Before You Begin - Learner...After you have completed any housekeeping announcements, ask one of the teachers to read the read the Historical Thinking Skills aloud. Explain that they

Unit 1Pre-ColUmbian ameriCaFaCilitator’s GUide

�

introdUCtion

Part I of this session introduces the Historical Thinking Skills outlined by the National Center for History in the Schools (NCHS). A variety of activities use preview content from the rest of the series to explore these skills. Part II explores pre-Columbian Native American societies through primary sources and activities.

learninG objeCtives

In this session, teachers will

• Learn how to use historical thinking skills in studying American History;

• Explore how the achievements of indigenous Americans were as complex as those in Europe, Asia and Africa;

• Examine how geography and environment most influenced the development of pre-Columbian societies.

Before You BeginBefore the day of the Pre-Columbian America workshop, familiarize yourself with the reading materials assigned to the participating teachers. You should also review the series introductory overview (about this course, course components, etc.), and this facilitator’s guide. Be sure to prepare the correct number of handouts needed for each activity. Each teacher should read the text materials for Unit � before attending the workshop. (estimated time: two hours). Teachers should also review and complete the Web interactive Placing Artifacts in Time which examines and assesses eight characterizations of Pocahontas from �6�6 to �995. Activities during the session will draw heavily on the content in the text materials and the interactive. Participants should bring the unit text materials to the workshop session.

materials needed • This America’s History in the Making facilitator’s guide

• Text materials for Unit �: Pre-Columbian America

• DVD and DVD player or access to streaming video of America’s History in the Making video for Unit �: Pre-Columbian America available at www.learner.org

• Overhead projector

• Multiple copies of handouts (in the Appendix of this guide)

• Pens and paper for participating teachers and facilitator

• Chalkboard, blank transparencies, or overhead for reporting out

�Unit 1 Pre-Columbian America

overhead and handoUt instrUCtions �. Using Appendix A, “NCHS Historical Thinking Skills,” and “Historical Thinking

Skills in Practice” create overhead transparencies. Also make one copy of “Historical Thinking Skills” for each of the teachers.

�. Using Appendix B, “North American Demographics,” create a handout of the demographics grid for each teacher, and three copies of the unlabeled pie chart for each small group of 3-5 teachers.

3. Using Appendices C through H, create a handout of each appendix.

4. Using Appendices I, “Pro-Temperance” (3 items) and J, “Anti-Temperance” (3 items) create one copy of each set of items.

5. Using Appendix K, “Debate Instructions,” create an overhead transparency.

6. Using Appendix L, “Excerpts From Primary Sources,” create a handout for each participant.

7. Using Appendix M, “Activity 7 Artifacts,” create an overhead transparency for each genre.

8. Using Appendix N, “Activity 7 Artifact Definitions,” make one copy for the facilitator.

9. Using Appendix O, “Activity 7 Artifacts Key,” make one copy for the facilitator.

�0. Using Appendix P, “Activity 8 Artifacts,” create an overhead transparency for each genre.

Facilitator’s Note: You may want to prepare overheads of the reflection questions for teachers to reference during the workshop activities.

leadinG the session

As participating teachers arrive, have an overhead set up that lists the “Historical Thinking Skills” (Appendix A).

After you have completed any housekeeping announcements, ask one of the teachers to read the read the Historical Thinking Skills aloud. Explain that they will expand their understanding of these skills and their application in classroom themes through activities and video segments that build on the reading and activities they did prior to the workshop session.

Part i: historiCal thinkinG skills

Activity 1 (15 minutes)This activity introduces one of the main themes of the unit (and series) — the idea that perceptions of history change over time.

Activity OverviewTeachers will view a short segment of an educational movie made several decades ago and consider how it compares to videos they might present to their own classes.

Part 1 (5 minutes)

Watch the short segment of educational movie: Who Are the People of America? (Streaming from America’s History in the Making Web site, or on DVD).

Part 2 (10 minutes)

Have teachers share their answers to the following reflection questions with the group.

Reflection Questions

�. What makes this film seem dated?

�. What aspects of American history are emphasized in the film? Which are not represented?

3. How are those aspects characterized today?

4. How has the portrayal of historical events depicted in this film changed over time?

5. How does our understanding of historical events change over time?

3Unit 1 Pre-Columbian America

Activity 2 (20 minutes)

Activity OverviewTeachers reacquaint themselves with the NCHS Historical Thinking Skills, which they have already encountered as a part of the pre-workshop session reading.

Part 1 (5 minutes)

Distribute copies of “NCHS Historical Thinking Skills” (Appendix A).

Part 2 (15 minutes)

Ask participants to review the Historical Thinking Skills and complete the questions displayed on the overhead “Historical Thinking Skills in Practice (Appendix A - overhead). Then, ask the teachers to share their responses to those questions:

• List an example of each Historical Thinking Skill in practice.

• Which of these skills are you using in your classroom, and how?

• How could teaching history through skills rather than pure chronology change your teaching practice?

• Which Historical Thinking Skills do you have your students apply in the classroom?


Activity Overview Teachers will apply Historical Thinking Skills by analyzing the composition (gender, race, occupation and nationality) of colonies at the beginning and end of a period.

Part 1 (3 minutes)

Watch a short clip on the rise of British Colonies: Unit 3: Colonial Designs (Streaming from America’s History in the Making Web site, or on DVD).

Part 2 (10 minutes)

Divide teachers into small groups of 3–5 people. Distribute three blank pie charts to each group. Give each teacher a copy of the “North American Demographics” grid (Appendix B) that lists the demographics of the North American landmass in �6�0, �660, and again in �760 (includes Native American, British and African populations). Each small group uses the table to fill in the pie chart with demographic information for each year provided.

Part 3 (7 minutes)

Have teachers share their responses to the following reflection questions in their small groups.



�. What kinds of conclusions can you draw about the changes in population of North America?

�. What kinds of reasons might have contributed to those changes?

Part 4 (10 minutes)

Have teachers discuss their responses to the following reflection questions with the collective group.


�. How does this activity help teach Historical Thinking Skills?

�. Which Historical Thinking Skills are applied in the activity?

3. What kinds of follow-up questions or activities would you use with your students to help them understand the larger concepts of these skills, instead of just the simple demographic information?



Activity Overview Teachers will examine a variety of primary and secondary sources, then discuss how each source portrays the Cherokee removal event.

Part 1 (3 minutes)

Watch a short clip on the Cherokee removal: Unit 7: Contested Territories (Streaming from America’s History in the Making Web site, or on DVD).

Part 2 (20 minutes)

Each small group is given a copy of one source:

• Speech by Elias Boudinot: “An Address to the Whites” (�8�6) (Appendix C)

• Transcript of President Andrew Jackson’s Message to Congress “On Indian Removal” (�830) (Appendix D)

• The Indian Removal Act (May �8, �830) (Appendix E)

• Excerpt from Treaty of Echota (�835) (Appendix F)

• Lewis Cass, “Removal of the Indians,” (January, �830) (Appendix G)

• Letter from Chief John Ross to the Senate and House of Representatives (�836) (Appendix H)

Each group develops a two-minute presentation for or against removal based (solely) on the material they have been given. Each presentation should detail the following:

• What is the source material?

• Is it a primary or secondary source?

• Who might have created it?

• Whom did the creator believe was the primary audience?

• What was the creator’s purpose?

• A brief defense from the point of view of the creator, supporting or criticizing the Cherokee removal. (What is the message contained in the source?)


Part 3 (35 minutes)

Have each small group offer their presentation to the collective group, then discuss the following reflection questions.



�. How do different artifacts change our understanding of the Cherokee removal?

�. How can different sources be evaluated, based on their creators’ goals?

3. What needs to be taken into account when assessing a historical source?

4. How does each of these answers help you more accurately assess a source?

5. How does this activity help teach Historical Thinking Skills?

6. Which ones are applied here?

7. What kinds of follow-up questions or activities would you use with your students to help them understand the larger concepts of the skills, not just the specific historical narratives?

8. Make up at least two possible questions for students, and share them with the group.


Activity Overview Teachers will apply Historical Thinking Skills by identifying issues and problems in the past, then analyzing those issues from different perspectives. By creating debate questions, participants will formulate alternative courses of action and evaluate the implementation of a decision. Teachers will analyze the values behind the movement from different perspectives.

Part 1 (2 minutes)

Watch a short clip on the development of the Temperance movement: Unit 8: Antebellum Reform (Streaming from America’s History in the Making Web site, or on DVD).

Part 2 (20 minutes)

Divide teachers into two groups. Give one group the pro-Temperance source materials (Appendix I) and the other group the anti-Temperance materials (Appendix J).

Have teachers read the prep materials and prepare their arguments considering the following questions.

�. What alternative courses of action might also align with your character’s point of view?

�. How would your character evaluate different incidents surrounding the temperance movement?

3. What other course of action might also align with your character’s point of view?

Part 3 (40 minutes)

Have each small group debate its point of view, (pro- or anti-Temperance based on the materials they received). Follow the “Debate Instructions” (Appendix K).


Part ii: Pre-ColUmbian native ameriCa


Activity OverviewTeachers will discuss the use of language and perspective in teaching pre-Columbian history.

Part 1 (10 minutes)

Give each teacher a handout with four “Excerpts From Primary Sources” (Appendix L). Each paragraph contains descriptions of Native Americans during early encounters with Europeans.

Have teachers read the paragraphs and jot down reflections on the following questions.

�. How does the author’s language shape your mental image of Native Americans?

�. What words or phrases contribute to your overall sense of this image?

3. How is this characterization similar or different from how your school’s textbooks depict Native Americans?

Part 2 (5 minutes)

Have teachers discuss their responses with the whole group.



Activity OverviewThrough considering the origins of different artifacts, teachers understand the diverse and complex developments of pre-Columbian societies — and those of other societies around the world.

Part 1 (30 minutes)

Place the transparencies of artifacts from Africa, Asia, Europe, and the Americas on the overhead projector “Activity 7 Artifacts” (Appendix M). The images are photos or drawings of artifacts from pre-�49� depicting (in the following order):

• Calendars

• Architecture

• Burial Mounds

• Jewelry

• Agricultural Tools

Read the group a brief narrative about each genre of artifacts “Activity 7 Artifact Definitions” (Appendix N). Then, ask the teachers to individually assign each image a geographic area of provenance (Africa, Asia, Europe or the Americas) based on their observations. Write the agreed-upon geographic area next to the image on the transparency. Then, read the correct geographic location and description from the key “Activity 7 Artifacts Key” (Appendix O).

Part 2 (30 minutes)

Have the class speak briefly about what clues they used to determine the origins of the artifacts using the following reflection questions.

�0Unit 1 Pre-Columbian America


�. How do the Native American artifacts compare to those from around the world?

�. What conclusions can you draw from these comparisons about the relative complexity of Native American cultures before �49�?

3. How are these conclusions similar or different from other information or sources you may have encountered?


Activity OverviewTeachers consider Native American artifacts to understand how cultures developed in response to their varied environments.

Part 1 (45 minutes)

Place the transparencies for the various artifact genres – Tools, Weapons, Housing Structures, Clothing, Transportation – on the overhead “Activities 8 Artifacts” (Appendix P). Have the class consider the following reflection questions. Discuss the questions for each genre and transparency as a group.

��Unit 1 Pre-Columbian America


�. What environmental conditions was this artifact designed for?

�. What resources were needed to create this item?

3. Is the item intended to be permanent or consumable?


Activity OverviewThis activity serves as a conclusion to this session. It will provide you with an opportunity to reflect on what you have learned.

Part 1 (15 minutes)

Ask teachers to share their responses to the following reflection question with the group.

Reflection Question

How does studying pre-Columbian Native American History affect your view of American History?


APPENDICES — Pre-Columbian America

A: “NCHS Historical Thinking Skills” one overhead transparency and one copy for each teacher

“Historical Thinking Skills in Practice” one overhead transparency

B: “North American Demographics” one copy of demographics grid for each teacher, plus three copies of blank pie chart for each small group of 3-5 teachers

C–H: Create one copy of each appendix (C through H)

I–J: “Pro-Temperance” (I) and “Anti-Temperance” (J) one copy of each set of items

K: “Debate Instructions” overhead transparency

L: “Excerpts From Primary Sources” one copy for each participant

M: “Activity 7 Artifacts” one overhead transparency for each genre

N: “Activity 7 Artifact Definitions” one copy for the facilitator

O: “Activity 7 Artifacts Key” one copy for the facilitator

P: “Activity 8 Artifacts” one overhead transparency for each genre


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Speech delivered in the First Presbyterian Church, Philadelphia, May 26, 1826.

To those who are unacquainted with the manners, habits, and improvements of the Aborigines of this country, the term Indian is pregnant with ideas the most repelling and degrading. But such impressions, originating as they frequently do, from infant prejudices, although they hold too true when applied to some, do great injustices to many of this race of beings.

Some there are, perhaps even in this enlightened assembly, who at the bare sight of an Indian, or at the mention of the name, would throw back their imaginations to ancient times, to the ravages of savage warfare, to the yells pronounced over the mangled bodies of women and children, thus creating an opinion, inapplicable and highly injurious to those for whose temporal interest and eternal welfare, I come to plead.

You here behold an Indian, my kindred are Indians, and my fathers sleeping in the wilderness grave -- they too were Indians. But I am not as my fathers were -- broader means and nobler influences have fallen upon me. Yet I was not born as thousands are, in a stately dome and amid the congratulations of the great, for on a little hill, in a lonely cabin, overspread by the forest oak, I first drew my breath; and in a language unknown to learned and polished nations, I learnt to lisp my fond mother’s name. In after days, I have had greater advantages than most of my race; and I now stand before you delegated by my native country to seek her interest, to labour for her respectability, and by my public efforts to assist in raising her to an equal standing with other nations of the earth.

The time has arrived when speculations and conjectures as to the practicability of civilizing the Indians must forever cease. A period is fast approaching when the stale remark,

“Do what you will, an Indian will still be an Indian” must be placed no more in speech . . . It needs not the display of language to prove to the minds of good men, that Indians are susceptible of attainments necessary to the formation of polished society. It needs not the power of argument on the nature of man, to silence forever the remark that “it is the purpose of the Almighty that the Indians should be exterminated.” It needs only that the world should know what we have done in the last few years, to foresee what yet we may do with the assistance of our white brethren, and that of the common Parent of us all . . .

There are three things of late occurance, which must certainly place the Cherokee Nation in a fair light, and act as a powerful argument in favor of Indian improvement.

First. The invention of letters.

Second. The translation of the New Testament into Cherokee.

And Third. The organization of a Government.

Appendix C: Speech by Elias Boudinot “An Address to the Whites” (1826)


The Cherokee mode of writing lately invented by George Guest, who could not read any language nor speak any other than his own, consists of eighty-six characters, principally syllabic, the combinations of which form all the words of the language. Their terms may be greatly simplified, yet they answer all the purposes of writing, and already many natives use them.

The translation of the New Testament, together with Guest’s mode of writing, has swept away that barrier which has long existed, and opened a spacious channel for the instruction of adult Cherokees. Persons of all ages and classes may now read the precepts of the Almighty in their own language. . .

Elias Boudinot, “An Address to the Whites” in The Heath Anthology of American Literature, ed. Paul Lauter, 5th ed. Volume B: Early Nineteenth Century (1800–1865) (Boston: Houghton Mifflin Company, 2001) 1445–52.

Appendix C: Speech by Elias Boudinot “An Address to the Whites” (1826)


It gives me pleasure to announce to Congress that the benevolent policy of the Government, steadily pursued for nearly thirty years, in relation to the removal of the Indians beyond the white settlements is approaching to a happy consummation. Two important tribes have accepted the provision made for their removal at the last session of Congress, and it is believed that their example will induce the remaining tribes also to seek the same obvious advantages.

The consequences of a speedy removal will be important to the United States, to individual States, and to the Indians themselves. The pecuniary advantages which it promises to the Government are the least of its recommendations. It puts an end to all possible danger of collision between the authorities of the General and State Governments on account of the Indians. It will place a dense and civilized population in large tracts of country now occupied by a few savage hunters. By opening the whole territory between Tennessee on the north and Louisiana on the south to the settlement of the whites it will incalculably strengthen the southwestern frontier and render the adjacent States strong enough to repel future invasions without remote aid. It will relieve the whole State of Mississippi and the western part of Alabama of Indian occupancy, and enable those States to advance rapidly in population, wealth, and power. It will separate the Indians from immediate contact with settlements of whites; free them from the power of the States; enable them to pursue happiness in their own way and under their own rude institutions; will retard the progress of decay, which is lessening their numbers, and perhaps cause them gradually, under the protection of the Government and through the influence of good counsels, to cast off their savage habits and become an interesting, civilized, and Christian community.

What good man would prefer a country covered with forests and ranged by a few thousand savages to our extensive Republic, studded with cities, towns, and prosperous farms embellished with all the improvements which art can devise or industry execute, occupied by more than ��,000,000 happy people, and filled with all the blessings of liberty, civilization and religion?

President Andrew Jackson, “On Indian Removal” (speech to Congress, December 6, 1830) Records of the United States Senate, 1789–1990; Record Group 46; National Archives.

Appendix D: Transcript of President Andrew Jackson’s Message to Congress “On Indian Removal” (1830)


Appendix E: The Indian Removal Act (May 28, 1830)

An Act to provide for an exchange of lands with the Indians residing in any of the states or territories, and for their removal west of the river Mississippi.

Be it enacted by the Senate and House of Representatives of the United States of America, in Congress assembled, That it shall and may be lawful for the President of the United States to cause so much of any territory belonging to the United States, west of the river Mississippi, not included in any state or organized territory, and to which the Indian title has been extinguished, as he may judge necessary, to be divided into a suitable number of districts, for the reception of such tribes or nations of Indians as may choose to exchange the lands where they now reside, and remove there; and to cause each of said districts to be so described by natural or artificial marks, as to be easily distinguished from every other.

And be it further enacted, That it shall and may be lawful for the President to exchange any or all of such districts, so to be laid off and described, with any tribe or nation of Indians now residing within the limits of any of the states or territories, and with which the United States have existing treaties, for the whole or any part or portion of the territory claimed and occupied by such tribe or nation, within the bounds of any one or more of the states or territories, where the land claimed and occupied by the Indians, is owned by the United States, or the United States are bound to the state within which it lies to extinguish the Indian claim thereto.

And be it further enacted, That in the making of any such exchange or exchanges, it shall and may be lawful for the President solemnly to assure the tribe or nation with which the exchange is made, that the United States will forever secure and guaranty to them, and their heirs or successors, the country so exchanged with them; and if they prefer it, that the United States will cause a patent or grant to be made and executed to them for the same: Provided always, That such lands shall revert to the United States, if the Indians become extinct, or abandon the same.

And be it further enacted, That if, upon any of the lands now occupied by the Indians, and to be exchanged for, there should be such improvements as add value to the land claimed by any individual or individuals of such tribes or nations, it shall and may be lawful for the President to cause such value to be ascertained by appraisement or otherwise, and to cause such ascertained value to be paid to the person or persons rightfully claiming such improvements. And upon the payment of such valuation, the improvements so valued and paid for, shall pass to the United States, and possession shall not afterwards be permitted to any of the same tribe.

And be it further enacted, That upon the making of any such exchange as is contemplated by this act, it shall and may be lawful for the President to cause such aid and assistance to be furnished to the emigrants as may be necessary and proper to enable them to remove to, and settle in, the country for which they may have exchanged; and also, to give them such aid and assistance as may be necessary for their support and subsistence for the first year after their removal.


And be it further enacted, That it shall and may be lawful for the President to cause such tribe or nation to be protected, at their new residence, against all interruption or disturbance from any other tribe or nation of Indians, or from any other person or persons whatever.

And be it further enacted, That it shall and may be lawful for the President to have the same superintendence and care over any tribe or nation in the country to which they may remove, as contemplated by this act, that he is now authorized to have over them at their present places of residence: Provided, That nothing in this act contained shall be construed as authorizing or directing the violation of any existing treaty between the United States and any of the Indian tribes.

And be it further enacted, That for the purpose of giving effect to the Provisions of this act, the sum of five hundred thousand dollars is hereby appropriated, to be paid out of any money in the treasury, not otherwise appropriated.

U.S. Congress, 21st Congress, 1st Session, “Indian Removal Act” (1830). Courtesy Library of Congress, 411-12.

Appendix E: The Indian Removal Act (May 28, 1830)


Appendix F: Excerpt from Treaty of Echota (1835)

Treaty concluded at New Echota in the State of Georgia on the �9th day of December,�835 by General William Carroll and John F. Schermerhorn, commissioners on the part of the United States and the Chiefs Head Men and People of the Cherokee tribe of Indians.

PreambleWHEREAS the Cherokees are anxious to make some arrangements with the Government of the United States whereby the difficulties they have experienced by a residence within the settled parts of the United States under the jurisdiction and laws of the State Governments may be terminated and adjusted; and with a view to reuniting their people in one body and securing a permanent home for themselves and their posterity in the country selected by their forefathers without the territorial limits of the State sovereignties, and where they can establish and enjoy a government of their choice and perpetuate such a state of society as may be most consonant with their views, habits and condition; and as may tend to their individual comfort and their advancement in civilization.

And whereas a delegation of the Cherokee nation composed of Messrs. John Ross Richard Taylor Danl. McCoy Samuel Gunter and William Rogers with full power and authority to conclude a treaty with the United States did on the �8th day of February �835 stipulate and agree with the Government of the United States to submit to the Senate to fix the amount which should be allowed the Cherokees for their claims and for a cession of their lands east of the Mississippi river, and did agree to abide by the award of the Senate of the United States themselves and to recommend the same to their people for their final determination.

And whereas on such submission the Senate advised “that a sum not exceeding five millions of dollars be paid to the Cherokee Indians for all their lands and possessions east of the Mississippi river.”

And whereas this delegation after said award of the Senate had been made, were called upon to submit propositions as to its disposition to be arranged in a treaty which they refused to do, but insisted that the same “should be referred to their nation and there in general council to deliberate and determine on the subject in order to ensure harmony and good feeling among themselves.”

And whereas a certain other delegation composed of John Ridge Elias Boudinot Archilla Smith S. W. Bell John West Wm. A. Davis and Ezekiel West, who represented that portion of the nation in favor of emigration to the Cherokee country west of the Mississippi entered into propositions for a treaty with John F. Schermerhorn commissioner on the part of the United States which were to be submitted to their nation for their final action and determination:

And whereas the Cherokee people at their last October council at Red Clay, fully authorized and empowered a delegation or committee of twenty persons of their nation to enter into and


conclude a treaty with the United States commissioner then present, at that place or elsewhere and as the people had good reason to believe that a treaty would then and there be made or at a subsequent council at New Echota which the commissioners it was well known and understood, were authorized and instructed to convene for said purpose; and since the said delegation have gone on to Washington city, with a view to close negotiations there, as stated by them notwithstanding they were officially informed by the United States commissioner that they would not be received by the President of the United States; and that the Government would transact no business of this nature with them, and that if a treaty was made it must be done here in the nation, where the delegation at Washington last winter urged that it should be done for the purpose of promoting peace and harmony among the people; and since these facts have also been corroborated to us by a communication recently received by the commissioner from the Government of the United States and read and explained to the people in open council and therefore believing said delegation can effect nothing and since our difficulties are daily increasing and our situation is rendered more and more precarious uncertain and insecure in consequence of the legislation of the States; and seeing no effectual way of relief, but in accepting the liberal overtures of the United States.

And whereas Genl William Carroll and John F. Schermerhorn were appointed commissioners on the part of the United States, with full power and authority to conclude a treaty with the Cherokees east and were directed by the President to convene the people of the nation in general council at New Echota and to submit said propositions to them with power and authority to vary the same so as to meet the views of the Cherokees in reference to its details.

And whereas the said commissioners did appoint and notify a general council of the nation to convene at New Echota on the ��st day of December �835; and informed them that the commissioners would be prepared to make a treaty with the Cherokee people who should assemble there and those who did not come they should conclude gave their assent and sanction to whatever should be transacted at this council and the people having met in council according to said notice.

Therefore the following articles of a treaty are agreed upon and concluded between William Carroll and John F. Schermerhorn commissioners on the part of the United States and the chiefs and head men and people of the Cherokee nation in general council assembled this �9th day of Decr �835.

“Treaty with the Cherokee, Dec. 29, 1835. | 7 Stat., 478. | Proclamation, May 23, 1836.” Indian Affairs: Laws and Treaties. Vol. II (Treaties). Compiled and edited by Charles J. Kappler. (Washington: Government Printing Office, 1904).

Appendix F: Excerpt from Treaty of Echota (1835)


Appendix G: Lewis Cass, “Removal of the Indians,” (January, 1830)

ART. III.: Documents and Proceedings relating to the Formation and Progress of a Board in the City of New York, for the Emigration, Preservation, and Improvement of the Aborigines of America. July 22, 1829.

THE destiny of the Indians, who inhabit the cultivated portions of the territory of the United States, or who occupy positions immediately upon their borders, has long been a subject of deep solicitude to the American government and people. Time, while it adds to the embarrassments and distress of this part of our population, adds also to the interest which their condition excites, and to the difficulties attending a satisfactory solution of the question of their eventual disposal, which must soon pass sub �0 judice�. . . .

. . . The Indians have gradually decreased since they became first known to the Europeans.

The ratio of this diminution may have been greater or less, depending on the operation of causes we shall presently investigate; but there is no just reason to believe, that any of the tribes, within the whole extent of our boundary, has been increasing in numbers at any period since they have been known to us. . . .

To the operation of the physical causes, which we have described, must be added the moral causes connected with their mode of life, and their peculiar opinions. Distress could not teach them providence, nor want industry. As animal food decreased, their vegetable productions were not increased. Their habits were stationary and unbending; never changing with the change of �0 circumstances. How far the prospect around them, which to us appears so dreary, may have depressed and discouraged them, it is difficult to ascertain, as it is also to estimate the effect upon them of that superiority, which we have assumed and they have acknowledged. There is a principle of repulsion in ceaseless activity, operating through all their institutions, which prevents them from sub judice: still under consideration by a court of law; not yet decided; unsettled. Appreciating or adopting any other modes of life, or any other habits of thought or action, but those which have descended to them from their ancestors.

That the aboriginal population should decrease under the operation of these causes, can excite no surprise. From an early period, their rapid declension and ultimate extinction were foreseen and lamented, and various plans for their preservation and improvement were projected and pursued.

Many of them were carefully taught at our seminaries of education, in the hope that principles of morality and habits of industry would be acquired, and that they might 30 ht stimulate their countrymen by precept and example to a better course of life. Missionary stations were established among various tribes, where zealous and pious men devoted themselves with generous ardor to the task of instruction, as well in agriculture and the mechanic arts, as in the principles of morality and religion. John H. Eaton.

Lewis Cass, “Removal of the Indians” (1830). Courtesy North American Review, Vol. 30, Issue 86.


Appendix H: Letter from Chief John Ross, “To the Senate and House of Representatives” (1836)

Red Clay Council Ground, Cherokee Nation, September 28, 1836

It is well known that for a number of years past we have been harassed by a series of vexations, which it is deemed unnecessary to recite in detail, but the evidence of which our delegation will be prepared to furnish. With a view to bringing our troubles to a close, a delegation was appointed on the �3rd of October, �835, by the General Council of the nation, clothed with full powers to enter into arrangements with the Government of the United States, for the final adjustment of all our existing difficulties. The delegation failing to effect an arrangement with the United States commissioner, then in the nation, proceeded, agreeably to their instructions in that case, to Washington City, for the purpose of negotiating a treaty with the authorities of the United States.

After the departure of the Delegation, a contract was made by the Rev. John F. Schermerhorn, and certain individual Cherokees, purporting to be a “treaty, concluded at New Echota, in the State of Georgia, on the �9th day of December, �835, by General William Carroll and John F. Schermerhorn, commissioners on the part of the United States, and the chiefs, headmen, and people of the Cherokee tribes of Indians.” A spurious Delegation, in violation of a special injunction of the general council of the nation, proceeded to Washington City with this pretended treaty, and by false and fraudulent representations supplanted in the favor of the Government the legal and accredited Delegation of the Cherokee people, and obtained for this instrument, after making important alterations in its provisions, the recognition of the United States Government. And now it is presented to us as a treaty, ratified by the Senate, and approved by the President [Andrew Jackson], and our acquiescence in its requirements demanded, under the sanction of the displeasure of the United States, and the threat of summary compulsion, in case of refusal. It comes to us, not through our legitimate authorities, the known and usual medium of communication between the Government of the United States and our nation, but through the agency of a complication of powers, civil and military.

By the stipulations of this instrument, we are despoiled of our private possessions, the indefeasible property of individuals. We are stripped of every attribute of freedom and eligibility for legal self-defence. Our property may be plundered before our eyes; violence may be committed on our persons; even our lives may be taken away, and there is none to regard our complaints. We are denationalized; we are disfranchised. We are deprived of membership in the human family! We have neither land nor home, nor resting place that can be called our own. And this is effected by the provisions of a compact which assumes the venerated, the sacred appellation of treaty.

We are overwhelmed! Our hearts are sickened, our utterance is paralized, when we reflect on the condition in which we are placed, by the audacious practices of unprincipled men, who have managed their stratagems with so much dexterity as to impose on the Government of the United States, in the face of our earnest, solemn, and reiterated protestations.


Appendix H: Letter from Chief John Ross, “To the Senate and House of Representatives” (1836)

The instrument in question is not the act of our Nation; we are not parties to its covenants; it has not received the sanction of our people. The makers of it sustain no office nor appointment in our Nation, under the designation of Chiefs, Head men, or any other title, by which they hold, or could acquire, authority to assume the reins of Government, and to make bargain and sale of our rights, our possessions, and our common country. And we are constrained solemnly to declare, that we cannot but contemplate the enforcement of the stipulations of this instrument on us, against our consent, as an act of injustice and oppression, which, we are well persuaded, can never knowingly be countenanced by the Government and people of the United States; nor can we believe it to be the design of these honorable and highminded individuals, who stand at the head of the Govt., to bind a whole Nation, by the acts of a few unauthorized individuals. And, therefore, we, the parties to be affected by the result, appeal with confidence to the justice, the magnanimity, the compassion, of your honorable bodies, against the enforcement, on us, of the provisions of a compact, in the formation of which we have had no agency.

Chief John Ross, The Papers of Chief John Ross, vol 1, 1807-1839, ed. Gary E. Moulton, (Norman, Okla.: University of Oklahoma Press, 1985).


Appendix I: Pro-Temperance

Mary Waddell: Bessie’s Mothers (1921)

THE FIRE was out and the room cold. Wrapping a piece of an old quilt about her little girl, Mrs. Weston held her in her arms.

“Bessie,” she began, “Mother has something she must tell you. Tomorrow you are going to take a ride on the train.”

“O, won’t that be fine!” exclaimed Bessie, clapping her hands. “Where are we going, mother?”

“You are going to live in a pretty new home and—”

“O goody!” cried Bessie. “We won’t be cold nor hungry, any more will we?”

“No, dear; you will be nice and warm and have plenty to eat. Mrs. Brown is a lovely lady and I am sure you will like her. She is coming for you in the morning.”

“Who is Mrs. Brown, Mother?”

“She is the lady who lives in this beautiful home. Having no children of her own to love, she wants to adopt my little girl.”

“I will have two mothers, won’t I? But, of course, one will be just a pretend mother. No one could take the place of my own dear Mother,” said Bessie, putting her arms around Mrs. Weston’s neck.

Poor Mrs. Weston’s heart was breaking. O, how could she tell her all! The words seemed to choke her.

“Bessie,” she began again, “I can not go with you, but Mrs. Brown will give you pretty clothes to wear, and send you to school, and you will have a nice bed in a little room all your own. No doubt she will have a party for you and you will have such a good time. You will like it, I am sure. Just think! You will not be cold nor hungry nor ragged any more. It will be such a good home for my little girl.”

“Would I have to stay always, and be Mrs. Brown’s little girl instead of yours?”

“Yes, dear.”

“Then I’ll never, never go!” exclaimed Bessie. “I wouldn’t leave you for the whole world! I just couldn’t. O, Mother, Mother! Do I have to go? I don’t want nice clothes, and I would rather be hungry and cold always if I could just stay with you. Can’t I, Mother? Please, Mother, I’ll be big



after a while and then I can work and help you.” With her head nestled close to her mother’s, Bessie caressed her cheek with her hand as she coaxed and wept by turns. Mrs. Weston was weeping, too. “Bessie, my child,” she said, “Mother wants you more than she can tell you; but she can not see you suffer. Listen till I tell you something. Of course, you remember how YOUR FATHER DRANK till he was unable to work very much. It took ALL HE COULD MAKE TO BUY DRINK, so I had to go out and earn money for us to live on.”

“Mother, WHY DIDN’T FATHER STOP DRINKING when it hurt him, and then you could have had the money?”

“Because, dear, ALCOHOL IN DRINK MAKES ONE WANT MORE AND MORE OF IT TILL AN APPETITE IS FORMED THAT IS OFTEN STRONGER THAN A MAN’S LOVE FOR HIS FAMILY. I worried a great deal about your father, Bessie, and then came the shock of his death. These troubles added to the hard labor I have been compelled to do have taken my strength so that I am no longer able to work. The coal is gone and there is only a mere bite of food left for breakfast. I have no money to buy these things nor to pay the rent. We can not stay here longer. I can not let you go hungry and cold and without a home. It will be very hard for me to give you up, but don’t you see, dear, that something must be done?”

“But, Mother, what will become of you?”

“There is a home provided for sick and helpless people. I must go there.”

“Is it a nice place like Mrs. Brown’s?”

“I believe they will be kind to me, dear.” Mrs. Weston did not tell Bessie that many of those who would be her companions IN THE “POORHOUSE” were either wrecks from living wicked lives or else had not sense enough to work.

“Why can’t I go there, too, Mother? We could be together then.”

“They do not allow children in this home. It will be much nicer for you at Mrs. Brown’s. Mother would never, never leave you if she were able to take care of you. Won’t my little girl try to be brave when she knows how hard it is for Mother?”

“Will I get to see you sometimes?” asked Bessie. “I hope so, dear. Perhaps Mrs. Brown will bring you to see me.”

“She’ll have to or I’ll just cry and cry till she does.”

“You must be a good little girl and not cause Mrs. Brown trouble.”

“I’ll be good if she’ll bring me to see you sometimes.”

3�Unit 1 Pre-Columbian America


“You must be good anyway, dear, and love Mrs. Brown for being kind to you.”

“Y-e-s, say Mother, I’ll stay with Mrs. Brown till I am big enough to work and then I am going to make enough money to keep us, and we will be together again. I’ll go to Mrs. Brown’s--but O, I don’t want to! I don’t want to!” wailed Bessie.

Mrs. Weston held her little girl close and soothed and petted her till at last, tired out from much crying, Bessie fell asleep with her head on her mother’s breast. When her arms could bear the load no longer, Mrs. Weston tenderly laid her precious bundle on the cot, covered her as warmly as possible and clasping a little hand in hers, sat grieving the whole night through.

When Mrs. Brown came the next morning and saw the grief written on Mrs. Weston’s face, her heart was touched.

“Mrs. Weston,” she said, “I have wanted a little girl for my very own. But I have changed my mind. IF YOU WILL COME AND LIVE WITH ME I will share Bessie with you. You need do nothing now. When you are stronger you can help me with my house work. Bessie, too, can do many little things to help us.”

Mrs. Weston could not find words to express her gratitude, and Bessie danced for joy.

“I WILL HAVE TWO MOTHERS NOW,” she exclaimed, “and I will call one of them just Mother, and the other Mother Brown.” Putting her arms around her new mother’s neck, she said, “I--love you very much already, Mother Brown.”

Mary Waddell, Bessie’s Mothers (Westerville, Ohio: The Lincoln-Lee Legion and The American Publishing Company,1921).

The Moral Duty of Total Abstinence: Temperance sermons, delivered in response to an invitation of the National Temperance Society and publication house (1873)

“Wine is a mocker, strong drink is raging: and whosoever is deceived hereby is not wise.” -PROVERBS xx. I.

I PROPOSE to discuss the very important question, What is the duty of every Christian in reference to the use of intoxicating drinks? No question is, at the present moment, agitating more minds than this one. None has a better right to enter the pulpit on the Sabbath; to no other moral question can a minister of Jesus Christ be more imperatively required to return a candid, careful, and most unmistakable answer. In every domain of practical Christian morals, the pulpit ought to make the path of duty so clear that “the wayfaring men, though fools, shall not err therein.” A minister should carry no dark lanterns.


During the past week, I have found my mind disturbed afresh, and deeply, too, by the state of things around us. To the outward eye, the business and the social life of this city have gone on as aforetimes. But the eye of God, looking into the interior moral life of this community, has seen God’s Law owt lie Body and strange and sorrowful things. He has seen struggles with terrible temptation that you have little dreamed of. He has seen several thousands of people strongly tempted to do that which inclination or custom prompted them to do, and yet the very doing of it might be fatal to the body and damning to the soul. He has seen some young man stretching forth his hand, with anxious misgiving, for his first glass of strong drink; and some aged hands reached out to clutch the glass, which should be almost their last. He has beheld thousands of our neighbors entering the door of the drinking-saloon without even heeding that awful inscription written over that door by the hand of Truth—“Whosoever is deceived here, is not wise. Here rich men are made poor; thrifty men are made idle; healthy men are poisoned with deadly disease; parents are made childless; wives are made widows; and immortal soughs, for whom Jesus bled, are dooming themselves to the outer darkness of eternal despair!” The Omniscient eye has seen some parents setting the sparkling cup (which “biteth like a serpent”) right before their own children; and even church members have offered that ensnaring cup at their hospitable boards to guests, who have been confirmed in dangerous habits by the example of professed Christians! The eye of God has seen the woes, and the ear of God has heard the wails, of the drunkard’s home. Beneath all this smooth surface of society, God has witnessed the most terrible passions of lust, sensuality, anger, cruelty, His Lawd is ile Book. and often of red-handed murder-all fomented and kept in hot fury by the monster curse of the intoxicating bowl. And now, up from this seething caldron of misery and sin, marches the question to-day to every Christian conscience, “What is my ditty in regard to using or offering these deceitful and destructive drinks?” Surely our Allwise and Heavenly Father has not left us in the dark on so momentous a question of Christian duty. If our Father has made known to us his will in regard to alcoholic intoxicants, where shall we discover it?

National Temperance Society, “The Moral Duty of Total Abstinence” (1873). (New York: The National Temperance Society and Publication House.



Appendix J: Anti-Temperance

The Ramrod Broken

PREFACE.

This book aims to be candid and entirely honest. If we thought there was a page of cant in it, we would tear it out. It treats of a subject that is never touched upon save with prejudice, or in passion, or for partisan purposes, and endeavors to treat of it in a direct and truthful way. The reader need not be afraid of finding it full of hot and denunciatory words, more than half of them blasphemous at that; we leave that sort of business to writers who labor to make proselytes to their peculiar way of thinking, instead of laboring to make all questions better understood.

This matter of Temerance, we conceive, has never yet been taken hold of by the handle. The right sort of men have not addressed themselves to its discussion. They have been either men, on the one hand, who are above and beyond their business, mere theorizers, whose knowledge of human nature is scanty, and whose great aim is to shape the common heart to their notions, instead of the contrary; or, on the other hand, of men, who, from their very habits and ways of life, could never have been at the trouble to form an opinion of their own, even if they had the brains so to do--drunkards in the slow process of reformation, and men of corresponding tastes and sympathies.

The “Ramrod” is the man who goes for stringent laws--so stringent that they cannot be executed; for making liquor contraband; for punishing a man who buys and sells it, as he would punish a criminal; for having human nautre someting different from what it is; and, generally, for going the “straight thing” clear through. He derived his name in the State where his favorite law had its birth, and is every where known by that name now.

II. WHAT THE BIBLE HAS TO SAY.

Our first proposition, then, is as follows--

We believe that the Bible teaches that a moderate use of good spirituous liquors tends to health, happiness, and length of days; and that whoever denies this doctrine, or the fact of these teachings, is an unbeliever both in the authenticity of the Bible and in the doctirnes it so plainly sets forth.

The Good Book, in fact, abounds with passages that establish the above proposition. We can pick them out alike from the pages of the Old and the New Testaments. And we defy those who pretend to rely on the Holy Scriptures for the evidence of the faith that is in them, to show that these passages have any meaning at all, unless it is directly and unmistakably in support of the proposition thus stated.

Let anybody refute this position who can.



III. THE GOOD AND THE EVIL.

Our second proposition is this: --

We believe it pleased God, in the creation of all things, to place before man good and evil, and to make thim a free moral agent to choose between the two; knowing, in His infinite wisdom, that in the fulness of time man would be led to choose the good alone, and so the evil would have wrought successfully for his discipline.

We believe, further, that a moderate use of pure and unadulterated spirits may be fairly set down as one of the comforts of the present life, given by the Creator himself, to whom we are to be thankful accordingly; but that even a moderate use of bad and impure liquors is an evil of a decided character, which, like the tree of knowledge in the garden of Eden, should be abstained from.

We also believe not only that we must permit evil to grow up with the good, even as tares will grow with the wheat,--but that, even if we try ever so much, we cannot prevent it; since God alone permits temptations of all sorts to exist, as tests and trials of men’s virtue, the result to lie between them and their Maker.

V. OUR THIRD ARTICLE OF FAITH.

We believe human being to be at least capable of self-government; and that, as a necessary consequence, the less legislation one can get along with, the better; and that, if even one tenth part of the time and money had been devoted to the thorough and much-needed purification of spirts, that has been spent in the vain endeavors to destroy it as an article eith of use or commerce, we should have vastly more real, true, reliable, and consistent temperance men about us than we have at the present day.

VII. IN MODERATION.

There are more drunkards to-day, with all the anti-license, Maine Law, prohibitory feeling, than there were before stringent legislative enactments were mistakenly supposed to be the cure-all for drunkenness. As Governor Seymour, of New York, expressed it, when the Maine Law came into operation, rum became of necessity a “pocket institution.” Every body had it about them; if not in their pockets literally, then in their houses, or their offices, or in sly and out-of-the-way places. We know of many and many a man who thought it necessary to lay in a stock before the law went into operation, and who became a confirmed drunkard not a very long while afterwards, filling a drunkard’s grave.

They laid in a liberal store, for the fear that they were to have no opportunities of getting more; and not being accustomed to the use of it, self-restraint was very soon broken over, and they went down. It was one of the most natural results of the operation of such a law.



Spirits may be used in moderation, and with perfect safety; and it is nonsense to harp on the old string, that to taste, ever so prudently, is certain ruin. It never was so, and it never will be so.

IX. THE UNCONSTITUTIONALITY OF PROHIBITION

The so-styled “Maine Law,” which looks at nothing short of downright, violent, and defiant prohibition both of the sale and use of liquors, is, in our judgment, the very representative of the spirit of tyranny. It was conceived in ideas of authority, and power, and force, and by force, and power, and authority alone it must hope to be executed.

Unknown, “The Ramrod Broken; or, The Bible, History, and Common Sense in Favor of the Moderate Use of Good Spiritous Liquors”, (Boston, Albert Colby and Co.) 1859.



The Liquor Dealer’s RightsAir–“Wait for the Wagon.” Come, all you loyal freemen, wherever you may be, Just listen to the lines I write, and with me you’ll agree, It’s of a tyrant liquor law, as you may understand, But good liquor was ordained above for the use of man.

CHORUS. Liberty Forever, Liberty Forever, Liberty Forever, For Freemen we are all!

It was in our State Capitol the deciding vote was cast, That on the Fourth day of July we could not sell a glass. These Maine Lawmen in Albany did combine, Did impose for violation, imprisonment and fine.

CHORUS.

The law was first invented up in the State of Maine, And they who did propose it must have been insane. To our glorious constitution we mean to stand till death, The man who will infringe on it has reason to fret.

CHORUS.

On the day of our Independence this law will take effect, To trample down our freedom, what we never did expect, As the Father of our Country did grant to each and all, That on that day each one should say, FREEMEN WE ARE ALL.

CHORUS.

If this is our freedom which I do here explain, For vending of the liquors which in our stores remain; Our houses to be searched, and our property consumed, As murders and burglars we are taken to the tombs.

CHORUS.

Now all you friends of Liberty, rally for your cause, Washington, our hero, did frame and make our laws, And by his laws, which are our guide, forever we shall stand, The fanatics who oppose us shall be driven from our land.

Unknown, THE LIQUOR DEALER’S RIGHTS (n.d.). New York: J. Andrews, Printer. Courtesy of the Library of Congress.



Preamble to the Constitution of the Wisconsin State Anti-Prohibition Association, 1885

The menacing attitude assumed by some of our state and municipal bodies on the question of Personal Liberty, and the tendency shown to restrict the exercise of this great fundamental principle by oppressive and fanatical legislation, makes it the duty of every liberty loving citizen to unite in an organized effort to resist, by all lawful means, further encroachments from this source. Believing, therefore that the time has come for action, we have organized the “WISCONSIN STATE ANTI-PROHIBITION ASSOCIATION,” in the home that it may prove an acceptable means of accomplishing this great object. We wish to enlarge individual rights instead of restricting them, and with these ends in view, we ask the support and co-operation of every person who coincides with is in these views. We have no doubt that in the end the “Right will prevail.” “Eternal Vigilance is the Price of Liberty.”

Wisconsin, State Anti-Prohibition Association, “Preamble to the Constitution of the Wisconsin State Anti-Prohibition Association” (Wisconsin, J.H. Yewdale & Sons, 1885)


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Appendix L: Excerpts from Primary Sources

Christopher Columbus October 11, 1492What follows are the very words of the Admiral in his book about his first voyage to, and discovery of, these Indies. �, he says, in order that they would be friendly to us -- because I recognized that they were people who would be better freed and converted to our Holy Faith by love than by force -- to some of them I gave red caps, and glass beads which they put on their chests, and many other things of small value, in which they took so much pleasure and became so much our friends that it was a marvel. Later they came swimming to the ships’ launches where we were and brought us parrots and cotton thread in balls and javelins and many other things, and they traded them to us for other things which we gave them, such as small glass beads and bells. In sum, they took everything and gave of what they had very willingly. But it seemed to me that they were a people very poor in everything. All of them go around as naked as their mothers bore them; and the women also, although I did not see more than one quite young girl. And all those that I saw were young people, for none did I see of more than 30 years of age. They are very well formed, with handsome bodies and good faces. Their hair coarse -- almost like the tail of a horse-and short. They wear their hair down over their eyebrows except for a little in the back which they wear long and never cut. Some of them paint themselves with black, and they are of the color of the Canarians, neither black nor white; and some of them paint themselves with white, and some of them with red, and some of them with whatever they find. And some of them paint their faces, and some of them the whole body, and some of them only the eyes, and some of them only the nose. They do not carry arms nor are they acquainted with them, because I showed them swords and they took them by the edge and through ignorance cut themselves. They have no iron.

Their javelins are shafts without iron and some of them have at the end a fish tooth.... All of them alike are of good-sized stature and carry themselves well. I saw some who had marks of wounds on their bodies and I made signs to them asking what they were; and they showed me how people from other islands nearby came there and tried to take them, and how they defended themselves; and I believed and believe that -- they come here from tierrafirme to take them captive. They should be good and intelligent servants, for I see that they say very quickly everything that is said to them; and I believe that they would become Christians very easily, for it seemed to me that they had no religion. Our Lord pleasing, at the time of my departure I will take six of them from here to Your Highnesses in order that they may learn to speak...

. . . They came to the ship with dugouts that are made from the trunk of one tree, like a long boat, and all of one piece, and worked marvelously in the fashion of the land, and so big that in some of them 40 and 45 men came. And others smaller, down to some in which came one man alone. They row with a paddle like that of a baker and go marvelously. And if it capsizes on them they then throw themselves in the water, and they right and empty it with calabashes that they



carry. They brought balls of spun cotton and parrots and javelins and other little things that it would be tiresome to write down, and they gave everything for anything that was given to them. I was attentive and labored to find out if there was any gold; and I saw that some of them wore a little piece hung in a hole that they have in their noses. And by signs I was able to understand that, going to the south or rounding the island to the south, there was there a king who had large vessels of it and had very much gold.... This island is quite big and very flat and with very green trees a I and much water and a very large lake in the middle and without any mountains; and all of it so green that it is a pleasure to look at it. And these people are very gentle, and because of their desire to have some of our things and believing that nothing will be given to them without their giving something, and not having anything, they take what they can and then throw themselves into the water to swim...

E. G. Bourne, ed., The Northmen, Columbus and Cabot (New York: publisher unknown,1906).

Christopher Columbus October 14, 1492As soon as it dawned I ordered the ship’s boat and the launches of the caravels made ready and went north-northeast along the island in order to see what there was in the other part, which was the eastern part. And also to see the villages, and I soon saw two or three, as well as people, who all came to the beach calling to us and giving thanks to God. Some of them brought us water; others, other things to eat; others, when they saw that I did not care to go ashore, threw themselves into the sea swimming and came to us, and we understood that they were asking us if we had come from the heavens. And one old man got into the ship’s boat, and others in loud voices called to all the men and women: Come see the men who came from the heavens. Bring them something to eat and drink. Many men came, and many women, each one with something, giving thanks to God, throwing themselves on the ground; and they raised their hands to heaven, and afterward they called to us in loud voices to come ashore. ... And I saw a piece of land formed like an island, although it was not one, on which there were six houses. This piece of land might in two days be cut off to make an island, although I do not see this to be necessary since these people are very naive about weapons, as Your Highnesses will see from seven that I caused to be taken in order to carry them away to you and to learn our language and to return them. Except that, whenever Your Highnesses may command, all of them can be taken to Castile or held captive in this same island; because with 50 men all of them could be held in subjection and can be made to do whatever one might wish. And later [I noticed], near the said islet, groves of trees, the most beautiful that I saw and with their leaves as green as those of Castile in the months of April and May, and lots of water. I looked over the whole of that harbor and afterward returned to the ship and set sail, and I saw so many islands that I did not know how to decide which one I would go to first. And those men whom I had



taken told me by signs that they were so very many that they were numberless. And they named by their names more than a hundred. Finally I looked for the largest and to that one I decided to go and so I am doing. It is about five leagues distant from this island of San Salvador, and tile others of them some more, some less. All are very flat without mountains and very fertile and all populated and they make war on one another, even though these men are very simple and very handsome in body...

E. G. Bourne, ed., The Northmen, Columbus and Cabot (New York: publisher unknown,1906).

Coronado’s Report to Viceroy Mendoza Sent from Cibola, August 3, 1540As soon as I came within sight of this city, I sent the army-master, Don Garcia Lopez, Friar Daniel and Friar Luis, and Ferrando Vermizzo, with some horsemen, a little way ahead, so that they might find the Indians and tell them that we were not coming to do them any harm, but to defend them in the name of our lord the Emperor. The summons, in the form which His Majesty commanded in his instructions, was made intelligible to the people of the country by an interpreter. But they, being a proud people, were little affected, because it seemed to them that we were few in number, and that they would not have any difficulty in conquering us. They pierced the gown of Friar Luis with an arrow, which, blessed be God, did him no harm. Meanwhile I arrived with all the rest of the horse and the footmen, and found a large body of the Indians on the plain, who began to shoot with their arrows. In obedience to the orders of Your Lordship and of the marquis, I did not wish my company, who were begging me for permission, to attack them, telling them that they ought not to offend them, and that what the enemy was doing was nothing, and that so few people ought not to be insulted. On the other hand, when the Indians saw that we did not move, they took greater courage, and grew so bold that they came up almost to the heels of our horses to shoot their arrows. On this account I saw that it was no longer time to hesitate, and as the priests approved the action, I charged them. There was little to do, because they suddenly took to flight, part running toward the city, which was near and well fortified, and others toward the plain, wherever chance led them. Some Indians were killed, and others might have been slain if I could have allowed them to be pursued. But I saw that there would be little advantage in this, because the Indians who were outside were few, and those who had retired to the city were numerous, besides many who had remained there in the first place.

Francisco Vasquez de Coronado, “Translation of the Letter from Coronado to Mendoza, August 3, 1540,” The Journey of Coronado 1540-1542, The City of Mexico to the Grand Canon of the Colorado and the Buffalo Plains of Texas, Kansas, and Nebraska, Translated and Edited by George Parker Winship (New York: A.S. Barnes & Company, 1904), 168-69.


The Journey of Alvar Nuñez Cabeza de Vaca (1542)

Translated by Fanny Bandelier (�905) Once in sight of Apalachen, the Governor commanded me to enter the village with nine horsemen and fifty foot. So the inspector and I undertook this. Upon penetrating into the village we found only women and boys. The men were not there at the time, but soon, while we were walking about, they came and began to fight, shooting arrows at us. They killed the inspector’s horse, but finally fled and left us. We found there plenty of ripe maize ready to be gathered and much dry corn already housed. We also found many deer skins and among them mantles made of thread and of poor quality, with which the women cover parts of their bodies. They had many vessels for grinding maize. The village contained forty small and low houses, reared in sheltered places, out of fear of the great storms that continuously occur in the country. The buildings are of straw, and they are surrounded by dense timber, tall trees and numerous water-pools, where there were so many fallen trees and of such size as to greatly obstruct and impede circulation.

Alvar Nuñez Cabeza de Vaca , “The Journey of Alvar Nuñez Cabeza de Vaca and His Companions from Florida to the Pacific 1528-1536”, translated by Fanny Bandelier (New York: A.S. Barnes & Company, 1905).



ITEM 3776ITEM 3841

ITEM 3773ITEM 3775

Calendars

Appendix M: Activity 7 Artifacts



ITEM 3783 ITEM 3786

ITEM 3781

ITEM 3779

Architecture



ITEM 3794

ITEM 3789ITEM 3792

Burial Mounds



ITEM 3800 ITEM 3797

ITEM 3832ITEM 3803

Jewelry


ITEM 3807 ITEM 3814

ITEM 3812 ITEM 3815

Agricultural Tools



Calendar SystemsA calendar is a system of organizing units of time for the purpose of reckoning time over extended periods. By convention, the day is the smallest calendrical unit of time; the measurement of fractions of a day is classified as timekeeping. The generality of this definition is due to the diversity of methods that have been used in creating calendars. Although some calendars replicate astronomical cycles according to fixed rules, others are based on abstract, perpetually repeating cycles of no astronomical significance. Some calendars are regulated by astronomical observations, some carefully and redundantly enumerate every unit, and some contain ambiguities and discontinuities. Some calendars are codified in written laws; others are transmitted by oral tradition.

Kenneth Seidelmann, ed., Explanatory Supplement to the Astronomical Almanac(Sausalito, Calif.: University Science Books, 1992) 575.http://charon.nmsu.edu/~lhuber/leaphist.html

ArchitectureArchitecture first evolved out of the dynamics between needs (shelter, security, worship, etc.) and means (available building materials and attendant skills). Prehistoric and primitive architecture constitute this early stage. As humans progressed and knowledge began to be formalised through oral traditions and practices, architecture evolved into a craft. Here there is first a process of trial and error, and later improvisation or replication of a successful trial. What is termed Vernacular architecture continues to be produced in many parts of the world. Indeed, vernacular buildings make up most of the built world that people experience every day.

Early human settlements were essentially rural. As surplus of production began to occur, rural societies transformed into urban ones and cities began to evolve. In many ancient civilisations such as the Egyptians’ and Mesopotamians’ architecture and urbanism reflected the constant engagement with the divine and the supernatural, while in other ancient cultures such as Iran architecture and urban planning was used to exemplify the power of the state.

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Architecture

Burial MoundsA tumulus (plural tumuli or tumuluses) is a mound of earth and stones raised over a grave or graves. Tumuli are also known as barrows, burial mounds or kurgans and can be found throughout much of the world. The method of inhumation may involve a cist, a mortuary enclosure, a mortuary house or a chamber tomb.

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tumulus

Appendix N: Activity 7 Artifact Definitions


JewelryJewellery (Jewelry in American spelling) comprises ornamental objects worn by persons, typically made with gemstones and precious metals. Costume jewellery is made from less valuable materials. However, jewellery can and has been made out of almost every kind of material.

The word is derived from the word “jewel”, which was anglicised from the Old French “joule” in around the �3th century. Further tracing leads back to the Latin word “jocale,” meaning plaything.

Some cultures have a practice of keeping large amounts of wealth stored in the form of jewellery. Jewellery can also be symbolic, as in the case of Christians wearing a crucifix in the form of jewellery, or, as is the case in many Western cultures, married people wearing a wedding ring.

Jewellery in various forms has been made and worn by both sexes in almost every (if not every) human culture, on every inhabited continent. Personal adornment seems to be a basic human tendency.

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jewelry

Agricultural ToolsThe precise origin of agriculture, and agricultural tools is difficult to determine. Archeological evidence points to the fertile crescent as producing the earliest traces of agricultural development as early as �0,000 B.C.E. Agriculture production in the Americas is thought to have begun at least 3000 B.C.E. Early agricultural tools include the sickle.

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Agriculture

Appendix N: Activity 7 Artifact Definitions


Appendix O: Activity 7 Artifacts Key

ITEM 3776: Eduardo Matos Moctezuma, LA PIEDRA DEL SOL, CALENDARIO AZTECA, Sunstone, The Aztec

Calendar (1992). Courtesy of the Library of Congress,

General Collection (95.1).

Americas: In �790, workers repaving near the Cathedral in Mexico City discovered a stone eleven-and-one-half feet in diameter inscribed with the Aztec calendar. When in use, the stone would have had bright polychrome colors and would have held sacrificed human hearts. The Aztecs believed the hearts were needed to feed the sun and keep civilization alive.

ITEM 3841: Unknown, Description de l’Égypte ou, Recueil des observations et des recherches qui ont été faites en Égypte pendant l’expédition de l’armée française publié par les ordres de Sa Majesté l’empereur Napoléon le Grand (Description of Egypt...). A. Vol. 4, plate 21. Courtesy of the Library of Congress.

Africa: French scientists and artists accompanying Napoleon’s invasion of Egypt in �798 produced “Description de l’Égypte”, a twenty-two volume publication that essentially established the modern science of Egyptology. Here is an engraving of an ancient Egyptian diagram of the heavens from the Temple of Dendara, depicting the sky on the date of the founding of the temple in 54 B.C. The falcon-headed gods symbolize eternity and the goddesses relate to the four directions.

ITEM 3773: Unknown, XIYANG XINFU LISHU, Book of the Western Calendar (1644-61). Courtesy of the Library of Congress, Chinese Rare Book Collection, Asian Division (92.1).

Asia: Like people engaged in agriculture in other cultures, Chinese farmers observed the changing cycle of the moon and other celestial phenomena to determine when to perform their farming activities. The earliest Chinese farmer’s calendar, on which this seventeenth-century example is based, can be traced back to 5�4�–504� B.C.

ITEM 3775: Johannes “Regiomontanus” Mueller, CALENDARIUM (1474). Courtesy of the Library of Congress, Rare Books and Special Collections Division (94).

Europe: This book by the mathematician and astronomer called “Regiomontanus” (�436–�476) began the transition to the new, reformed Gregorian calendar. Because the Christian Easter was

based on the flawed Julian calendar introduced by Julius Caesar (�00–44 B.C.), that holy day had gradually drifted from its spring observance tied to the Jewish Passover.

Calendars



ITEM 3783: Werner Forman, THE EXPERIMENTAL FARM OF LITTLE BUTSER IN HAMPSHIRE (n. d.). Courtesy of Werner Forman/Art Resource, NY.

Europe: The experimental farm of Little Butser in Hampshire. The exterior of an exact replica of a large Iron Age House. The frame is constructed from tree trunks, the roof is thatched, and the walls are of mud and wattle.

ITEM 3786: Ansel Adams, ACOMA PUEBLO, FULL SIDE VIEW OF ADOBE HOUSE WITH WATER IN THE FOREGROUND (1941). Courtesy of the National Archives and Records Administration.

Americas: Acoma Pueblo, New Mexico, full side view of adobe house with water in foreground.

ITEM 3781: Maison Bonfils, VUE GENERAL DES PYRAMIDES (ca. 1867). Courtesy of the Library of Congress.

Africa: The Pyramids, three riders on camels in foreground.

ITEM 3779: Unknown, ANCOR WAT (ca. 1880–1910). Courtesy of the Library of Congress.

Asia: Angcor Wat

Architecture


ITEM 3794: Unknown, OHIO, MARIETTA MOUND CEMETERY (ca. 1920). Courtesy of the Library of Congress.

Americas: Native American mound cemetery.

ITEM 3789: Werner Forman, THE TOMB OF EMPEROR GAO ZONG AND EMPRESS WUU AT THE TANG IMPERIAL BURIAL GROUNDS (n. d.). Courtesy of Werner Forman/Art Resource, NY.

Asia: Tomb of Emperor Gao Zong and Empress Wu at the Tang imperial burial grounds. Distant view of the impressive artificially-shaped hill. China, Tang dynasty (6�8–906). Location: Qianling, Xian, China

ITEM 3792: Erich Lessing, TUMULUS OF “KLEIN ASPERGLE,” ASPERG, GERMANY (n. d.). Courtesy of Erich Lessing/Art Resource, NY.

Europe: Tumulus of “Klein Aspergle.” (The Celtic dynasty resided in nearby fortress of Hohenasperg.) Excavated �879.

Location: Klein Aspergle, Asperg, Germany

Burial Mounds



ITEM 3800: Scala, NECKLACE WITH VULTURE PENDANT FROM TOMB OF PHARAOH TUTANKHAMUN (n. d.). Courtesy of Scala/Art Resource, NY.

Africa: Necklace with vulture pendant. From tomb of Pharaoh Tutankhamen. Egypt, �8th dynasty.

ITEM 3797: Scala, JEWELRY FROM HARAPPA, INDIA. INDUS VALLEY, 3RD MILLENIUM BCE (n. d.). Courtesy of Scala/Art Resource, NY.

Asia: Jewelry. rom Harappa, India. Indus Valley civilization. 3rd millennium BCE.

ITEM 3832: Anthony Stein, BEADS FROM THE MISSISSIPPIAN CULTURES (n. d.). Courtesy of Anthony Stein.

Americas: An assembly of various Mississippian artifacts found at Spiro Mounds, LeFlore County, Oklahoma. The items featured include freshwater pearl beads, carved shell beads, small shell gorget, and two ear spools.

ITEM 3803: Erich Lessing, IRON AGE JEWLERY, BRONZE CHAIN AND PENDANTS (n. d.). Courtesy of Erich Lessing/Art Resource, NY.

Europe: Iron Age Jewelry. 5th c. BCE Bronze chains and pendants.

Jewelry



ITEM 3807: Erich Lessing, CEREMONIAL AXE WITH IRON BLADES (n. d.). Courtesy of Erich Lessing/Art Resource, NY.

Asia: Ceremonial axe with iron blade. From the palace quarter of Ugarit (Ras Shamra). Middle Syrian period (�4th c. BCE). Bronze, gold, iron (length: �9.7 cm).

ITEM 3814: HIP, IRON ADZE-HAMMER, ROMAN BRITAIN FROM BULL’S WHARF, LONDON (n. d.). Courtesy of HIP/Art Resource, NY.

Europe: Iron adze-hammer, Roman Britain, from Bull’s Wharf, London, late �st c.

ITEM 3812: HIP, WOODEN ADZE WITH BRONZE BLADE FROM DEIR EL-BAHARI, THEBES, EGYPT (n. d.). Courtesy of HIP/Art Resource, NY.

Africa: Wooden adze with bronze blade, from Deir el-Bahari, Thebes, Egypt, Reign of Hatshepsut, �8th Dynasty, c�479-c�4�5 BC.

ITEM 3815: Werner Forman, PICK MADE FROM A WALRUS TUSK (n. d.). Courtesy of Werner Forman/Art Resource, NY.

Americas: Pick made form a walrus tusk point lashed to a wooden handle. Eskimo.

Agricultural Tools



Pick made from a walrus tusk point lashed to a wooden handle. Eskimo.

ITEM 3815: Werner Forman, PICK MADE FROM A WALRUS TUSK (n. d.). Courtesy of Werner Forman/Art Resource, NY.

These obsidian point arrowheads come from Idaho and exemplify how obsidian was used to make stone tools, projectile points, etc. in other places, as well. Nez Perce.

ITEM 3589: National Park Service, NEZ PERCE OBSIDIAN POINTS (n. d.). Courtesy of the Nez Perce National Historic Park.

Tools

Appendix P: Activity 8 Artifacts


Mississippian ceremonial flint dance sword. Found at Spiro Mounds.

ITEM 3833: Anthony Stein, MISSISSIPPIAN BLADE (n. d.). Courtesy of Anthony Stein.

Various Mississippian arrowpoints found at Spiro Mounds.

ITEM 3834: Anthony Stein, MISSISSIPPIAN ARROW POINTS (n. d.). Courtesy of Anthony Stein.

Ivory points which were probably attached to the heads of bird spears.

ITEM 3819: Werner Forman, IVORY POINTS (n. d.). Courtesy of Courtesy of Werner Forman/Art Resource, NY.

Weapons



Ancient ruins in the Cañon de Chelle, New Mexico. In a niche 50 feet above present cañon bed.

ITEM 3787: Timothy H. O’Sullivan, ANCIENT RUINS IN THE CAÑON DE CHELLE, N.M. (1873). Courtesy of the Library of Congress.

Acoma Pueblo, New Mexico, full side view of adobe house with water in foreground.

ITEM 3786: Ansel Adams, ACOMA PUEBLO, FULL SIDE VIEW OF ADOBE HOUSE WITH WATER IN THE FOREGROUND (1941). Courtesy of the National Archives and Records Administration.

Housing Structures


“The towne of Pomeiock and true

forme of their houses, covered and enclosed

some w[i]th matts, and some w[i]th barcks of trees. All compassed

about w[i]th smale poles stock thick together in

stedd of a wall.”

ITEM 3830: John White, THE TOWNE OF POMEIOCK AND TRUE FORME OF THEIR HOUSES (ca. 1532-65). Courtesy of United States National Museum and the Library of Congress.


“The manner of their attire and painting themselves when they goe to their generall huntings, or at their solemn feasts.”

ITEM 3831: John White, THE MANNER OF THEIR ATTIRE AND PAINTING THEMSELVES (1562–65). Courtesy of the Unites States National Museum and the Library of Congress.

Flint Smoker’s daughter.

ITEM 3840: Edward S. Curtis, FLINT SMOKER’S DAUGHTER (1910). Courtesy of the Edward S. Curtis Collection, Library of Congress.

Waterproof sealskin parka with cords around the wrists, face and waist.

ITEM 3824: Werner Forman, WATER PROOF SEAL SKIN PARKA (n. d.). Courtesy of Werner Forman/Art Resource, NY.

Girl in a parka.

ITEM 3838: Hozo Arctic Studio, Nome, Alaska, GIRL IN PARKA (ca. 1900). Courtesy of Frank and Frances Carpenter Collection, Library of Congress.

Clothing



Native men making dugout boats by burning and scraping with seashells.

ITEM 3828: Theodor de Bry, HOW THEY BUILD BOATS (1590). Courtesy of the Library of Congress.

A bone [dog] sled, dog whip, spear and knife of the Arctic Highlanders.

ITEM 3829: Unknown, A BONE [DOG] SLED, DOG WHIP, SPEAR AND KNIFE OF THE ARCTIC HIGHLANDERS (ca. 1835). Courtesy of the Library of Congress.

Native men and women fishing in a canoe while others in the background stand in the river and spear fish.

ITEM 3827: Theodor de Bry, THEIR MANNER OF FISHING IN VIRGINIA (1590). Courtesy of the Library of Congress.

Transportation



Unit 1 Pre-Columbian America

notes