediated language leaming approaches. The five participants at Jackson College

EL1 consisted of four female participants and one male participant again offering

a range of teaching experience from five through 25 years, and a wider, more

practiced knowledge and experience using cornputers in ESL teaching.

Ouestionnaire Participants

Participants for the questionnaire stage of the research process were

recruited from al1 five suweyed colleges. Questionnaires with information

letters and an offer to partiapate were distributed to 155 potential participants

throughout these five teaching environments. This number of questionnaires

kvas deemed appropriate to ensure a response rate of approximately 65%,

ensuring a return of 100 questionnaires (Cox, 1996). The target of 100

questionnaires is desired as at least 96 partiapants are required to ensure a

representative sampling within 10% of any surveyed population estimated over

3000 individuds (Cox 1996, p.63).

The method of distribution of these materials varied in each of the five

environments, depending on administrative consent and recommendations. A t

Turner College, 26 questionnaires were distributed to ESL faculty currently

teachng at the college. At this college, 1 personalised questionnaire information

letters, having been given individual teacher names from administration,

included stamped, self-addressed envelopes and the ESL program coordinator

distributed the Ietters and questionnaires to potential participants. A t

MacGregor College, 1 distributed 20 questionnaires and information letters

direct1 y to poten tial participants and collected comple ted questionnaires during

an ESL faculty staff meeting. These questionnaires were distributed to

participants at the beginning of the meeting following a brief introduction to the

research and an invitation to participate. At Monfort College, 1 distributed 53

questionnaires directly to potential participants at a professional development

conference for ESL faculty. These questionnaires were accompanied by an

information letter and a return, inter-office envelope to ensure completed

questionnaires were retumed directly to my mailbox within the college. 41

questionnaires were distributed to potential participants at Jackson College

during a part-time ESL faculty meeting. This distribution, again, followed a bnef

introduction to the research and invitation to partiapate at the beginning of the

meeting, and I collected completed questionnaires from individual participants

during the meeting. Finally, 15 questionnaires, accompanied with information

letters and stamped, self-addressed envelopes were distributed to potential

participants at Jadcson College EL1 by administration at a full-time ESL faculty

staff meeting.

Research Procedures

This survey research approach consisted of two stages. The first stage

involved focus group interviews to identify and confirm issues influencing

second language teacher belief systems towards cornputer-mediated language

learning based on my theoretical framework. Responses from the focus group

interviews would be used to refine a general questionnaire used to survey

participants in these five colleges. The second stage involved the collection of

responses to individual questionnaires, eliciting individual teacher belief systems

and reported practices using computers from college-level ESL teachers.

Focus gr ou^ Interviews

Two focus group intenfiews were conducted lasting approximately an

hour in duration at two of the colleges suweyed. Following an introduction to

this research and participant introductions, a series of questions elicited

participants' views on pedagogical and innovational changes occurring in ESL

instruction over the past ten years and their predictions on changes over the next

10 years. Prompts guiding these interview discussions were derived from my

theoretical framework outlined in Chapter 2 of ths thesis (see Appendix C for

specific focus group interview procedures and questions).

Attempts were made to identify and confirm cognitive beliefs of the uses

of computers in second language instruction among these partiapants, to discuss

participants' past experiences using computers and the resulting impact on

beliefs and attitudes of computer use among these participants. Issues of control

were also discussed, identifying any training participants had undergone in

computer-mediated language learning and the impact of that training on belief

systems towards cornputer-mediated language learning. Prompts eliciting

expectations of the opinions of colleagues, students and administration were also

included to examine their impact on influencing participant belief systems

towards computer use in ESL instruction.

The interviews were tape recorded and selectively transcribed to isolate

recurring themes and factors influencing teacher belief systems towards

cornputer-mediated language learning. 1 also took notes during the interviews

and made an attempt to continually focus the discussions on the research issues.

These factors and themes identified witlun these interviews were then used to

refine and adapt the questionnaire instrument to more effectively elicit relevant

data from this sample population. A full description of the findings of these

group interviews and the impact of these findings on this study's questionnaire

developrnent are outlined in Chapter 4.

Ouestionnaire Research Procedures

The questionnaire (see Appendix D) was designed to elicit individual

teacher belief systems and reported practices using computers or reported

intentions to use computers in the future. The questionnaire instrument was

divided into three parts. The first part consisted of a series of Likert scale

statements eliciting belief systems towards cornputer-mediated language

learning. These statements were based upon the constructs defined in the

theoretical framework outlined in Chapter 2 and refined following the focus

group interviews. Çtatements were designed to elicit responses on statements

categorised within one of the following Eive constructs: cognitive beliefs about

the potential of computers in second language education, previous experience

with computers in ESL instruction, attitudes towards computers, perceived

expectations of colleagues' opinions about computers, and perceptions of one's

degree of control over this technology. Questions concerning the computer

attitude conshuct were based on the Technology Attitude Survey developed by

Terry A. McFarlane, Eleanor R. Hoffman and Kathy E. Green (1997) which was

shown to be a reliable measure of teacher attitudes towards technology in

general through numerous correlational and statisticd analyses.

The second part of the questionnaire eliated information about practices

using computers in ESL instruction or intentions to use computers in ESL

instruction in the future. This section began with a prompt determining

participant expenence with computer use in their ESL teaching. Following this

prompt, participants were guided into one of two branches. Those reporting

some experience using computers in their ESL teaching were instructed to

answer oniy the questions specifically on those experiences. In t h s section

questions elicited a profile of each insûuctor's experiences and thoughts on

hisfher experience using cornputer-mediated language learning. Issues

addressed included the location of the computer use, the types of computer

applications used, reasons for the use of these applications and the instmctor's

opinions about the usefulness of the computer as an educational tool.

Participants reporting no experience using computers were insh-ucted to answer

only those questions eliciting their reasons for not using computers in their

teaching, identifying barriers restncting their use and identifying their intentions

to use computers in the future.

The third section of the questionnaire elicited personal demographic and

expenential information on individual participants to determine if any of these

factors impact on teacher belief systems or practices. This section focused on

identifying age ranges, gender, educational background and teaching experience

of participants. It also attempted to elicit the degree of computer use on a

personal Ievel, familiarity with computer applications and any training received

on integrating computer technology into ESL instruction. This section also had a

question to ensure that al1 questionnaire participants in this study had college-

level ESL teaching experience.

Questionnaire ~ i l o t i n g Following modification of the questionnaire to

examine issues raised in the two focus group intewiews, a draft questionnaire

was finaIised and piloted. This draft questionnaire was piloted with ten ESL

instructors from Monfort College and from an educational institute at a major

university in the same urban area of the coileges. Six of the ten participants had

college-level teaching expenence. The remaining four were undertaking

graduate studies in second language education, but had al1 taught ESL to adults.

Piloting was conducted to eliminate any ambiguous or awkwardly worded

statements and to ensure clarity of instructions and appropnateness of the

instrument.

Partiapants were given a summary of the research objectives and asked to

note the time taken to complete the questionnaire and to critically note and edit

any awkwardly, undear phrases or statements. They were also asked to identify

any issues that they felt were relevant to this research and omitted from this draft

ques tiomaire.

Comments from partiapants piloting the questionnaire were generally

positive. However, a number of comments helped darify Likert scale statements

in Section 1 of the questionnaire. Some of the statements, as originally worded,

were somewhat undear and the piloting helped illustrate this. For exarnple, one

statement, original phrased 'classroom interaction' in the statement "1 would

miss the classroom interaction if I were to use computer in my teaching" was

changed to 'student-teacher interaction' to speafically focus on the interaction

and not the dassroom time. Some statements were omitted following feedback

from piloting participants. For example, one participant suggested that the

statement "the lack of technical support in my institution discourages me from

using computers" was not really relevant and that the real issue in college ESL

contexts is the issue of accessibility to teduiology, not technical support. While it

was recognised that both issues may affect belief systems and action using

computers, the issue of access appeared the most important to address in this

research as it would appear to dramatically Iimit teachers use and represent a

significant manifestation of the perceived control consh-uct in my theoretical

framework. As a result, the statement, as originally rvritten, was omitted and

this issue \vas integrated into the non-cornputer user branch in Part 2 of the

questionnaire.

Questionnaire collection and analvsis. As outlined above, questionnaires

from Turner College, Jadcson EL1 and Monfort College were sent directly to me

by individual participants in self-addressed, starnped envelopes. 1 collected

questionnaires from participants immediately upon completion at MacGregor

and Jackson colleges during ESL faculty staff meetings. To ensure an adequate

response rate of over 65% of the total distributed sample, follow up reminder

notices were sent to al1 potential participants from surveyed institutions.

Following a period of two weeks, reminder notices, accompanying

questionnaires and self-addressed inter-office envelopes were sent to a number

of potential participants at Monfort College, as return rates for this institution

were still well below the targeted 65%. Reminder notices were individually

addressed to participants at the individual workshops at the professional

development day conference. Following another week, 1 made phone calls to

these potential partiapants in an attempt to increase the response rate.

Quantitative data from the Likert scale and other sections of the

questionnaire rvere analysed using SPSS version 10.05. Responses on the Likert

scale section of the questionnaire were coded from one to five, whereas one

represented the most negative response towards computer-mediated language

leaming and five represented the most positive response. For example, with the

statement "1 enjoy using computers", strongly disagree was labelled one,

disagree was two, neither disagree nor agree was given a value of three, agree

was labelled four and strongly agree was labelled five. The coding of the

negatively rvorded statements was accordingly reversed to ensure the most

positive view of computers as educational tools was labelled five and the most

negative labelled one. This was done to facilitate the quantitative analyses of

these variables.

Descriptive statistical analyses were conducted on these Likert scale items

to report a general analysis of teacher belief systems towards computer-mediated

language learning. In addition, a principal component factor analysis was

conducted on the Likert scale belief system data to identify any common factors

or constructs linking the variables defined by this research. The purpose of the

factor analysis was to explain the relationships among these observed variables

in the Likert scale section of the questionnaire by extracting a smaller number of

unobserved conshcts (Rindskopf, 1992, p.486). These constructs would then be

examined, defined and compared to the constructs proposed in my theoretical

framework defining teacher belief systems. These extracted constmcts would

also then be used to faalitate the statistical analyses of belief systems, comparing

various participant groups to identify any factors influencing teacher belief

sys tems toward compu ter-mediated language learning. An alpha reliability

analysis was conducted on the extracird factors to verify the reliability of these

factors in explaining the variance of the selected variables.

Al1 partiapant written responses to open-ended questions were typed into

a word processing program and reviewed for any commonalities that could be

coded as new variables. Items recumng among ten or more partiapants were

coded into new variables if this information further described teacher belief

systems towards computer-mediated language learning or represented factors

influencing reported or intended actions using computers in ESL teaching.

Participant belief systems were compared through examining the

ditferences among the means of participant responses to the variables as grouped

by the factors extracted through the factor analysis. These factor-defined

response means were compared between participants grouped by demographic,

contextual and experiential aiteria. Two-tailed independent t-tests and one-way

analyses of variance (ANOVA) were conducted to compare differences among

these means of participant responses in order to identify demographic,

contextual and experiential factors influencing teacher belief systems and

reported or intended actions using computers among the study's participants.

Summary

This chapter desaibed the research methods used in this survey researdi

process, including the rationale for the design of this approach, the participant

recruitment process and the specific research procedures used in this study. A

factor analysis was used to identify theoretical conshcts linking the belief

system data and refining the theoretical definition of second language teacher

belief systems as outlined in my proposed theoretical framework. Through one-

way ANOVA and two-tailed independent t-tests, cornpansons were conducted

behveen the means of participant responses to the factor-grouped variables

defi ning teacher belief systems. These analyses were conducted to identify any

noticeable impact demographic, contextual and expenential factors may have on

teacher belief systems towards cornputer-mediated language learning and

reported actions and intentions using computers in ESL instruction. The findings

from this research process are descnbed fully in Chapter 4 to address the

research questions posed in Chapter 1:

1. What are second language teachers' belief systems towards computer-

mediated language leaming?

2. How do contextual factors, personal experience and perception of others'

expectations contribute to second language teachers' belief systems

towards the use of computers in second language education?

3. How do these belief systems affect second language teachers' intentions

and reported practices using computers?

Chapter 4

Results and Findings

This chapter reporting results is divided into three sections. The first

section outlines contextual factors characterising the rive surveyed teaching

environrnents. In the second section, a summary of observations and findings

from the focus group interviews is presented. The third section reports results

from the questionnaire research conducted in the five ESL college-level teaching

environments. This section includes descriptive statistical breakdowns of the

findings from this research and results of the factor analysis conducted on the

belief system data.

Contextua1 Factors in Surveved Teachine Environments

As this research is exarnining contextual factors that may influence teacher

belief systems towards cornputer-mediated language leaming, it is necessary to

outline differences and cornmonalities among the five teaching environments of

surveyed partiapants. A summary of characteristics of the five environments

suweyed ob tained from administrators is outlined in Table 4.1. Information

obtained includes the employrnent status of the faculty surveyed, the degree of

teacher accessibility to cornputer equipment, the breadth of software available

for student and teacher use, and the extent that computers are integrated into the

current teaching environment.

As one can see from Table 4.1, the employment status of faculty surveyed

varies depending on the college but ranges between full-time and part-time

facdty. ESL teaching in al1 but the Jadcson College English Language Institute

(ELI) environments may consist of teaching within post-secondary full-time or

continuing educational programs, English for Academic Purposes and/ or in the

federally funded Language Instruction for Newcomers to Canada (LINC)

program. Teaching in Jackson College EL1 generally accommodates foreign

students, imrnersing themselves in English for career or academic purposes.

Table 4.1

Overview of Surveved Colle~re Teachine Environments

College Computer

Faculty Lab Access Software Integration - - - - - - -

Turner Coilege PT,SESS, FT Optional Varied Adjunct

MacGregor College PT,SESS Optional Varied Adjunct

Monfort College PT,SESS,FT Optional Varied Adjunct

Jackson College PT No access

Jackson College EL1 FT Mandatory Varied Integra ted

Note. Information omitted where computer access is unavailable. PT = Part- time ernployment status (contracts of six hours a week or less); SESS = Sessional status (contracts of between twelve and sixteen hours a week); ET = Full-time status (permanently employed faculty).

Computer access in al1 five environments was Iimited to computer

laboratory contexts. No classroom environments had accessible computer

technology integrated within the dassroom. Computer laboratories for second

language students were accessible to ail but one of the five environments,

Jackson College Continuing Education, whereas only one of the remaining four,

Jackson College ELI, used the computers as an integral part of the ESL

curriculum. In al1 of the remaining three environments access generally

depended on the initiative of the ESL instructor, as computers were not

integrated into course cumculum. Turner College students studying in the post-

secondary (not the English for Academic Studies) section were encouraged to use

computers outside of class time and were offered a five percent bonus mark

incentive to spend at least one hour a week in the lab. Lab technicians, rather

than ESL inshuctors, supervised students in the computer labs at Turner and

MacGregor colleges and dunng five out of a total of seven hours of computer Iab

time scheduled at Jackson College EL1 where student participation was

conducted after face-to-face classroom hours. ESL insûuctors could coordinate

laboratory time at al1 colleges dunng dass hours where computer faalities were

accessible on a first-corne, first-served reserve basis. Jackson College EL1

required its students to spend a mandatory five hours a week in the techniuan-

monitored lab along with two hours a week in an instructor-lead listening

laboratory using cornputer equipment. Software available in all the labs ranged

from grammar-based programs to wn ting / editing support, and Intemet access.

Focus gr ou^ Interviews

Two focus group interviews were conducted at two of the surveyed

college teaching environments. The first i n t e ~ e w consisted of six college-level

ESL instnictors from Monfort College from a wide vanety of age groups, levels

of teaching experience and familiarity with cornputer-mediated language

leaming. The second group consisted of five college-level ESL instructors from

Jackson College EL1 with an equdly wide range of experience and age levels but

with generally increased exposure to computer-mediated language learning,

given the mandated integration of cornputer applications in their ESL

cumculum.

Focus Group Data

Responses from focus group participants were generally positive when

discussing the potential of cornputers in second language education but were

more wide-ranging and mtical about the current uses of computers in ESL

college-level education. Most participants agreed that computers offer second

language education a vanety of benefits induding: increased affective benefits,

acceçs to immense quantities of cultural resources and information, enhanced

opportunities for remedial and individualised support, and more egalitarian

access to communication mediums arnong al1 genders.

The discussions within these interviews revealed issues related to three

areas defining teacher belief systems towards computer-rnediated language

learning: teacher attitudes towards cornputers, the current educational

infrastructures within college-level learning environments and teacher

perceptions of the educational effectiveness of second language computer

applications. The following sub-section lists issues brought up in these three

categories.

Themes oresented in focus g o u ~ interviews constraining the use of computer-

mediated second l a n m a ~ e learning

Teacher Attitudes

Fear of using computers among second language teachers results from a

variety of factors including: inadequate computer training; la& of computer

experience; the overwheiming and mystifying nature of evolving technology;

generational factors resulting in a lack of exposure to computers among older

teachers; institutionalised educational and teaching experiences and

philosophies; and general unfamiliarity and discomfort with educational

corn puter technology

Ferceived loss of control in cornputer-enhanced environments where students

become distracted by technology, have superior computer Iiteracy and where

the cornputer-mediated environment dramatically changes the nature and

location of student-teacher classroom interaction.

Current Educational Infrastructure

Laboratory use and the absence of ESL inshuctor presence in laboratory

environments

Lack of thoughtful and pre-plamed pedagogical integration of computer

applications in current ESL cumculum discouraging computer use

Constraints imposed by ESL curriculum and the time limitations to explore

compu ter-enhanced teaching / leaming

Logistical difficulties in coordinating use of educational computer teduiology

including inadequate computer access, inadequate computer facitities,

technical and pedagogical support, and time required to coordinate and

prepare for computer use

Weaknesses of computer literacyl keyboarding skills of some ESL students

Educational Effectiveness of Second L a n m a ~ e Com~uter A~~l ica t ions

Pedagogical limitations of accessible software programs including limited

feedback, behaviouristic drill programs, and failin& inadequaaes of existing

word processing and second language educational software, inability of

software to interpret the nuances of language

Isolating nature of writing-based technology

Perceptions that the pedagogical effectiveness of computer applications in

second language learning has not yet been proven

When asked to identify factors contributing to second language teacher

beliefs towards cornputer-mediated language learning, participants agreed that

persona1 experience and computer use combined with computer training

significantly influenced instructor beliefs and attitudes towards computer-

rnediated language learning. One participant mentioned the importance of the

innovational nature of an individual's character, stating that instructors

embracing change would likely be more positive towards computer use and

related educational technologies. Sotietal hype and collegial expectations to use

computers were aiso identified as factors that influence teacher belief systems.

Most participants agreed that students value computer use, find

cornputers motivating and as a result administrative bodies have unfortunately

introduced computer technology with little pedagogical planning and adequate

integration. Some partiapants expressed a perception that the computer drives

the curriculum rather than the cumculum directing the use of the computer as

an second language educational tool. When asked their opinions on how they

see ESL instruction evolving in the future with respect to technology,

participants acknowledged the inevitability of increased computer use in second

language education and that ESL insû-uctors would soon be required to possess

the skills necessary to integrate computers into their practices.

The Impact of Focus gr ou^ Data on the Ouestionnaire

The exploratory nature of these focus group interviews introduced a

number of unantiapated themes relevant to the design of the questionnaire for

this research. Several of these issues were grouped according to the

corresponding construct within my theoretical framework and were then

incorporated into the Likert scale section of the questionnaire. These induded

the innovational nature of one's character and the degree to which ESL

instructors would embrace the challenge of integrating computer tedinology into

their ESL teaching. While being categorised as an attitudinal factor. I did

recognise that this newly introduced character-dependent variable (Likert scale

statement # 13) may be more than simply a manifestation of attitude and result

in a more permanent, independent construct. The issue of perceived limitations

of inadequate computer literacy among students and the converse threat of

superior student computer literacy was raised and prompted the creation of two

additional attitudinal statements (statements #16 and #7 respectively) eliating

teacher attitudes about the influence of student computer skills.

It appeared evident from these interviews that some teachers perceived a

lack of substantiaf proof that computers cm enhance second language learning.

resulting in the addition of a related statement (statement #9) into the

experiential construct to elicit views on this area. The impact of societal and

collegial pressure to use computers and be up-to-date with ths teduiology also

became more evident and prompted the inclusion of this element in the Likert

section of the questionnaire (statement #Il) categorised under the perceived

expectations construct. A statement to eliut opinions about the perceived change

in student-teacher interaction in cornputer-enhanced environments, brought up

in the interview data, was also included under the attitudinal conshc t

(statement #15). In addition to modifications to the Likert scale section of the

questionnaire, the potential impact of issues such as training, cornputer

accessibility and pedagogical and technical support became apparent and

necessi ta ted prompts wi thin the questionnaire to address these issues.

Ouestionnaire Findings

The following section will report the results from the questionnaire data.

including the distribution process, demographic data on individual participants,

and descriptive statistical breakdowns of belief system data. This will be

followed by results obtained from the factor analysis of the belief system data

and an alpha reliability analysis of this data. Statistical analyses exarnining the

impact of selected demographic and expenential data on teacher belief systerns

will then be presented. This will be followed by a descriptive statistical

breakdown of reported uses and intended uses of cornputer-mediated Language

leaming in ESL practices.

Ouestionnaire Distribution

117 completed questionnaires were returned from ESL teachers reporting

college-level teaching experience. From the original 155 distributed, this yielded

a total return rate of approximately 75.5%. Table 4.2 outlines specific details on

the number of questionnaires distributed and returned in each college teaching

environrnent and the percent each college group represents of the total sample of

returned surveys.

Table 4.2

Questionnaire Distribution and Collection Der College

College No.Distributed No.Returned % Returned % of Total

Turner College 26 22 84.6 18.8

MacGregor College 20 20 100.0 17.1

Monfort College 53 26

Jackson College 41 39 95.1 33.3

Jackson College EL1 15 10 66.7 8.5

Totals 155 117 75.5 100.0

Ouestionnaire Participants

Of the 105 questionnaires indicating gender, 81 (77.1%) were completed

by females and 24 (22.9%) by males. Twelve partiapants did not indicate gender

on their questionnaires. Addi tional demographic data outlining level of

education, age ranges and teaching experience are outiined in Table 4.3-

Table 4.3

Descriptive Statistics on Teachers' Level of Education. Aees and Exuerience

Education Level No. Ages No. Experience No.

TESL Certificate 72 20-29 12 (1 year 7

Bachelof s level 71 30 - 39 32 1 - 5 34

Masters level 37 40 - 49 38 6-10 27

Doctoral level 4 50 or over 32 1 1 -20 27

<20 years 18

Missing data 3 4

When asked to identify computer applications used on a regular basis, a

large majority of the 117 instructors reported using e-mail (82.9%), word

processing (88%) and the Internet (76.1%) regularly. Only 3.4% of respondents

reported not using a computer on a regular basis. Reported weekly per hour

computer use ranged among the 116 responding partiapants as outlined in Table

4.4 with the majority of partiapants (n=65 or 55.6%) using computers behveen

one and seven hours a week.

Few partiapants reported having received training in computer-mediated

language learning. Over half of the responding participants (n=58 or 50.4%)

indicated having received no training on integrating computers in ESL

instruction. 32 (27.8%) of the total 115 responding participants indicated

engaging in some degree of self-training. Of the 25 participants having received

some training on cornputer-mediated language leaming, the majority (76%)

report some degree of informal training from colleagues as outlined in Table 4.5.

Table 4.4

Reported WeekIv Use of Com~uters amone ESL Teachers

-

Hoursweek of Computer Use -

Frequency Percent

None

Fewer than 1

1 - 3

4 - 7

7 - 10

More than 10

Missing data

Totals 117 100.0

Table 4.5

mes of Cornputer-based ESL Teacher Training Received

Types of Training No. Percentage of Total with Training

College-sponsored

Self-funded & Self-initiated

Informa1 from colleagues

Informal from friends

Total indicating training

Teacher Belief Svstems Towards Cornauter-Mediated L a n w e Learning

Descriptive statistical breakdowns summarising participant responses to

Part One of the questionnaire (the Likert scale statements), defining partiapant

belief systems, are listed in Table 4.6. The figures listed are the number of

participants per category and not the percentages of participants.

By combining the agree and disagree response groups, one c m determine

a general sense of participant response to these individual statements. For

example, it is clear that the majority of instructors suweyed enjoyed using

computers (77% of respondents agreed or strongly agreed that they enjoy using

computers) and few felt nervous (8.6% of respondents agreed and strongly

agreed with statement #2) or threatened (4.2% agreed or strongly agreed with

statement ti7) by increased cornputer literacy arnong students. 56.5% of al1

participants reported enjoying the challenge of integrating cornputers into their

ESL practice over a 9.6% who reported not enjoying the challenge. Overall,

67.6% felt excited about the potential of computers in ESL teachng, whereas

9.4% reported felt no exatement. In spite of this general enthusiasm, a noticeable

25% of respondents did agree with the possibility of missing the student-teacher

interaction if using cornputers, whereas 44.8% reported not missing this

interaction.

Table 4.6

Instructor Res~onses to Belief Svstem - Statements

- --

Statement SD D AD A SA Total

Frequencies per Category

1.1 enjoy using cornputers. 1 4 22 54 36 117

2. Cornputers make me nervous 24 5û 32 10 O Il6

3. Computers can enhance leaming. 1 2 10 73 31 117

4. Computers improve my teaching. O 11 32 58 16 117

5. Computers motivate students. 1 9 43 49 13 115

6. Cornputers increase autonomy. 2 11 32 58 14 117

7.1 feel threatened using cornputers. 32 60 19 3 2 116

8. Cornputers distract ESL students. 13 68 26 10 O 117

9.1 need more proof that CALL works. 6 36 34 35 4 115

10.1 feel pressured to use cornputers. 17 57 29 13 1 117

11. Teachers need to know CALL. 1 13 24 64 14 116

12. I'm confident teaching with CALL. O 22 26 56 12 116

13.1 enjoy the challenge of cornputea. O 11 39 51 14 117

14.1 would use cornputers with training. 2 7 23 59 23 114

15.I'd miss student interaction. 8 44 35 23 6 116

16.Computer illiteracy stops CALL use. 15 62 31 7 1 116

17.1 a m excited about cornputers in ESL. 1 10 27 56 23 117 - --

No te. S ta tements are summanes of actual quest io~aire statements to faali tate data presentation. (See Appendix D: Questionnaire for complete, unedited statements). SD = Strongly Disagree; D = Disagree; AD = Neither agree nor disagree; A = Agree; SA = Strongly agree; ESL = English-as-a-second language; CALL = Cornputer-assisted language l e a ~ n g .

In terms of cognition or beliefs about the effects of computers in second

language education, 88.9% of al1 participants felt that computers can enhance

ESL leaming, far outweighing the 2.6% minority disagreeing with this statement.

A majority of participants agreed that computers could help improve their ESL

teaching (63.3%). motiva te leamers (53.9%) and give ESL students greater control

over their leaming (61.6%). Nevertheless, despite these beliefs that computers

can help improve ESL teaching, a substantial33.9% of teadiers agreed that they

had not seen enough proof that computers can help ESL students to l e m . This

\vas only slightly below the majority (36.5%) who did not agree with this

statement. 29.6% neither disagreed not agreed with this statement.

In the area of perceived expectations, 67.3% did agree that it is important

for ESL teachers to know how to use computers in their teaching, while 12%

disagreed. In addition, 63.2% of respondents reported feeling pressured to use

computers in their ESL teaching. Overall, a total of 58.6% of participants felt

confident of their abilities to integrate computer technology into their ESL

teaching. In spite of this general sense of confidence, teachers generally reported

that they would be more willing to use computers with more training (72%),

ivhile ody 9% would not.

It is important to note that there were a noticeable number of participants

rvho had no strong feeling about these 17 statements, as the neither agree nor

disagree responses were substantial throughout this section. Anywhere between

approximately 16% and 33% of respondents had no strong feelings towards the

statements dealing with attitudes towards cornputer-mediated Ianguage

leaming. Betrveen 9% and 37% of participants indicated that they neither agreed

nor disagreed with the four statements addressing partiapant knowledge about

cornputer-mediated language leaming capabilities. Approximately 20 - 29% of

participants had no opinion on the six statements addressing issues of control,

expectations or expenence in the questionnaire. On average, approximately 24%

of participants had no opinion on these statements indicating a substantial lack

of knowledge, expenence and/ or interest in these issues.

Reliabilitv analvsis of theoretical consmicts. In order to examine the

validity of the original five theoretical constructs defining belief systems in my

theoretical framework, alpha reliability analyses were conducted on the Likert

scale data assotiated with these five constructs. The resulting alpha measures

examining variables as originaüy categonsed under the five constructs are listed

in Table 4.7.

Table 4.7

AIvha Reliabilitv Analvsis of Orieinal Theoretical Constructs

Constmct No. Variables Alpha

Attitude 7

Beliefs 4

Control 3

Expectations/Expenence 3

As shown in Table 4.7 the alpha reliability measures are significantly less

than a reliable level of 0.75 in the control and expectations/experience constructs

defined in the theoretical framework proposed in this research, indicating a

general unreliability of these three constmch defining belief systems. However,

the alpha measures obtained for the attitudinal and belief constmcts are both

20.75 confirming the validity of these two constructs categorising these eleven

variables. Due to these mixed reliability results on the original five constructs, a

factor analysis was conducted to identify any unidentified constructs underlying

this data.

Factor analvsis of belief svstem data. In order to determine whether the

variables measuring belief systems in the questionnaire c m be explained by a

smaller number of factors or constructs, a factor analysis was conducted on the

data obtained from the seventeen Likert scale statements in Part 1 of the

questionnaire. As the data was of a categorical, ordinal nature, the one to five

Likert scale measures were treated as scores for these particular analyses.

Although this may not be a conventional approach to analyse ordinal, non-

continuous data, it is an approach that has been used in a number of similar

studies examining teacher belief systems and attitudes in survey research

(McCain et al., 1999; McEneaney et ai., 2000; Mitra et al., 1999; Mcore et al., 1998;

Mordes, 1998; Morris, 1988)

An exploratory factor analysis, looking for underlying factors that c o ~ e c t

or link the variables together, was undertaken revealing two significant factors

explaining a cumulative total of 39.4% variance in the data. These two factors

were determined to be the most significant to account for the variance of the

data, as their Eigenvalues were 5.588 and 2.099 respectively. Although a total of

four factors did report Eigenvalues over 1.0, which are deemed significant

(Speamtt, 1988, p.649), the respective increases of cumulative variance explained

in factors three and four were under 5.0% each, and were consequently rejected

on the grounds of their lack of relative importance (Spearritt, 1988, p.649). The

defined factor Ioadings of each of the seventeen Likert scaie variables from the

analysis are shown in Table 4.8.

As illustrated in Table 4.8, al1 the proposed variables are more positively

associated with one of the two factors, having a factor loading greater than 0.3,

which is generally recognised as demonstrating a significant relationship

behveen the variable and factor (Hatch & Lazaraton, 1991, p.494). Variables

loading ont0 Factor 1 generally deal with affective, emotional issues surrounding

computer use in ESL teaching, whihile variables more strongly associated with

Factor 2 deal with perceptions of the educational effectiveness of cornputers in

ESL instruction. While a more detailed analysis will be undertaken in Chapter 5

discussing these findings, it is important to develop a mdimentary description of

these factors in order to clarify the associated variables and to explain the

findings of any further sta tistical analyses using these factors.

As can be seen in Table 4.8, a total of eight variables reveal the highest

degree of association with (or load onto) the attitudind factor (Factor 1) and nine

variables load ont0 the perceived utility factor (Factor 2). The attitudinal factor

demonstrates positive associations with five out of the seven of the variables

originally categorised under the attitude conshc t in my theoretical framework

defining teacher belief systems. This factor also attracts one variable originally

categonsed under the Perceived Expectations construd dong with two variables

originally under the Perceived Control construct. Al1 these variables address

affective, emotional issues surrounding computer use in ESL instruction.

Table 4.8

Factor Loadin~s for Belief Svstem Variables

1 enjoy computers (AENJOY)

Computers make me nervous (ANERVOUS)

Computers can enhance ESL leaming (BENHANCE)

Computea help me teach more effectively (BTEACH)

Cornputers motivate learners (BMOTIVAT)

Cornputers give students autonomy (BCONTROL)

Students' computer literacy is a threat (ATHREAT) Cornputers can distract students (ADISTRAC)

1 need proof that computers help ESL (XPROOF)

1 feel pressured to use computea (TPRESSUR)

Cornputer knowledge is important (TCAREER)

1 am confident using computers (CCONFID)

1 enjoy the challenge of computers (ACHALLEN)

I would use computers with more training (CTRAIN)

1 would miss interaction using computers (AINTERAC)

Student computer illiteracy is a problem (CUNFAMIL)

1 am excited about computers (AEXCITED)

Note. Values less than t.30 have been printed as 'x'. Variable names include the letters A, B, C, T, X plus a term describing the variable content. A = variables describing attitude; B = variables descnbing beliefs; C = variables describing perceived control over computers; T = variables describing perceived expectations of computers; X = past experience using computers; comps. = Computers; Extraction Method: Principal Axis Factoring; Rotation Method: Oblimin with Kaiser Normalization; Rotation converged in 17 iterations.

A11 four of the variables originally defined under the Beliefs construct

exhibited positive assoaations with the perceived utility factor (Factor 2), along

with a range of variables originally categorised under the Attitude, Perceived

Expectations and Past Expenence constnicts. These nine variables commonly

address issues surrounding the educational effectiveness of cornputer use in ESL

teaching and leaming. Only one variable, addressing the issue of increased

computer training and its relationship on computer-mediated language leaming

use, had a significant negative relationship with any of the two factors (20.3).

This may be a result of the conditional wording of this statement "1 would be

rvilling to use computers to teach ESL if 1 had more training" and may suggest an

absence of computer training among participants. This would therefore result in

a negative relationship with the attitudinal factor, as the emotional reaction is

being elicited in an abstract, hypothetical context that does not currently exist.

This factor analysis suggests that the proposed variables used to

determine teacher belief systems concerning cornputer-mediated language

learning faIl under hvo significant constnicts, one defining attitude toward

computer-mediated language leaming and one defining perceptions of the utility

of the computer in ESL instruction.

Reliabiliw analvsis of factors and theoretical constructs. To confirrn the

reliability of these two factors as theoretical constructs, an alpha reliability

analysis was computed for the variables grouped withn these two identified

factors. Both groupings revealed reliable alpha values of >0.75 with the

attitudinal factor variables measuring 0.7729 and perceived utility factor

variables measunng 0.8387, suggesting reliable, cornmon constructs linking these

h v o groups of variables (Norman & Streiner, 1986).

As illustrated in Table 4.8, al1 but one of the variables clearly loaded ont0

one of the two factors. Statement no.13, "1 enjoy the challenge of integrating

computers into my teaching", indicated a similarly significant positive

association with both factors (c 0.4 on both factors 1 and î), aithough a slightly

stronger association with the perceived utility factor (-498 on Factor 2 vs. .450 on

Factor 1). In order to determine the most suitable grouping for this challenge

variable, an additional alpha reliability analysis was conducted. Instead of

including ths variable addressing the challenge of computer-mediated language

leaming under the perceived utility factor where it loaded most positively, this

variable was moved to the attitudinal factor grouping where a further reliability

analysis on the two factors was conducted.

Including this challenge factor under the attitudinal grouping, the

reliability analysis revealed a higher, more reliable alpha reading of 0.8028 for all

attitudinal factor variables and an alpha of 0.8103 for all variables under the

perceived utility factor, whch is slightly reduced from the original alpha of

0.8387. This configuration yields a more consistently reliable grouping of

variables now yielding alphas of greater than 0.8. In addition, the attitudinal

variable was originally classified under the attitude construct along with the

other five attitude variables loading onto this factor. Given these more consistent

reliabilities and the attitudinal content of this 'challenge' variable, these hvo

revised variable groupings within these two factors will be used to define and

compare belief systems within this research.

Table 4.9 lists the complete statements as listed in Part 1 of the

questionnaire that are associated with each factor. Statements are listed in

descending order of those with highest loadings (thus most positively associated

with the factor) listed first.

Table 4.9

Factor-Defined Belief Svstem Ouestionnaire Statements

Attitudinal (Factor 1) Ouestionnaire Statements:

1 feel threatened using computers because my students are more computer

literate than 1 am.

Working with computers makes me nervous.

1 enjoy using computers.

1 feel confident of my abilities to integrate computer technology into my

ESL teaching.

Cornputers distract ESL students from their language leaming.

1 enjoy the challenge of integrating cornputers into my teaching.

1 would miss the student-teacher interaction if 1 used computers in my

teaching . My ESL students are unfamiliar with cornputers, making it difficult for me

to use computers.

1 feel pressured to use cornputers in my ESL teaching.

Perceived Utilitv (Factor 2) Ouestionnaire Statements:

1 am excited about the potentiai of computers in ESL teaching.

I t is important for ESL teachers to know how to teach using cornputer

technology . I would be more willing to use cornputers to teach ESL if 1 had more

training.

Cornputer teduiology gives students more control over their learning.

Cornputers help motivate ESL students to learn English.

Using computers would help/helps me teach my ESL students more

effectiveiy . Cornputer technology can enhance English-as-a-Second language (ESL)

learning.

1 haven't seen enough proof that computers can help ESL students leam.

As one can see, the nine statements in the Factor 1 grouping generally

consist of statements eliciting varying degrees of emotionai reaction to the use of

computers in ESL instruction. As can be seen from the ordering, statements 1 ,2

and 3 (examining threat and enjoyment using computers) reveal the strongest

loadings ont0 the attitudinal factor of .607, .745 and .784 respectively. Factor 2,

on the O ther hand, consists of eight sta tements addressing more knowledge-

based issues conceming the perceived educational effectiveness and utility of

cornputers in ESL instmction.

As can be seen by examining the content of these statements, attitudinal

elements and perceptions of utility of cornputer-mediated language learning are

often present in both factors. For example, statement 1 in the Perceived Utility

Factor elicits excitement over the potential of computers in ESL teaching.

Despite this affective, attitudinal component, the statement loads strongly ont0

this utilitarian factor (.657), likely indicative of its content eliuting perceptions of

educational effectiveness of this construct. Similarly, the statement relating

student computer illiteracy with educational computer use in the attitudinal

factor also addresses the utility of computers but remains most positively

associated with the attitudinal construit, likely resulting from the threat of

perceived difficulty with computer use in such a situation. A complete

interpretation of the meaning of these two factors will be discussed in Chapter 5.

Factor-defined belief svstems. Given the two distinct constructs that

hüve been determined defining teacher belief systems towards computer-

mediated language learning, it is important to determine this study's

participants' belief systems as defined by these two constnicts. An overail mean

was calculated of al1 participants' responses to the variables grouped by the two

factors extracted through the factor analysis. Figures 2 and 3 illustrate the

variance and range of the means of a11 responding participants on the nine

variables associated with the attitudinal factor (Factor 1) and the eight variables

associated with the pcrceived utility factor (Factor 2). For exarnple, Figure 2

identifies the number of respondents obtaining similar means on al1 of the nine

variables associated with the attitudinal factor (Factor 1). The common mean

response of d l 117 participant responses to these nine statements (3.69) and the

standard deviation (-54) among these responses are indicated to the right side of

the figure. Given that the total partiapant average mean on Factor 1 variables is

greater than 3.0, and the most frequent mean registering 4.0 on a Likert scale

measuring responses from one to five, from most negative to most positive, it can

be said that surveyed participants generaily possess a positive attitude towards

cornputer-mediated language leaming.

Ln Figure 3, portraying respondents' average perceptions of the utility of

computers in ESL instruction, the average mean of al1 117 participants was

equally positive at 3.66 and again the most frequent mean registered 4.0. As a

result, it appears that tlus study's participants generally have a positive attitude

towards computer-mediated language learning and possess a generally positive

perception of computers as usefui tools in ESL education.

30- I

% O C a 3 O 9 0 - IL

10 - SM. [3ev = -54

Mean = 3.89

0 . , . , . . . . . . . . . N = ll7.ûû

F i a r e 2. Frequency of means of participant belief systems as defined in Factor 1.

SU. aev =.!x Meen = 3.66 N= 117.00

Figure 3. Frequency of means of participant belief systems as defined in Factor 2.

Differences in ~articivant belief svstems. In order to identify and

examine contextual, personal and perceptive factors influenting participant

belief systems toward cornputer-mediated language leaming, the mean response

of various groupings of participants were compared. Groupings compared

included participants from vanous demographic, contextual and expenential

classes. Analyses included two-tailed independent t-tests and one-way ANOVA

to determine any statistically significant variance between the means of

participant responses from selected groups to the variables defining the two

factors. Two-tailed independent t-tests revealed no significrnt differences

between the means of participant attitudes towards cornputer-mediated

language leaming nor their perceptions of the uti:ity of computers in ESL

instruction when comparing participants grouped by gender, higher education

(graduate degrees), or expenence using computers in ESL instruction. There was

ho wever a signi ficant difference (-030 where statistical significance is defined as

p s .05) between the Factor 2 means of the 29 non-users of computers indicating a

likelihood of using computers in the future compared with the two non-users

unlikely to use computers in the future. Non-users of computers likely to use

computers in the future revealed a substantially higher means on the variables

defining the perceived utility of computers (M=3.7124) than the same means of

the hvo non-users indicating no intention of using computers in their ESL

instruction in the future (M=2.5625). While this difference was significant, it is

important to note that only two out of a total of 31 non-users of computer-

mediated language learning noted their intention to not use computers in the

future. This finding future hirther supports the generdly positive perception

participants have of the effectiveness of computers in EÇL instruction.

Results from comparisons of the means of these bvo belief constructs

among participants from selected demographic and expenential groupings are

listed in Table 4.10. These results were obtained using one-way ANOVA

analyses to identify any significant differences bebveen participant means in the

hvo factorial constructs determining attitudes towards cornputer-mediated

language leaming and perceptions of utility of computers in ESL instruction.

As can be seen in Table 4.10, comparisons of the means of participant

responses in these two constructs reveals only two grouping factors in which

there were statistically significant difierences (p a .05) between participant

attitudes towards cornputer-mediated language leaming and/or perceptions of

utility of computers in ESL education. There were no differences among

participants from different age groups, working at different colleges or having

received computer training. In the groupings showing a statistical difference, a

more comprehensive post-hoc Tukey multiple comparison analysis (p s .05) was

conducted to identify the participant groups within these categories

demonstrating a significant difference in these belief system constructs. In the

area of teaching expenence, a sigrjficant difference (.007) was found between the

means of the perceived utility construct (Factor 2) of the 27 partiapants reporting

between 10 and 20 years of teaching experience (M = 3.8717) and the 18

participants reporting more than 20 years of teaching experience (M = 3.3548).

Table 4.10

Results of One-Wav ANOVA Analvses Cornvaring Partici~ant Belief Svstems

Participant Grouping

*ge FI F2

Teaching Experience F1

F2

ColIege Affiliation FI

F2

Cornputer Training F1

F2

Weekly Computer Use FI

F2

Note. * p s .05; F1 = Factor one (Attitudinal Factor); F2 = Factor two (Perceived

Utility Factor)

Participants grouped by their reported weekly computer use

demonstrated noticeable differences in belief systems in both attitudinal and

perceived utility areas. In an effort to explore the substantial differences

demonstrated between participants grouped by weekiy computer use, 1 have

outlined the means and standard deviation of participant groupings in these

constructs in Table 4.11.

Table 4.11

Participant Belief Svstem Means bv Weeklv HourIv Cornputer Use

Weekly Computer Use No. Factor 1 Factor 2

Mean SD Mean SD

A s can be seen within these differences, positive attitudes toward

cornputer-mediated language learning increase in relation to the increased

weekly hourly computer use among participants. Similady, perceptions of the

computer as an effective pedagogical tool similarly increases with weekly

computer use with the exception of the 7 - 10 hours/week users when the means

drops slightly but again supersedes earlier increases arnong the greater than 10

hour per week users.

Reported Uses of Computer Technoloq

Of the 117 participants in this research, 85 (72.6%) reported to have used

computer technology in their ESL teachng, whereas 32 (27.4%) had not. Of the

85 participants repoting some expenence teadung with computers, 69 (81.2%)

reported using computers in a laboratory setting, while 14 (16.5%) reported

having used computers in the lab and in the classroom, leaving only 2 (2.4%)

indicating experience solely in the classroom. When indicating a preferred

location to use computers, a slim majority of 44 partiapants (52.4%) reported that

they would prefer the laboratory setting, while a significant number (n = 35 or

35.7%) indicated both withn the lab and classroom. A total of 10 participants

(11.9%) indicated their preference for exdusive dassroom use. As can be seen,

ivhile the majority of teachers have only used computers in a laboratory setting. a

substantial proportion of educators desire to use computers in a more integrated

classroom and laboratory context.

Expanding on this issue of location of cornputer-use, twenty-seven

respondents offered explanations for why their preferred location differed frorn

where they had used computers with their classes. The majority of these

responses were from instructors having used computers in a laboratory setting,

but who would prefer using computers in a classroom and possibly laboratory

context. Reasons listed varied and ranged from spatial concems, that cornputer

tables limit group work and distract lemers, to logistical reasons, that college

computer labs are often used by classes other than ESL classes and are therefore

difficult to book and time-consuming to coordinate classroorn relocation. A

number of instmctors expressed concern about the common practice of cornputer

language labs being staffed by lab monitors or technicians and not ESL

instructors. Several respondents expressed concem that this resulted in

unfocused learning and limited the effectiveness of the computer as a language

learning tool. A number of respondents emphasised that classroom integration

of this technology would result in a "sounder pedagogically integration of work.

When asked to identify the range of computer applications instructors had

used with their classes, the large majority (n=78 or 92% of the 85 computer users)

had used software approaches. A fewer 43 (50.6%) teachers with computer-

mediated language learning experïence had reported using the Intemet, 28 (33%)

had used e-mail and only 3 (3.5%) had reported using computer conferences with

their ESL students.

Participant responses explainhg the reasons for the use of such computer

applications were reviewed and coded into one of six categories. These

categories included the perceptions that the application was a pedagogical tool, a

student research tool, a communication tool, or that it helped attain affective

objectives (such as increasing student motivation), helped individualise the

teaching process, or simply because the application was a required part of the

curriculum and mandated b y some external authority. The number of

participant responses grouped into these categones is illustrated in Table 4.12.

Table 4.12

Reasons Given for Ushg Cornouter-Mediated Lan

Reason Given No. % of Respondents

Pedagogical Tool

Externally Dictated

Research Tool

Communication Tool

Affective Purpose

Individualisation

Total Respondents Indicating Computer Teaching Experience 85

As can be seen the majority of instmctors perceived the computer as an

instructional tool assisting in the delivery of second language education

programs. The large majority (n=75 or 91.5%) of computer users felt that

computers helped their students. A very small minority (n=4 or 4.9%) felt that

they did not heip, while 3 respondents felt they both helped and did n ~ t help

their ESL students. The responses from the 73 partiapants offerïng expianations

how computers helped their students were grouped into four categories as

illustrated in Table 4.13.

Table 4.13

Ex~lanations Given for How Com~uters Hehed ESL Leamers

Explanations No. % of Respondents

Affective Benefits

Individualised Leaming

Reinforced Leaming

Built Cornputer Literacy

Total Respondents Listing Explanations for Computer Success 73

As can be seen the majority of instructors having used computers felt the

computer helped them individualise and target learning for individual students

along with improving the affective leaming environment. Reported benefits

falling under these complementary categories included motivating students,

targeting individual learning styles, and making the class fun and relevant to

generations of leamers who will require computer skills in their careers.

A number of participants reported that the computer makes participation

more equitable among their students. One participant wrote, "I'm not sure

computers helped them learn more English but 1 did find that often the quieter

people in the class (the women) were able to excel on the computers because they

knew keyboarding while the men (who are more vocal in our class) were

shuggling. Consequently, it changed the power dynamic". As this quotation

implies, fewer numbers of participants felt that the computer helped reinforce

ESL leamhg being conducted within the dassroom, while even fewer saw its

success as faalitating computer literacy arnong student populations.

Non-users The main explanation for non-use of

cornputer-mediated language leaming among the 32 reported non-users of

cornputer-mediated language learning was a lack of computer access. This was

followed by lack of knowledge of how to integrate computers into ESL

curriculum and a lack of time. Exact numbers of participants offenng

explanations of their non-use of computer technology in their E L practices are

listed in Table 4.14.

Table 4.14

Reasons for not havinn used comvuter technoloev in ESL teaching

Reason No. Percentage of Non-Users

No access 20 62.5

No knowledge of integration 8 6.8

Not enough time 7 6.0

No t an effective teaching tool 3 2.6

Not cornfortable using computers 2

Need to see results first

Note. This prompt in the questionnaire encouraged participants to check off al1 reasons that apply. As a result, the responses will not represent 100% of the 32 reported non-computer users

When asked what would encourage the use of the computer among these

non-users, 22 (68.8%) mentioned access, 18 (56.3%) mentioned training, dong

with 18 (56.3%) mentioning increased support, and 13 (40.6%) indicating

increased time. Seven partiapants offered other reasons ranging from a need for

better software and more appropriate, targeted applications suitable for their

teaching context, offenng what the classroom situation camot. Only two

participants (6.3%) stated that nothing would make them use computers in their

teaching.

Non-users' intentions to use com~uters. If these reported constraints

preventing the use of computer-mediated language leaming among these non-

users were removed, a total of 22 (68.8%) respondents stated that they would use

computers because they feel their students should know how to use this

technology. A further 19 (59.4%) said they would use computers as they would

like to learn how to integrate this technology into their teaching. 17 or 53% of

respondents said they would use computers to motivate leamers and help

improve their ESL learning. Only one respondent said they would not use

computers even with these constraints were removed.

When asked about the preferred location of use, the majority (n=18 or

56.3%) of non-users preferred to use the computers in a more integrated context

in both the laboratory and dassroom. Ten respondents (31.3%) preferred the lab,

while 3 (9.476) preferred the classroom. In terms of computer applications, the

ovenvhelming majority of non-users (n=29 or 93.6%) stated they would likely

use software programs if the reported constraints such as lack of access and

inadequate computer knowledge were remedied. Similarly, 25 (89.3%)

respondents stated they would use the Intemet, while 24 (82.7%) indicated the

likelihood of using email and substantidly fewer 10 respondents (40%) reported

they would likely use conferenang mediums.

Summarv of Ouestionnaire Data

The questionnaire data revealed generally positive belief systems towards

cornputer-mediated language leaming among questionnaire participants. The

majority of respondents reported positive attitudes towards computer

technology, enjoying using computers and having confidence using them. A

substantial majority of participants appear to have a positive appreciation for the

potentiai of computers in second language education. Nevertheless, in spite of

this enthusiasm, a substantial rninority would like further proof demonstrating

the usefulness of computers in ESL teaching. The majority appear to recognise

the importance of cornputer-mediated language learning in the ESL profession,

recognising computer use as an inevitable and increasingly used educational

tool. Consequently, many teachers reported a desire to have hrther training to

help prepare them to integrate this technology into their practices.

A surprising 73% of al1 participants reported having used computers in

their ESL practices and the majority of those had used computers in a laboratory

setting. Very few of these users reported any organised training, with many

reporting self-training and training from colleagues and friends. When asked of

their preferred location for computer use, the majority of participants indicated

the desire to see computers more integrated into both dassroom and lab settings.

The majority of users reported feeling that the computer helped their çtudents.

Many felt that it helped individualise their teachng and helped improve the

affective environment in their practice.

Those participants not having used computers in their teaching generally

reported a likelihood of using computers in the future provided issues

constraining the use of such technology are remedied. The issue of access was

the primary barrier to computer use reported among non-users, followed by a

lack of training, and inadequate time. The non-users agreed with the users and

reported a desire to use computers in both a laboratory and dassroom context.

The analysis of the belief system data reveded hvo reliable, principal

factors explaining the variance within the belief system data. These two factors

mainly defined variables classified as attitudinal and those relating to the

perceived utility of computers in education. These findings reflected results

Çrom previous research in this area confirming the existence of two similar

constructs defining teacher belief systems (McEneaney et al., 2000; Mitra et al.,

1999).

Cornparisons of the means of participant responses to the two factor-

defined belief system constructs among various groupings of participants

revealed a statistically significant difference among participants grouped by

weekly computer use, teachùig expenence and the intention to use computers in

the future among current non-users. The most noticeable factor impacting belief

systems appeared to be weekly computer use, showing a positive relationship

behveen weekly computer use and positive attitudes towards computer-

mediated language leaming and positive perceptions of the educational

effectiveness of the computer in ESL instruction. There were no statisticai

differences arnong teacher belief systems of partiapants grouped by age, gender,

college affiliation or educational experience. A discussion of these findings will

be presented in Chapter 5.

Chapter 5

Discussion

This chapter will discuss and provide an interpretation of the findings

from the focus group interviews and the questionnaire data in an attempt to offer

answers to the research questions guiding this study. The definition of second

language teacher belief systems towards computer-mediated language learning

and the multiple factors influencing these belief systems are discussed in Iight of

the theoretical framework proposed in this research. The effect of teacher belief

systems on reported practices and intended practice using computers will also be

discussed. This study's limitations are then discussed in terms of the research

design and survey instruments. Finally, recommendations for future research in

this area will be outlined along with concluding remarks summarising the

implications of this research.

Second Lannuaee Teacher Belief Svstems

Towards Com~uter-Mediated Lannuaae - Learning

The first question posed in this study was what are second language

teachers' belief systems toward cornputer-mediated language learning. This

section will offer a response to this question and discuss the definition of teacher

belief systems in light of the theoretical framework proposed in this research.

This will be followed by an analysis of ESL teacher belief systems towards

cornputer-mediated language learning reported in ths research. The influence of

demographic and contextual factors on teacher belief systems will then be

discussed, followed by an analysis of significant factors shaping these belief

systems towards computer-mediated language learning.

Theoreticallv Defined Belief Svstems

The primary focus of this research was to define teacher belief systems

towards cornputer-mediated language learning. As discussed in the

methodology section of this research, belief systems defined in this research were

based on the proposed theoreticd framework outlined in Chapter 2. This mode1

categonsed belief systems into five unique consbucts that interact to influence

teacher intentions and actions to use an educational innovation; in the case of this

research, compu ter technolog y.

Results from the factor analysis of the Likert scale responses to the

questionnaire research indicate a reliable division of two independent factors

defining teacher belief systems towards cornputer-mediated language leaming.

These two factors contrast with the original five constructs proposed in my earlier theoretical frarnework. Nevertheless, these two factors are not surprising

as they are both quite related to the two core theoreticai constructs 1 proposed in

my belief system definition which were defined as attitudes and beliefs.

The most apparent difference between statements associated with these

two constructs extracted from the factor analysis appears to be a degree of affect.

S tatements assoaated with Factor 1 that 1 have labelled the attitudinal construct,

al1 possess a reasonably strong degree of what can be described as an emotional

or affective dimension. Six variables (statements) assoaated with Factor 1 were

originally categorised under my attitudinal constxuct which was defined as

constituting pnmarily affective and evaluative elements of belief systems. Issues

of enjoyment, nervousness, threat, pressure and sentimentality are ail eliated in

some form in this grouping of statements. However, this factor did absorb hyo

variables originally categorised under perceived control over the use of

computers and one variable classified under perceived expectations using

computers. These three variables, not originally classified as attitudinal, are

defined by the following questionnaire statements:

1 feel pressured to use computers in my ESL teadung. 1 feel confident of my abilities to integrate computer technology into my ESL teaching. My ESL students are unfamiliar with cornputers, making it difficult for me to use computers.

Upon review of these statements one can see that these statements do al1

possess a significant affective dimension concerning the use of the computer in

ESL teaching. While certainly based on a teacher's perception of societal and

collegial expectations towards the use of computers in teaching, the first

statement actually eliats a significant emotional response originating from these

expectations. The next statement, originally classified under the control

construct, also deals with the affective issue of confidence, while the third

statement addresses the emotionaily charged issue of control. Teacher control in

educational settings is by its nature affective in some respect, as the introduction

of the computer has often been described as a third partiapant in the educational

environment (Bumett, 1998), thereby reducing teacher control and consequently

empowering students in the learning environment. While this may seem

advantageous from a cognitive perspective, the introduction of the computer into

educational contexts has been described as a somewhat threatening expenence

for educators and thereby maintaining a significant affective component.

(Albaugh, 1997; Cuban, 1986,1990,1993; Dunkel, 1987; Eastrnent, 1986; Jamieson,

1994; Kern, 1995).

The second construct, while possessing some statements of an affective

nature, focuses primarily on perceptions of utility of computer technology and

how the computer promises to enhance second language education. Statements

associated with this construct like "computer technology c m enhance ESL

Iearning" and "using computers would help me teach my students more

effectively" address a teacher's perception of how functional the computer tool is

in his/her teaching practice. Even statements presenting a more affective

dimension such as "1 am excited about the potential of computers in ESL

teaching" present a strong sense of the relationship of the computer to

potentially improving ESL teadung. Issues of training and knowing how to use

computers dong with knowledge about the effectiveness of computers appear in

this factor.

These results from this research demonstrate the fluidity of constmcts

defining belief systems and the difficulty in isolating distinct constructs from the

larger concept of belief systems. It appears evident that conceptual definitions of

constructs defining belief systems are quite interrelated and interact on a

multitude of levels to influence action and intended actions to use an educational

innovation. Results from ths research do suggest that there are two relatively

independent constructs underlying belief systems.

These two constructs reflect findings in earlier research examining

computer attitudes among teachers that found primarily two conceptual

dimensions defining teacher belief systems towards educational computer

technology (McCain et al., 1999; McEneaney et al., 2000; Mitra et al., 1999;

Woodrow, 1991). These studies found one area that is: generally affective in

nature and one that is a more cognitive perception of the utility of the computer

in education. One study (McEneaney et al., 2000) examining computer attitudes

among pre-service teachers identified four significant factors defining attitudes:

three representing affective dimensions of belief systems that induded positive

and negative feelings towards computer and another factor, independent of

these affective factors, representing an understanding of the utility of computers.

The research that this study was based upon (Woodrow, 1991) also identified

affective components to belief systems along with a perception of the educational

impact of computers. As one can see, this earlier research reinforces the findings

revealed in this study isolating an affective dimension along with a perceptive,

more cognitive dimension related to the effectiveness of computers in education.

Given the similarities behveen these earlier findings and this specific

research, it appears evident that teacher belief systems towards educational

innovations such as computer technology can quite reliably be determined to

consist of two principal dimensions. As found in this research, one dimension

can be described as affectively-based, representing attitudes of an individual

towards that innovation and another identifies a more cognitive dimension of

one's perception of the educational utility of that innovation

As a result of this analysis, the proposed theoretical framework for this

research has been modified to reflect these changes, as seen in Figure 8. From

this diagram one can see that 1 have now separated and defined the two

extracted principal constructs and shown the infiuence of the four previously

separated constructs, beliefs, past experience, perceived expectations, perceived

control, as one composite constmct influencing both newly defined conshiicts

equally. Scholars researching the constitution of belief systems towards

technology and educationai innovation have agreed that the attitudes towards an

innovation are influenced by what one has done with the innovation as well as

what one has observed or read about that innovation (Mitra et al., 1999). Ln other

words, belief systems are influenced by a combination of past experience with

the irmovation, cognitive understanding of the potential of the innovation

(beliefs) and perceived expectations of what others think about the innovation.

Teacher Belief Systems

1 Beliefr I 1 Past experience I Perceived expectations

1 Perceived control I

Figure 4

Factors influencing teacher behaviour towards educational innovation

I t has also been increasingly recognised that attitudes towards the

'purpose' of technology is an important factor in the decision to use an

educational innovation such as cornputer technology (Mitra et ai., 1999, p.3). A

study by Lam (2000) analysing reasons why second language teachers refrain

from using technology in their practices, concluded that it is the teacher's

perception of the usefulness of technology in his/her teaching practice that

govems the use of technology. A study by Davis (ated in McFarlane, et al., 1997)

developed a Technology Acceptance Mode1 to explain and predict attitudes

towards technology in the business world. This mode1 consisted of two

components, one being ease of use of the innovation and the second being

usefulness, defined as the degree to which an individual believes that innovation

will enhance job performance. This mode1 was supported by results of Davis'

study and validated in another shidy by Szajna (ated in McFarlane, et al., 1997).

Chisholm, h i n and Carey (2000) cite the importance of societal and

political valuing of computers that play a strong role in the development of

attitudes towards computers (p.3). They add that cultural values and socio-

economic factors (perceived expectations) influence horv people view computer

technology and direct action and intentions using this technology. Where

collaboration is valued in a culture, individualised cornputer use may not be

valued and therefore will be less commonly employed.

A shidy examining the relationship between expenence with computers

and computer attitudes among college students also concluded that values

towards computer technology will be determined primarily by the marketplace

and public policy (McCain et al., 1999). In addition, studies have shown that

attitudes and perception of effectiveness of computers used in educational

contexts depend on an individual teacher's ability to use the cornputer

successfully and his/her sense of confidence using the technoIogica1 tool

(Akbaba & Kurubacak, 2000; Armstrong et al., 1994; George, 1996). As a result,

there is little doubt that belief systems and actions using computers will be

influenced by a combination of expectations, expenence and beliefs regarding an

innovation in addition to one's sense of control over that innovation. This revised

interpretation of belief systems will be used in this discussion to define, analyse

and compare belief systems among second language teachers.

ESL Teacher Belief Svstems Towards Com~uter-Mediated Lannuaee Learning

Given the responses to the Likert scale portion of this questionnaire

research, it appears evident that ESL instructors sampled in this study

dernonstrated generally favourable attitudes towards computer-mediated

language learning and remarkably positive beliefs about its potential

effectiveness in ESL instruction. The majority (77%) of instnictors surveyed

reported enjoying computers and few felt nervous (8.6%) or threatened (4.3%)

using computers. In addition almost 89% felt that computers have the potential

to enhance ESL education, while 68% reported feeling excited about the potential

of computers in ESL instruction. An absence of strongly negative reactions to the

statements 'cornputers improve my ESL teaching' and '1 enjoy integrating

computers into my ESL teaching' reinforce these reasonably positive teacher

belief systems about computer-mediated language learning.

These favourable results reflect earlier research findings showing that

second language teachers generally have a favourable attitude towards

cornputer-mediated language leaming (Diamond, 1997; Harvey, 1987; Hopwood,

1989; Leh, 1995; Levy, 1999; Moore et al., 1998; Sofranova, 1993). Ln addition,

given the substantial majority (77%) of instructors who have reportedly used

cornputers in their teaching, it appears evident that instructors in this sample feel

quite corn fortable using computers as a teaching tool.

Demomaphic and Experiential Influences on Belief Svstems

In order to address the second question guiding this research, which was

to identify external factors influencing teacher belief systems toward computer-

mediated language leaming and examine how these factors impact on belief

systems, participant responses defining belief systems were isolated and

cornpared. These cornparisons were conducted in order to isolate specific

demographic, contextual or expenential factors influencing participant belief

systems. As shown in Table 4.10 in Chapter 4, there were only three

demographic and experiential categories demonstrating a significant impact on

participant belief systems. These categones included participants defined by

teaching experience, weekly computer use and having an intention to use

cornputers in teaching practices in the future. There were no statistically

significant differences (p s -05) among participant belief systems toward

computer-mediated language learning grouped by gender, age, education level,

college affiliation, computer training received, or whether they had used

compu ters in their ESL teadung.

Cornputer use and belief svstems. The most significant identified

difference in participant belief systems occurred among participants grouped by

weekly computer use. Results indicated a positive relationship between weekly

computer use and computer attitude arnong partiapants. Increasing weekly

computer use among participants resulted in increasingly positive attitudes

towards cornputer-rnediated language and increasingly positive perceptions of

the educational effectiveness of computers in second language instruction.

It is not surprising that those partiapants using computers on a more

regular basis have more positive attitudes and perceptions of their utility in

second language education. In a discussion of the effects of computer instruction

on attitudes towards computers, Green et al. (2000) cited nurnerous studies

showing a correlation between more positive computer attitudes and increased

computer experience. Cited in Green et al. (2000). a study by Gressard and Loyd

(1985) found that elementary school teachers in a staff development computer

training course were significantly less anxious and more confident about

computer use after training than before. Fuuiegan and Ivanoff (1991) (as ated in

Green et al., 2000) found significantly more positive attitudes towards cornputers

for a class of social work graduate students following a bnef cornputer course. In

addition, McCain (1999) found increased experience using computers lead to

increasingly positive attitudes towards cornputers in education.

An examination of faculty use and non-use of e-mail and the resulting

effects of this usage on attitudes towards computers indicated that more positive

expectations about the utility of technology resulted from increased use of this

technology (Mitra et ai., 1999). In their study of 388 public elementary and high

school foreign language teachers' use of technology in teaching foreign language

culture, Moore, Morales and Carel (1998) indicated that teachers of Japanese,

having used technology in their own pre-service training, had developed a more

positive awareness of the potential of t h s technology and therefore used it in

their teaching more frequently.

The ironic revelation of these findings is that research suggests that

negative attitudes and unfavourable perceptions of computers adversely affect

computer literacy (Chisholrn, Irwin, & Carey. 2000b). and as has been discussed,

computer expenence resulting in computer literacy increases positive attitudes

towards computers. While positive attitudes towards cornputers increase the

likelihood of achievement, negative attitudes decrease the attainment of

cornpetence and presumably favourable attitudes towards educational computer

use. As a result, this vicious a r d e of no experience, no use is a crucial area to

address in educational training to ensure a more effective use of computer-

mediated language leaming applications.

Teachine e x ~ e n e n c e and belief svstems. Teaching experience was

another factor that appeared to influence teacher belief systems in terms of the

educational effectiveness of cornputers. The most significant difference behveen

teacher attitudes in this area occurred between participants reporting behveen 10

and 20 years of teaching experience, who had more positive perceptions of the

utility of computers in ESL instruction and those with more than 20 years of

experience. 1 suspect that the difference in beiiefs between these two groups

stems hom the fact that teachers with a minimum of ten years expenence have

developed substantial confidence and security with their teaching practices and

are yet still motivated enough to explore educational innovations using

technology. The confidence and security provided through this degree of

teaching experience combined with the still unjaded enthusiasm and motivation

to expand teaching approaches likely empowers teachers with this level of

experience to examine educational technological approaches. On the other hand,

teachers having taught for twenty years may be considerably committed to their

teaching approaches and not necessarily interested in improving or modifying

their teaching practices and thereby less motivated to experiment with such

technological innovation. These teachers have considerable investment in their

teaching approaches and modifying those practices is likely seen as a

considerable threat. As a result, these most experienced teachers have less

intention to expose themselves to educational technology and are thereby less

aware of any educational potential these bols may have.

The likelihood of computer use and belief svstems. The only other

statistically significant area revealed among these partiapant groupings was the

difference between perceptions of the utility of computers among non-users of

cornputer-mediated language leaniing reporting a likelihood of using cornputers

in their future teaching practices and non-users indicating no intention of using

computers in the future. Those 29 non-users likely to use cornputer-mediated

language learning in the future demonstrated a more positive attitude towards

computers than the two reporting an udikelihood of using computers in the

future. Given the substantial difference in the sizes of these hvo groups any

conclusion from this finding would be difficult to support. Nevertheless, given

the substantially greater number of non-users reporting an interest in exploring

cornputer-mediated language learning approaches in the future, it is dear that

even those second language teachers inexperienced in cornputer use possess a

generally positive perception of the utility of computers as educational tools. It

is also clearly understandable that those reporting an intention to use computers

in the future likely have an increased perception of the educational effectiveness

of these technologid tools. As reported in the study examining faculty use and

non-use of e-mail, expectations about the promise of technology are related to

the actual use of technology (Mitra et al., 1999).

Factors not im~actine - on belief svstems. There were no statistically

si gni ficant differences between the belief systems of the minori ty of male

inshuctors and the majority of female instructors towards computers or among

instructors from separate institutions. This la& of difference in gender-based

samples was somewhat surprising, as there have been a number of discussions

that confirm a gender-based difference in attitudes towards technology among

men and women where men tend to have increasingly positive beliefs about

computer technology than women (Grossman & Grossman, 1994; McCoy &

Baker, 2000). Indications from more recent research has suggested that the

gender gap between computer attitudes is closing (Luchetta, 2000). Part of the

increasing equality of gender beliefs towards technology could be the overall

increased use of technology in everyday society increasing exposure to

computers among both men and women on a daily basis. McEneaney et al.

(2000) in their discussion of pre-service teacher attitudes towards computers

conduded that the inaeasing use of teduiology both in teacher education and in

many aspects of modem life is Iikely promoting more positive attitudes towards

computer technology in general among al1 groups (p.5).

The fact that there was no substantial differences between ESL instructors

in college environments was even more surprising, given the considerable

differences between Jackson EL1 and other colleges where cornputer access and

degree of integration in the cuniculum is quite different. Contributing to this

phenomenon may be the transient nature of the ESL profession, where many ESL

college educators regularly circulate among several colleges concurrently

working on a number of part-time contracts in a variety of institutions. As a

result, long-term loyaity to one institution is rare and ESL professionals tend to

have a broad base of experience in a range of educational contexts, exposing

them to a vanety of uses of educational technology. This phenomenon along

with lack of gender differences could also reflect the increased exposure to

technology in the general population. The absence of differences between gender

or institutional groups reflect findings from a study of teachers' attitudes

torvards technology in general which conduded that there were no differences in

teacher attitudes based on participant gender or school affiliation (McFarlane,

Hoffrnan, & Green, 1997).

Other factors not influencing teacher belief systems toward computer-

rnediated language leaming induded age, education level, or degree of computer

training or experience using computer technology in ESL teaching. The la& of

difference in belief systerns between participants of varying ages was rather

surprising as there tends to be a sotietal impression that younger people tend to

have more positive belief systerns towards cornputers in general. This

'generational' issue surfaced in the focus group interviews, surprisingly from

several younger participants. One thirty-year old participant stated that older

people have never been exposed to computers, that ivs "never been part of their

lives" and that "some of these faculty don't know how to use a mouse and are

temfied of computers". This statement was countered by two older participants

who gave examples of a vanety of aged teachers who use cornputers on a regular

basis cvith their class.

This reduced nurnber of demographic, contextual and experiential factors

influencing teacher belief systems towards cornputer-mediated language

leawng observed in this research is likely due to the increasingly ubiquitous

nature of computer technology in North American society. The demographic

gaps that were once observed in computer attitudes, bebveen genders, generational groups, are now being described as a disappearing phenornenon, as

computer use increases in modem society (Luchetta, 2000). This is likely due to

increasing exposure to computer technology among al1 dernographic groups so

that these perceived differences detected in earlier research are now

disappearing.

Teacher Belief Svstems and Their Influence on Reported Practice or Intended

Practice Using Cornvuter-Mediated Lanruaee Leaming

This section will summarise and interpret the research findings in an

attempt to respond to the third question guiding this study, examining how

belief systems affect second language teachers' intentions and reported practices

using computers. The substantial difference behveen findings from this study

and earlier research is that the majority (73%) of teachers had actually reported

using computers in their ESL teaching practices. Much earlier research

examining second language teacher attitudes and beliefs conceming computer

use area demonstrated little integration of cornputers in teaching practices

despite favourable attitudes towards this technology (Diamond, 1997; Harvey,

1987; Hopwood, 1989; Leh, 1995; Moore et al., 1998). One of the reasons for these

Çindings is Iikely due to increased computer familiarity and inaeased computer

access in the general population at the beginning of this new millennium.

Cornputer technology has become a ubiquitous tool in many of today's Canadian

urban environments and as a result, many individuals use computers on a

consistent basis. Participants in the focus group interviews al1 reported using

computers as tools in Iesson planning and acknowledged the benefit of having

such a tool that facilitates the pedagogical planning process.

The majority of users in this study also recognised the computer as a

sound, effective pedagogical tool, while a substantial percentage of these

participants felt that the cornputer had actually helped their students. Of the 73

instructors who felt the computer helped their students, 64 percent of

respondents (n=47) felt that the computer helped them individualise instruction,

targeting learning to speafic students and improving the affective environment

of their practices. This recognition of the potential of the computer as a tool to

individualise second language instruction has been recognised in CALL research

(Grace, 1998; Viteli, 1989), and may be fulfilling teachers' practicality ethic that

Cuban (1986) said would direct teachers' acceptance of any educational

innovation. If the innovation is compatible with what teachers recognise as

important, the innovation is more likely to be accepted. Ln addition, Meskill and

Mossop (1997), in their analysis of teduiology use among New York state ESL

professionals, indicated that the computer is now being viewed more as an

integral part of socio-collaborative learning and less as a means by which

knowledge and skills are transferred to leamers (p.22). As pedagogical theory

evolves and theories of constructivist, collaborative pedagogy take hold

(Chisholm et al., 2000b; Collins, 1991), perhaps the usefulness of the computer as

an educational tool is increasingly being recognised, and this recognition

translates into practice.

This positive relationship between perceived utility and teaching using

computer technology has been demonstrated in other research in this area. For

example, a survey of college faculty investigating expectations about technology

found that positive expectations about the functionality of technology are related

to a Jxgher incidence of technology use (Mitra et al., 1999). This suggests that the

more one uses computers, the more one is likely to see and appreciate the

potential of these tools in education. Another survey of elementary school

teachers found that increased computer experience increases teachers' comfort

level with computers, reducing computer anxiety and therefore improving

attitudes towards technology (Marcinkiewicz, 1994). A study (McCain et al.,

1999) among college students using networked computer technology found that

more experience with computer leads to a higher sense of power and control

over this technology. The study concluded that more expenence with computing

technology leads to less strongly held negative attitudes towards the role of

computers in society.

As a result, it is therefore likely that positive belief systems resulting from

increased exposure and access to computer technology encourage the increased

use of technology in teaching. It is likely that this increased use of computer-

mediated language learning contributes to the generally positive belief systems

of the teachers reported in this study.

Location of Com~uter Use

One interesting phenornenon noted among users of computers in ESL

teaching, was the generally negative view of the use of computers in laboratory

settings and the general preference for computer use in a more integrated,

instructor-driven manner. Sixty-nine users reported using computers in a

laboratory context and while a majority of 44 participants stated preferring a lab

setting for computer use, a substantial group of 35 respondents indicated a

preference for using the computer in a more integrated manner, using both

classroom and lab. As one participant wrote, "1 would prefer classroom

computer use because 1 wodd like to integrate them into the normal dass - 1 do a

lot of interactive activities and move students around - ifs hard for students to

see each other and it changes dassroom layout in the lab". Many participants

felt that the prevalent lab use of computers in current college contexts removes

teachers from the learning process, as many labs are staffed not by ESL teachers,

but by lab monitors.

As an ESL instructor myself, 1 can relate to this sense of

disenfranchisement of ESL educators. Cornputer laboratory use represents the

most currently prevalent access to computer equipment in many college settings.

While the logistics and efficiency of using computers in a laboratory setting,

where access is open to students from a wide range of programs, the laboratory

context does prevent the educator from accessing this technology in a more

instructor-driven, interactive manner. In their discussion of key issues in

prepanng teachers to use language learning technology, Kassen and Higgins

(1997) emphasise the importance of appropriately integrating technology into the

classroom to improve teacher's access and curriculum integration with the

technology. In their discussion on building a computer-enhanced language

classroom, Sivert and Egbert (1999) discuss the unfortunate impact of the "cold,

sterile environrnent" (p.41) of the commonplace computer language lab, how this

environment reduces teacher involvement and also substantially limits the

effectiveness of this environment to foster second language leaming. One

participant surnmarised the concern many teachers have about being left out of

the laboratory environrnent by saying, "We need to have a t least one ESL teacher

in the room when ESL students are working on the computers, because the

technician is not qualified to handle ESL students' questions". Another

participant reiterates this concem by writing, "1 find that students think using

computers is a waste of time when the computer lab is not seen as part of the

lessons they're learning in the classroom". It appears evident that ESL

instructors in this study recognise the failings of these computer lab

environments and as a result, would prefer a much more integrated computer-

enhanced environment in which to explore cornputer-mediated language

learning approaches.

The fact that there was no statistical difference in belief systems between

users and non-users of computers in educational practices illustrates a

reasonable similarity of positive beliefs arnong teachers in generai. Whle there is

obviously a range of perceptions in the usefulness and appropriateness of

computer technology in language learning, al1 participants generally

demonshated a similarly positive view of the potential of cornputer-mediated

language learning.

The prirnary reason for this la& of use of computer technology in teadung

practices was lack cf access which almost 70% of the non-cornputer users

reported. Training issues and support were other substantial issues noted by

over half these participants, but access was primary. As outlined in the

description of these ESL environments, Jackson EL1 was the only institution in

which computers are used in an integrated marner and computer equipment is

readily accessible for students and teachers, in a laboratory context. The

remaining four college contexts have substantial limitations to computer access

wherein three out of four, access is shared with other departments using

cornputers in an adjunct marner, supervised mainly by tedinical assistants. In

addition, the labs available are sometimes not suited to the classes they are

meant to serve. For example, the recently completed computer lab at the main

campus of Monfort College consists of approximately 15 computers whereas the

ESL classes normally contain around 25 students. As one focus group

participant from this college stated, "computer accessibility in this college does

not promote cornputer use". The Jackson College environment, representing a

third of this study's participant sample, currentiy has no access to teduiology for

part-time faculty and students. As a result, it was even surprising that the

majority of these participants, almost 54% or 21 out of 39 participants from this

institution had actually reported having used computers in their teaching. Thts

is another illustration of the fluidity of college ESL educators, as many of these

cornputer-experienced instructors had to have picked up this expenence

elsewhere.

It is hopeful, however, that college administrators are anticipating greater

use of computer-mediated language learning and therefore reporting an effort to

facilitate access within these environments. Jackson College, which currently has

no computer access for its part-time instructors, plans on coordinating access for

its classes next semester on an optional basis. In addition, Turner College

indicated the development of a second computer lab in the near future, as the

currentiy used lab is operated through the Communications Department dong

with three computers in a Writing Centre that are often used for purposes other

than ESL education. Hopefully, this inaeased access will hrther improve ESL

educators' experiences and consequent belief systems about computer-mediated

language leaming.

A majoriv (69%) of these non-users of computer technology indicated that

if these bamers resû-icting computer access and barriers such as lack of training

and time were addressed, they would make an attempt to integrate computer

applications into their teaching. Mmost 60% of these participants reported their

motivation being linked to a self-centred desire to learn how to use this

technology in their teaching. This result undoubtedly illustrates the inueasing

perception of cornputer technology as a functional tool in today's second

language educational environments, and the increasing value educators put on

the potential of ths technology in second language education.

Limitations of This Research

As is characteristic of ail survey research using self-report mechanisms, it

must be recognised that the data obtained from this research may not be

completely accurate and merely represents individuai perceptions of actions and

opinions. In addition, an inherent limitation of questionnaire-based data is its

inability to explore the issues at a deeper, more profound level. As a result, this

study has only been able to scratch the surface of the issues it set out to explore.

The research instruments used in this research such as the questionnaire are new

instruments, developed for this study, and have not been ngorously tested to

ensure reliability and accuracy in examining these issues. The questionnaire

developed for t h s study focused on prinapally attitudinal variables and more

cognitive-based constructs. As a result, the factor analysis extracting two factors

in these two principal areas may be not wholly representative of the multiple

factors intluenang belief systems.

Demographic cnteria was limited to age, gender, teaching expenence and

educa tional qualifications. One participant recommended including a prompt to

identify the employment status of the teacher responding as they felt the

employment status of the teacher influenced his/her ability to devote time to

exploring cornputer-mediated language learning. In the area of ESL education,

this factor certainly appears relevant, given the ephemeral nature of ESL teaching

positions. In addition, results from this research, sampling oniy ESL instructors

and not other types of second language teachers, may be difficult to generalise to

other second language teachers, as the ESL profession is unique in its

employment opporhinities and the individuals it attracts.

Recornmendations For Future Research

While this research may have contributed some insight into our

understanding of the complex forces that drive teacher beliefs and actions using

educational innovation, a more complete understanding of this issue will only be

obtained through more in-depth analysis of these multiple factors shaping belief

systems. Given the penrasive nature of change in today's soaeties, innovation is

a recurring issue that professionals must confront on a regular basis. In the

teaching profession, more comprehensive investigations into how belief systems

influence teacher acceptance and evaluation of educational innovation can only

further enlighten today's teaching professionals and the professional

development programs that serve to prepare them. Research approaches

combining survey research with individual interviews and classroom

observations would provide more in-depth analysis of the constitution of second

language teacher belief systems and their impact on actions using cornputers in

second language instruction.

In addition, research surveying populations more representative of a

wider variety of second language teachers would provide a more hoiistic and

general view of the multi-faceted nature of second language teacher belief

systems towards cornputer-mediated language learning in a range of educational

contexts. The ESL profession is somewhat unique among second language

teaching, attracting a wide variety of individuals often motivated by travel and

innovation, who often adopt this profession after other professional activities.

Further research should be conducteci on a broader sarnple of second and foreign

language instructors to compare belief systems among these groups and identify

common characteristics of teacher belief systems towards computer-mediated

language learning that c m be generalised to second language teachers.

This research, expanding on earlier research findings, demonstrates that

teacher belief systems towards educational innovation consist pnmarily of two

dimensions, one being affective in nature and the other being a degree of

perception of the utility of an innovation. Future research in this area should

specifically examine these two conshcts to more comprehensively define them

and identify the influenang factors that shape these two constnicts. . Findings in

this area would serve to refine and validate the theoretical frameworks proposed

in this research. An investigation into the numerous contextual factors such as

teachers' persona1 educational experience, cultural backgrounds, employment

statu, educational philosophy and the degree of individual innovativeness that

influence the constnicts presented in these frameworks would provide further

insight into the constitution of teacher belief systems.

A thorough examination of how these constructç direct teaching practices

using educational innovations should be conducted, not only from a self-

reporting research approach but also hom an observational survey approach,

where individual teaching practices are monitored and analysed. A research

approach using direct observational strategies may be useful in illustrating the

actual effect of belief systems on educational practice integrating educational

technologies. These types of research approaches may provide further insight

into the consistency of teacher belief systems and how these belief systems

translate into actual practices using educational technology and educational

innovation.

Concludine Remarks

Results from this research demonstrate the enthusiasm second language

teachers have towards computer-mediated language learning. Given the

ubiquitous nature of computer use in North American societies, teachers, like

other professionals are increasingly recognising the value of this technology tool

in their profession. Second language teachers, like many educators, are seeing

computer technology more and more as a pedagogical tool that can enrich their

practices. As one participant stated in this study's questionnaire, "technology

c m certainly augment, but not replace what ESL teachers can do". Perceptions

of computer technology appear to be gradually evolving out of the technology

hype of earlier decades, into a more critical and analytical understanding of the

benefits and limitations of ths educational technology. The gaps reported in

previous research in teacher belief systems towards computer technology seem

to be dissipating, likely due to the more widespread use of this technology in

today's soaeties.

Unforhinately, despite this increasing enthusiasm and perception of the

effectiveness of educational computer technology among second language

teachers, second language educational practices exploring and using this

technology are often thwarted by bamers within educational environments

constraining the use of this educational technology. The most significant factor

preventing second language teacher use of this technology is restricted access to

computer facilities. Many opportunities for use of computer-mediated language

leaming approaches are currently restncted to laboratory settings, largely

independent of the influence of second language teachers. This understandably

frustrates many teachers who would like to be using computer-mediated

language learning approaches in a more integrated manner, directing and

exploring its uses in a more teacher-driven way. As Lam (2000) reported in her

analysis of second language teachers' use of technology, the longer teachers feel

alienated from tehology, the longer they will not see the benefits of using this

technology for language teachng. This constrained access to computer

technology in educationd environrnents reduces the opportunities for second

language teachers to explore and experience using computers in their practices.

As this study has shown the more one uses computers, the more one is likely to

see and appreciate the potential of these tools in education. As a result this lack

of access to technology likely perpetuates negative belief systems towards

compu ter-mediated language leaming.

It appears obvious that one of the keys to improving teacher belief

systems towards cornputer-mediated language learning is to increase teacher

exposure to computers. The drarnatic increases shown in positive attitudes and

perception of utility among participants in this research reporting increased

weekly computer use demonstrates the dear link between use and belief

systems. As Michael Levy (1999) concluded from his survey of CALL

practitioners, it is cruaal for teachers to develop a sincere appreciation for the

potential of these technological tools in order to ensure the successful use of this

educational i~ova t ion . This appreciation must equally extend to educational

administrators and be fostered with increased training opportunities, and time

allowances for professional development and planning.

One focus group participant who stated that she had a very negative view

towards computers in ESL education, said that it was "seeing the possibilities"

that changed her beliefs towards the potential of what computers had to offer.

As one participant wrote in their questionnaire, "1 think that teacher reluctance

in introducing new computer applications in the classroom stems from teachers'

insecurity in their cornpetence in this area". Positive teacher attitudes towards

computers are widely recognized as a necessary condition for effective use of

information technology in the dassroom (Woodrow, 1992). Kassen and Higgiw

(1997) emphasise that there are three key issues central to prepxing language

teachers for the use of educational technology: the establishment of a comfort

level with technology, the integration of technology into cumculum, and the

development of critical skills to evaluate technology and its uses.

Teachers are often left out of the planning stages of curriculum

innovation. One focus group participant stressed that much in-service training

preparing teachers to use technology is delivered in such an abstract, non-teacher

centred manner that these attempts at professional development actually serve to

inhibit teacher use of this technology, rather than promote it. Educational

technological innovation must be directed from the ground u p Teachers must

play a significant role in the planning and integration of educational technology

into second language educational practices. One way to persuade teachers of the

benefits of educational computer technology in second language teaching is to

involve them in the implementation process. In order to do this, adequate

facili ties, time, teacher-directed training and pedagogical and technical support

must be provided. Only then will second language teachers be able to hl ly

experience and explore the benefits reported in research examining computer-

mediated language leaming.

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APPENDIX A

FOCUS GROUP INFORMATION LETTERS AND CONSENT FORMS

Dear colleague,

Are you an a d d t ESL instructor with college teadung experience?

What do you think about computers used for second language teadiing?

Adult ESL college instructors are needed for focus group interview research examining adult ESL college teacher beliefs towards educationai computer technology.

If you're interested in participating in this research, please read the attached information letter and complete and sign the attached consent fonn and leave the form in the Consent Form trav at the reception desk in the English department office. If that is not convenient, you can c d or e-mail me at the numbers on the attached letter notifying me of your interest in pdcipating. Selected participants will be compensated for their time and participation.

Thank you for your consideration!

Geo ff Lawrence ESL Teacher and Graduate Student at OISE/ UT

Dear colleague:

1 am an ESL teacher and graduate student in second language education at the Ontario Institute for Studies in Education at the University of Toronto. 1 am conducting focus group interviews related to the beliefs of adult ESL college teachers towards educational computer technology. The title of the study is Seco i id Lnug unge Tencher Bel ief Sys teins and Coi11p11 t e r - M d t e Lmzgzrnge Lennz ing . As very little is known about second language teacher beliefs towards educational computer technology, it is hoped that this study will shed light on second language teacher beliefs towards educational computer technology and the effects these beliefs have on shaping second language teaching practice and intended practice using computer technology.

Tlus interview wodd require no more than 90 minutes of your time. It involves responding to questions about your opinions on the use of educational computer technology to teach second languages. Should you accept to participate in this interview, the confidentiality of your responses will be ensured. Codes will be used to replace your name and no individu& will be identified in conference presentations, written reports or publications. The data collected will in no way be used for evaluative purposes. In addition, the name of your affiliated schools or educational organizations will not be identified in conference presentations, written reports or publications. All data from this research will be kept in locked files and will be accessible only to the researchers. Al1 data will also be destroyed after two years. Please note that while 1 will ask the other focus group participants who interview with you to maintain the confidentiaiity of the discussions, 1 will not be able to guarantee that my request will be honoured by al1 involved. When the study is complete, a report of the findings, in summary form, would be available shodd you be interested in receiving a copy.

In addition, should you agree to partiapate in t h s interview, you could, of course, withdraw at any time without any h m or discomfort to you. This project would reimburse you the amount of $30.00 to compensate for your time and participation. If you accept to participate in this interview, please complete, sign and retum the attached consent form to the Consent Form trav in the photocopy room in the English Language Institute, or you can cal1 me or e-mail me and keep the consent form for later collection. Following receipt of your form or cal1 / e-mail, 1 will contact you to arrange details for the interview. If you would like to receive more information about the study, please contact me or my supervisor, Dr. Miles Tumbull, at the numbers below.

Thank you,

Geoff Lawrence 416-691-9274 or email: glawrence@oise.utoronto.ca 7-122 Glen Manor Drive, Toronto, Ontario M4E 2x6 Dr. Miles Turnbull: Phone: 416-923-6641 Ext.2432; e-mail: m turnbuli@oise.u toronto.ca

Second Language Teacher Belief Systems and Cornputer-Mediated Language Learning

Focus Group Interview Consent Fonn:

Please complete and sign the lom and leave it in the Consent Form tray in the photocopy room at the English Department reception desk or keep the form for later collection and cal1 me or send me an e-mail notifymg me of your interest in participating.

Yes, 1 am interested in partiapating in a focus-group interview conducted by Geoff Lawrence

1 can be reached at the following phone numbers: Work: Home:

or at the following email address:

1 would NOT be available for focus group interviews on these days, at these tirnes (please list the days of the week and times when you wodd not be available to partiapate):

O No, 1 am not interested in partiapating in a focus-group interview conducted by Geoff Lawrence

Please sign below:

Signature Date

Name (please print)

APPENDIX B

FOCUS GROUP INTERVIEW PARTICIPANT SCREENING QUESTIONS

Participant narne: College: Contact Phone: E-mail:

The interview will begin with a brief introduction to the research project, noting purpose, scope, goals of focus groups followed by these questions:

Would you be available and interested in participating?

Have you taught ESL to adults in college? Where are you currently teaching? What are you currently teaching? Where have you taught? For how long have you taught?

Do you use or have you ever used a computer at home or for personal reasons? What do you use it for? What have been your reactions to it?

What types of educational technology have you used in your classes?

Do you use or have you ever used computer technology in your ESL teaching? If not, why not? If so, what has been your reaction to its use?

What have you heard, or what do you know about cornputer-mediated ianguage learning? Where have you found out this information'?

Thank you for your time. Where can 1 reach you to let you know if your participation will be needed and to arrange a convenient interview time suitable to al1 participants?

APPENDIX C

FOCUS GROUP INTERVIEW PROCEDURES & QUESTIONS

Focus Gro m I n t e e w pro ce dures/^ 1. Introductio~

Prrrpose: ro irztroduce project, its purpose, outline process, and answer questions Welcorne and bief introduction to the project; outlining purpose of this focus group Reminder that withdrawal possible at any time Outline data collection procedure, anonymity and confidentiality of audiotape

recordi ngs and participation Outline format, focus group etiquette, encourage questions Answer any questions participants may have

II. Warm-Up Purpose: to set the zone and set parricipants ut ease; question general e.rperietzce/corrte.rrs

Introductions: Names? Where are you teaching now? Where have you taught? Levels?

What is the first word that comes to mind when you think of computers? Do you use a computer at home? What for? Reactions to its

use/effectiveness/problems? How long have you used a cornputer? Cornfort-level with cornputer technology?

III. Clarification of T e r m Pwpose: to elicit group understanding of conlputer termirzoiogy that may be used in the discussion and clarifi: arzy terms rhat participants may not understand

As we'll be discussing computer technology, what terms do people know referring to computer technology? What about specifically dealing with second language teaching? (if not familiar, define terms such as software, multimedia, CALL, CMC, networking, Iearner-centered, constructivisrn etc.)

IV. Ouestions on beliefs/knowle@ about cowuter-memted learning Ptrrpose: to elicit beliefs about cornputer-rizediated language leartring and subsequerzt intentions and expected action using the rechnology

How has ESL teaching changed over the last 10 years? How do you see it changing in the next IO years? Do you think computer technology can be used in SL teaching? How can computer technology benefit second language classrooms? Why? Does the use of a computer in second [anguage classrooms change the teaching

environment? How? What are potential problems of using computers in second language teaching and

learning? What makes you think that? Specific experiences? If so, describe. If you were offered a classroom full of computers, would you use the technology

and if so, how and why wouId you use it that way? Or why wouldn't you use it?

What would help facilitate the integration of computer technology into your SL teaching environment?

Prrrpose: ro elicit conrexrrral facrors, pas2 experience, perceptions of conrrol over rechrzology, and perceprions of commrrniiy expectarions concernirrg technology use

How is computer technology currently used in general in your college? Technology in general? What are students' reactions to technology? Teachers* reactions? To cornputer technology? Why?

How is technology used in SL departments? Students' reactions? Colleagues' reactions? Group 1 (inexpe~enced computer users): Why havent you used corn puter technology in your teaching? What's preventing you from using the technology? What do you think are your colfeagues' views on the use of computer technology in SL teaching? If you were to start using computer technology how do you think your students/administration would react?

Have you ever received any professional training on using technology andfor computer technology i n your teaching? Describe if so, and if not, why do you think this hasn't been offered?

Has your traininglexperience using cornputers influenced your attitudes towards educational cornputer technology? Describe how?

Do you feel or would you feel cornfortable using computers in your teaching? Explain. Group 2 (experienced computer users): How have you used cornputer technology in your teaching? Why? Has it been effective? If so, how? If not, why not? How has it affected how you view computer approaches to teaching languages? How have students/colleagues/administration reacted towards computer technology in your classes? - Have you ever received any professional training on using technology and/or computer technology in your teaching? Describe if so, and if not, why do you think this hasn't been offered? - Has your traininglexperience using cornputers influenced your attitudes towards educational cornputer technology? Descri be how?

How do you feel now about using computer technology in your classroom? Why do you feel that way?

Purpose: to confirm and clarilFy understanding of major points presenfed by parricipants arzd see if the discussion itseif h a changed anyone's opinions

If you were offered a classroorn full of cornputers. would you use the technology and if so. how and why would you use it that way? Or why wouldn't you use it?

Briefly summarize each participants' beliefdattitudes towards computer-mediated second language learning, noting principal factors contributing to those bel iefdattitudes

Ensure that any conversational points not completed are mentioned Any questions or issues anyone would like to discuss?

VII. CIO- Prrrposei ro ensirre corzfident iality of participa [ion, express thanks and answer any q~restions

Answer any remaining questions Reiterate anonymity and confidentiality of audiotape recordings and participation Express thanks for participating Ask participants if they would like to receive a summary of research findings and if

SO, record names. Distri bute stipends

APPENDIX D

PARTICIPANT QUESTIONNAIRE

COMPUTER TECHNOLOGV IN ENGLISH-ASA-SECOND LANGUAGE (ESL) TEACHJNG

PART 1 : Please indicate your agreement with each statement by checking the box that most closely represento your feeling.

learning. Using computers would help/ helps me teach my ESL students more effectively. Computers help motivate ESL students

Strongly agree

Working with computer technology makes me nervous. Computer technology can enhance English-as-a-second language (ESL)

to learn English. Computer technology gives ESL students more control over their

Agree

I enjoy using cornputers. I~ I

learning. I feel threatened using cornputers because rny students are more computer-literate than I am. Computers distract ESL students from

Strongly disagree

their ianguage learning. I haven't seen enough proof that computers can help ESL students learn. I feel pressured to use cornputers in rny ESL teaching. It is important for ESL teachers to know how to teach using computer technology. I feel confident of my abilities to integrate computer technology into my ESL teaching. I enjoy the challenge of integrating computers into my teachinq. l would be more willing to use computers to teach ESL if I had more

Disagree

training. My ESL students are unfarniliar with computers, making it difficult for me to

Neither agrw nor disagree

use computers. I would miss the student-teacher interaction if i used computers in my teaching. I am excited about the potential of computers in ESL teaching.

1

PART 2: The following questions deal with your expmrienca urina computon. if you a rumr YES to qrmtion 1, please complete questions 2 through 6, then go to PART 3. H you answar NO to question 1, pkase a n m r questions 7 through 1 4 , then go to PART 3.

1. Have you ever used cornputers in your ESL teaching?

0 Yes (IF YOU ANSWEREO YES TO TnlS QUESTION, PLEASE COMPLET€ QUESTIONS 2 THROUGH 6 BELOW, AND THEN GO TO PART 3 )

CI1 No (IF YOU ANSWEREO NO TO THIS QUESTION, PLEASE GO 10 QUESTION 7 BELOW)

2. Where HAVE YOU USE0 COMPUERS with your ESL students?

0 In a computer lab. separate ffom my class

O ln my classroom

0 60th in my classroom and in a wmputer {ab

3. Where would you prefer to use camputers with your ESL students?

0 In a cornputer lab. separate from my class

al In my dassroom

a 60th in my classroom and in a computer lab

If your answer in question 3 is diffemnt from your anrwer in question 2. please describe why you would prefer to use the computers in a different location:

4. If you have used computers. what camputer applications have you used with your students? (Pleass check al1 that ~ P P ~ Y )

O Software (Wordprocessing, CD-ROMs. Multimedia Software)

0 E-mail

El Conferencing Systems

QI The lnternet

O Other (please describe)

5. Please explain why you used these applications.

- - --

6. Do you feel using cornputers helped your students?

O YES f3 NO

Please explain how they did or how they did not help:

PLEASE NOW GO 10 PART 3

7. If you HAVE NO1 USE0 COMPUTERS in your ESL teaching. why haven't you used them? (Plsase chock aII that ~ P P ~ Y

O I don't have access 10 cornputer facilities/sofhrvare.

0 I don't think cornputers would teach my students more effedively.

O 1 don't feel comfomble using cornputers.

n I would fint want to see the results from other teachen using cornputen.

0 I don? have enough time.

O l don? know how to integrate amputes in10 my ESL teaching.

O 1 haven't used computen because

S. What would make you more likely to use computers in your ESL teaching? (Please check al1 that apply)

0 Inueased actessibility to cornputer facilities and software

0 l ncreased training

0 lncreased time

0 lncreased technical and pedagogical support

O Other (please describe):

0 Nothing because:

9 If the above conditions were satisfied. would you use computers? (PleaSe check al1 thd apply)

0 Yes, because I think students shouM know how to use computer technology.

0 Yes, because I think cornputers can rnotivate students and help them leam better.

0 Yes. because I would like to team how to integrate cornputen into my teaching.

O Yes. because

O No, because

10. If you were to use computers in your ESL teaching. how would you prefer to use thern?

0 ln a computer lab. separate from my class

0 lntegrated into my classroom

fl 60th in my classroom and in a cornputer lab

11. If al1 the conditions in question 7 above were satisfied. how likely wouid you be to use the following amputer applications in the next three years? (Pkase check the box that most closeiy mpmsents your fdings)

SOnWARE WORDPROCESSING. CD-ROMS) E-MAIL CONFERENCING SYSTEMS

Very Likely Not Sure ,

THE INTERNET

Likely

1

Not Likely

PART 3: Please complete ttn following questions that d a c r i k your situation and experionco.

1. What type of amputer applications do you use on a regular basis?

O E-mail

O Word processing

O lnternet

0 I don? use a cornputer regularty

2. How many hours a week do you spend using a computefl

0 None O Fewerthan1 1 - 3 4 - 7 0 7 - 1 0 OMorethan10

3. Have you ever received training on how to integrate cornputer technology into your ESL teaching?

0 Yes O No 0 No. 1 have taught myself

If yes, has the training wnsisted of: (pluare check al1 that appfy)

[3 Coilege-sponsored professional development

0 Training I paid for on rny own time

0 Informal training Rom calleagues

0 Informa1 training from fnends and farnily

0 Other (please describe):

4. Have you taught or do you teach ESL to adults in college? 0 Yes No

5. If so, how many yean have you taught?

0 Less than 1 O 1 - 5 O 6-10 10-20 Morethan20

1 am: 20 - 29 years old I have a: 0 TESL Cerlificate

30 - 39 years old (Plelrs check O Bachelots Degree

O 40 - 49 yean old all that apply) Masteh Oegree

O Over 50 O Doctoral Degree

O Femab

O Male

Please share any further comments you may have on this research here:

mank you very much for your tirne and c o m m ~ t t l Please retum the completed questionnaire in the stlmped, self+ddmssed envelope-