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International Journal o f Sport Nutrition, 1993, 3, 87-1 02 0 1993 Human Kinetics Publishers, Inc.

Diet and Weight Changes of Female Bodybuilders Before and After Competition

Janet Walberg- Ran kin, Cynthia Eckstein Edmonds, and Frank C. Gwazdauskas

This study assessed nutritional and body weight patterns in 6 female bodybuilders approximately a month before and after a competition. The women kept dietary and body weight records and two of them also agreed to collect morning urine samples to provide information about their menstrual cycle. All women lost weight before and gained weight after competition. Energy intake was modestly restricted and the subjects consumed a moderate-protein, low-fat, high-carbohydrate diet just prior to competition. Energy intake doubled, and total grams of fat increased approximately tenfold just after competition. Urinary data indicated that the cycle following competition was prolonged, with reduced reproductive hormone concentrations. In summary, the women practiced extreme dietary control while preparing for a competition but followed the event with a higher energy and fat intake. These changes in diet and body weight may contribute to the disturbances previously observed in the menstrual cycle of these athletes.

Key Words: nutrition, athletes, weightlifting, menstrual function

Bodybuilding is a sport that requires muscularity concurrent with very low body fat. Since women tend to have greater body fat and lower total energy expenditure than men, it may be more difficult for them to prepare for bodybuilding competitions. Walberg and Johnston (19) reported that women involved in weight training for general conditioning, and especially those participating in bodybuilding competitions, have an increased concern about body weight and eating. For example, the weightlifters had a greater obsession with food, were more likely to use laxatives for weight control, and were more terrified about becoming fat than a comparison group of women not involved in weightlifting.

Heyward et al. (7) reported that the average energy intake of female bodybuilders was low, but not different when measured in the noncompetitive (1,630 kca1.d-') as compared to the competitive (1,453 kca1.d-I) state. However, their definition of noncompetitive was anywhere from 6 to 17 weeks before a competi-

Walberg-Rankin and Edmonds are with the Division of Health and Physical Educa- tion, and Gwazdauskas is with the Dairy Science Department, at Virginia Polytechnic Institute and State University, Blacksburg, VA 24061-0326.

88 / Walberg-Rankin, Edmonds, and Gwazdauskas

tion. The athletes may be altering their diet to prepare for competition during that time period. Lamar-Hildebrand et al. (11) evaluated the energy intake of female bodybuilders prior to a competition and found that they consumed a hypocaloric diet as early as 8 weeks prior to the competition. The authors also attempted to examine the diet after competition. However, data were presented as the average for a 3-day record that includes the day before, the day of, and the day after competition. Thus the possible change in the diet after competition could not be ascertained from these data.

A previous study from our laboratory also indicated that women involved with weightlifting were more likely to have menstrual disturbances (19). Thirty percent of the recreational weightlifters and 86% of the competitive bodybuilders who were not on oral contraceptives reported experiencing either oligomenorrhea or amenorrhea. Since energy restriction has been observed to increase the likeli- hood of menstrual change due to exercise, this hormonal disturbance could be secondary to the dietary restriction practiced by these women.

Our purpose was to describe more clearly the dietary and body weight patterns of a group of female bodybuilders a month prior to and 3 weeks following their competition. In addition, the detailed changes in the menstrual cycle were examined by assessing the excretion of several reproductive hormones during and after competition in a subset of the bodybuilders.

Methods

Female weightlifters who were preparing for a bodybuilding competition were recruited from several weight clubs in Virginia and Maryland. The volunteers were informed of any risks and benefits to participation in the study. Any who admitted to steroid use were not included in the subject pool. The 6 subjects for this study ranged in age from 21 to 35 years. All had been weight training for 1.3 to 4.5 years and were currently training at least 5 days a week. All except Subject 5 had previously competed in a bodybuilding event. The events they were preparing for in this study were regional competitions in Virginia and Maryland. All were judged first or second in their divisions, with the exception of Subject 1, who was fourth in her division.

After signing an informed consent, the women were asked to complete a questionnaire concerning their exercise and eating habits, body weight and menstrual patterns, and use of birth control pills. All were given a schedule indicating when they were to record diet and body weight. Specifically, if the competition day is defined as Day 0, they were instructed to keep diet and body weight records on Days -28 to -26, Days -9 to -7, Days -2 to +2, and Days +19 to +21. For analysis, the individual records were grouped as follows: Pre 1 (Days -28 to -26), Pre 2 (Days -9 to -7), Pre 3 (Days -2 to -I), Post 1 (Days 0 to +2, and Post 2 (Days +19 to +21).

The diet records were analyzed using Nutripractor 6000 (Proctorcare, Inc., San Diego). The Nutripractor database contains 4,000 foods. The nutrient information for these foods was obtained from a variety of sources including USDA Handbook Nos. 8-1 through 8-12,456; Food Values of Portions Commonly Used (Pennington and Church); Handbook of Clinical Dietetics (American Dietetic Association); food and dietary products industry literature; and several original

Diet and Weight Changes / 89

articles published in nutrition research journals. Foods consumed by the subjects which did not appear in the database were added.

Adequacy of the database was assessed for the vitamins and minerals found to have at least 1 subject with a low intake. This was done by listing all foods consumed by each subject for 1 day of each dietary record period (Days -26, -8, -2, 0, +21). The percentage of foods that had a value in the database was calculated for each nutrient. in all^, an average was calculated for each vitamin. Individual calcium intake was compared to an RDA of 800 mg&' for those over 24 and 1,200 mg.d-' for those 20-24 years of age. Although subjects were recording their own body weight on their own scales, they were asked to use the same scale at the same time of day for all measures.

Body composition was assessed once 2 weeks prior to each subject's competition date. Lange skinfold calipers were used to measure the skinfold thickness at the triceps, suprailiac, and the thigh site in triplicate. Body density was estimated using the equations of Jackson et al. (9). The Siri (16) equation was used to convert body density to relative body fat.

Two of the 3 subjects who were not taking birth control pills also volun- teered to collect daily morning urine samples during one menstrual cycle prior to and one cycle after their competition. These samples were collected by the subjects in test tubes and were immediately frozen in their home freezers before being collected and stored in a laboratory freezer at -20°C. Samples were analyzed for urinary free estradiol (E,) and urinary free progesterone (P) using radio- immunoassay kits (Diagnostic Products Corp., Los Angeles). The sample volume was modified to 25 ul since urine samples rather than serum were used. Within- assay coefficient of variation for P and E, assays were 7.1% and 8.0%, respectively.

Nutrients (energy, macronutrients, micronutrients) from the diet records and average body weights for each record were analyzed using analysis of variance (Number Cruncher Statistical System, 5.0 GLM ANOVA). Duncans' Multiple Range Test was performed if there was a significant F ratio to determine which means were significantly different. Significant differences were defined as those with a p value of <0.05. Urinary hormone values were not analyzed statistically but rather were presented as individual data for the 2 subjects.

Results

Descriptive information on the 6 bodybuilders is given in Table 1. Because of the modest number of subjects, individual data were provided for most parameters. As seen in Table 1, the athletes were young adults of below-average body fat and had participated in approximately 3 years of regular weight training.

Questionnaire Descriptive Data

The average frequency of weightlifting was 5 days per week. The women were also asked to report the types of aerobic activity they participated in as well as the number of months per year, sessions per week, and minutes per session for each activity. All did some form of aerobic activity during the year. Five performed stationary cycling and/or running, 4 did aerobic dance, 2 rowed, and 1 swam. The frequency of participation varied by individual and by activity. For


Table 1

Initial Characteristics of Female Bodybuilders

Age Height Weight Body fat Years No. of Subject (yrs) (cm) (kg) (%) weightlifting competitions

example, some activities were only done 2 months a year while others were done throughout the year. Some of their answers were given as a range, for example two or three times a week. Thus the calculated average minutes per week of aerobic activity (derived after calculating total minutes per year) was 80-1 11 min.wkV'.

Four of the 6 subjects reported that they did not eat red meat but did consume chicken and fish. The other 2 subjects consumed red meat at least once a week. Three of the subjects were currently on oral contraceptives. The 3 others were classified as eumenorrheic by their survey answers since their cycles were between 21 and 30 days and occurred at consistent intervals. However, 2 of these subjects reported missing at least one menstrual cycle during the last year. When queried about what they thought caused the missed cycle, one attributed it to dieting before competition while the other simply thought it was due to the stress of competing.

Body Weight and Dietary Records

Analysis of the recorded body weights before and after competition indicated a significant difference in body weight over the five record periods (p=.04). Post hoc comparison indicated a nonsignificant reduction in body weight of 4.7%, 2.7 kg, over the month before competition (Table 2). All subjects lost weight prior to competition, but there was a range in weight loss from 0.7% to 10.8% of initial body weight. Subject 2 lost the most weight during the month before competition, 6.4 kg. Average body weight significantly increased after competition. By 3 weeks after competition, body weight was significantly (3.9 kg) greater than weight at competition and beginning weight (1.2 kg higher).

There was no significant difference in energy intake among Pre 1, Pre 2, or Pre 3. But, as expected, the energy intake during these three records was significantly below that of Post 1 and Post 2 (p=.01) (Table 3). There was no evidence of extreme caloric restriction by any of the women since no one's caloric intake fell below 1,000 kca1.d-' during the observation period. The highest


Table 2

Body Weight Changes (kg) in Female Bodybuilders Before and After Competition

Subject Pre 1 Pre 2 Pre 3 Post 1 Post 2

58.5 61.2 54.0 59.6 55.8 60.3 abc 58.2 2.7

Averages with the same letter are significantly different. Pre 1, Days -28 to -26; Pre 2, Days -9 to -7; Pre 3, Days -2 to -1 ; Post 1, Days 0 to +2; Post 2, Days +19 to +21 (Day 0 is day of competition).

Table 3

Mean Energy Intakes (k~al-d-~/kcal*kg-~-d-~) for Female Bodybuilders Before and After Competition


5027187.0 391 7170.7 3292162.9 2359142.0 1331 124.1 3237158.5 ace I abc 3237158.5 1276122.3


average energy intake was during Post 1, when it was approximately twice that reported during the records prior to competition. The high energy intake persisted as long as 3 weeks after the competition, when the Post 2 average was significantly greater than the Pre 1 and Pre 2 average energy intake (p=.01). There was a great deal of variation between individuals in absolute and relative energy intake.

92 / Walberg-Rankin, Edrnonds, and Gwazdauskas

When analyzed as a percentage of energy, there was a significant difference in protein intake across record periods (p =.001). The subjects consumed a significantly higher protein diet during Pre 1 and Pre 2, when the average percent protein was approximately one-third of total calories, than after competition (Figure 1). There was no significant difference in protein intake among records when protein was expressed per kg of body weight. Only one woman consumed less than the recommended daily allowance (RDA) for protein during any of the dietary record periods (Table 4). It should be noted that all subjects were actually consuming even more protein than shown by diet records, since they all took amino acid supplements and half also consumed protein powders occasionally. Dietary fat expressed as a percentage of energy was significantly affected by the time of the record (p=.001). Most of the women consumed a very low fat diet during Pre 1, 2, and 3 (Table 5). Fat intake was kept as low as 1.4% of calories for Subiect 3 during Pre 3.

u

The special care in reducing fat consumption was not maintained during the period after competition. The average percentage of energy from fat was almost 35% during Post 1, significantly higher than all precompetition records. The average total grams of fat increased approximately tenfold from Pre 3 (12.5 g.d-') to Post 1 (125.7 g&). To illustrate the extreme dietary control required to achieve this low fat diet before competition and the change in food choices after competition, a summary of the dietary record for Subject 2 for Days -1 and +1 is provided in Table 6.

Average grams of carbohydrate consumption differed over the experimental

Days

Figure 1 - Changes in urinary estradiol and progesterone during a menstrual cycle before and after competition for Subject 2. Breaks in the lines indicate days the subject did not collect a urine sample.


Table 4

Mean Protein Intakes (% of energylgokg-') for Female Bodybuilders Before and After Competition


24.611.4 32.612.5 29.912.3 27.311.5 20.812.3 36.412.3

abc 28.612.0 56/05

33.112.4 59.513.9 28.112.4 29.211.5 21.512.3 33.812.0

def 34.212.4 13.210.7

Averages with the same letter are significantly different. Pre 1, Days -28 to -26; Pre 2, Days -9 to -7; Pre 3, Days -2 to -1; Post 1, Days 0 to +2; Post 2, Days +19 to +21 (Day 0 is day of competition).

Table 5

Mean % of Energy From Fat and Carbohydrate (fat/CHO) for Female Bodybuilders Before and After Competition


10.4156.5 16.8123.6 4.5167.5

20.7150.1 32.2146.3 4.3161.9 b l b

14.8151 .O 1 0.811 5.4

4.6180.9 3.5179.3 1.4192.1

12.2160.4 13.7169.0 3.2188.0

cad I abcd 6.4178.3 5.1115.9

42.6140.4 30.3158.5 25.1164.6 48.2133.9 29.3152.7 31.7157.3

abc I c 34.5151.3 8.811 1.8

38.0150.0 42.3147.2 4.3172.6

29.4140.4 33.9142.7 4.2162.5 d l d

28.7152.6 15.711 2.5


period (p=.001). Carbohydrate intake doubled during Pre 3 (385.9 g.d-') as compared to Pre 2 (202.7 g-d-I). This was reflected in the significant increase in percentage of calories as carbohydrate to 83% for Pre 3. The average proportion of energy as carbohydrate decreased for the remaining dietary records to just over 50%.


Table 6

Summarized Example Diet for Subject 2 on the Day Before and the Day After Competition

Day -1 : day before competition 1 cup cooked rolled oats 1 cup cooked pasta 4 rice cakes 4t. low-sugar jelly 1 banana 1 cup cooked rolled oats 6:OO 1 cup cooked pasta 8:30 112 cup cooked rolled oats 3 rice cakes 3 t. low-sugar jelly 1 I2 banana 112 cup cooked rolled oats 3 rice cakes 3t. low-sugar jelly 1 I2 banana

Day +I : day after competition 1 brownie 2 cups 2% milk 2 chocolate donuts 12 oz beer 1 cream popsicle 2 cups potato chips 1 oz dip 1 Hardee's biscuit (bacon, egg, cheese) 1 cup hash browns 1 cinnamon & raisin biscuit 2 cups Mountain Dew 2 cups Dr. Pepper 1 Big Mac 3 biscuits 1 brownie 1 piece cake, pineapple 2 oz barbecue ribs 9 scallops 1 cup steamed shrimp 4 crab legs 112 cup seafood casserole 112 cup corn 1 piece strawberry shortcake 1 piece cheesecake


Examination of average micronutrient intake from food records demon- strates an aggregate intake of vitamins greater than the RDA for all dietary record collection periods. None of the vitamin intakes differed significantly over time. Since aggregate data sometimes obscure low individual intakes, Table 7 indicates the number of individuals consuming low amounts of each vitamin, defined as less than 67% of the RDA. In order to determine when the intake of vitamins was most likely to be low, the frequency of low intake was also calculated for each dietary record period. The record period with the most vitamin deficiencies occurred just before competition when at least 1 subject consumed less than 67% of the RDA for vitamins A, C, BL2, riboflavin, and folate (Table 7). Vitamins B,, and A had the highest incidence of deficient intake, defined as less than 67% of the RDA, over the entire 2 months of collection.

The percentages of foods having a value in the database for vitamins A, C, BIZ, riboflavin, and folate were 56,89,77,93, and 76%, respectively. It should be noted that some of the foods that did not contain a value for the given nutrient may have in fact contributed little to the intake. For example, the database had no folate or vitamin A value for yellow mustard or creamy onion dip.

Table 7

Mean Vitamin Intake (diet only) for Female Bodybuilders Before and After Competition

Frequency of subj. W/ intake <67%

Vitamin Pre 1 Pre 2 Pre 3 Post 1 Post 2 RDA

A (re) M 4666.1 SD 2915.0

c (mg) M 73.7 SD 35.0

B, (mg) M 1.4 SD 0.5

B1p (mg) M 4.1 SD 3.4

B, (mg) M 2.2 SD 0.7

Niacin M 41.4 (N.E.) SD 3.9

B, (mg) M 2.2 SD 0.5

Folate (ug) M 209.5 SD 90.7

Frequency of subj. wl intake ~ 6 7 % RDA 2

Note. None of the means differed significantly. Pre 1, Days -28 to -26; Pre 2, Days -9 to -7; Pre 3, Days -2 to -1 ; Post 1, Days 0 to +2; Post 2, Days +19 to +21 (Day 0 is day of competition).


Table 8

Mean Mineral Intake (diet only) for Female Bodybuilders Before and After Competition

Frequency of subj. W/ intake <67%

Mineral Pre 1 Pre 2 Pre 3 Post 1 Post 2 RDA

a bc de abd ce Ca (mg) M 666.8 473.7 280.1 1262.3 1046.8 15

SD 493.2 306.5 121.0 572.8 599.8 Fe (mg) M 14.4 13.7 18.1 19.4 19.4 2

SD 3.9 4.4 5.9 5.4 9.3 Mg (mg) M 249.4 251.0 298.2 306.4 341.3 7

SD 112.7 117.6 112.2 93.6 122.3 a b c abc

Na (mg) M 2588.5 1740.9 1554.3 4540.3 3103.0 3 SD 11 14.8 884.2 1768.2 1909.8 1571.4

zn (mg) M 7.1 6.8 5.3 12.3 9.1 18 SD 2.9 3.2 1.5 5.6 5.9

Cu OW) M 1.3 1.2 1.8 1.7 2.1 10 SD 0.7 1.0 1.2 0.7 2.0

Frequency of subj. w/ intake <67% RDA 11 17 15 4 8

Averages with the same letter are significantly different. Pre 1, Days -28 to -26; Pre 2, Days -9 to -7; Pre 3, Days -2 to -1; Post 1, Days 0 to +2; Post 2, Days +19 to +21 (Day 0 is day of competition).

There were more low intakes for minerals than for vitamins (Table 8). Only the intakes of calcium (p=.01) and sodium (p=.01) differed significantly over the dietary record periods examined. The average intake of calcium was below the RDA for Pre 1, 2, and 3. All of the bodybuilders took in less than 67% of the RDA for calcium during the 2 days prior to competition (Pre 3), as did 5 of the 6 during the record taken 1 week before the competition (Pre 2). The average intakes of iron, magnesium, zinc, and copper were below the RDA for most record periods before competition. It was interesting that the lowest average sodium intake, a mineral not typically consumed in low amounts, occurred during Pre 3 when 2 of the women had sodium intakes less than 67% of the recommended amount. The highest sodium intake occurred during Post 1. The adequacy of the database for the minerals found to be at low intakes was calculated as described in the methods section. The percentages of foods having a value for calcium, iron, magnesium, zinc, copper, and sodium were 96,96,8 1,79,74, and 96%, respectively.

We were unable to quantify accurately the daily nulritional supplement use for each subject since the information on supplement content provided on dietary records of several subjects was inadequate. However, we are able to provide qualitative information about supplement use. All took supplements at


some time during the recording periods. The most common were amino acids and protein powders, with all and half of the women consuming these at some time during the period studied. Vitamins, minerals, and other suspected ergogenic aids were less often consumed. Two of the 6 took B complex, vitamin C, multivitamins, or L-carnitine. Only 1 of the 6 reported consuming either vitamin E, calcium, or iron. Three of the subjects claimed that they used supplements prior to competition but not afterward.

Urinary Hormone Data

Subject 2. This subject reported that her highest off-season body weight was 61.4 kg and her lowest previous competitive body weight was 56.4 kg. She began menstruation between the ages of 12 and 13 and currently had children. The typical length of her menstrual cycles was reported to be every 21 days at consistent intervals. When asked about any missed menstrual periods within the last year, she responded that she had missed one period associated with the time of her last bodybuilding competition. The first cycle of this subject, prior to competition, was 23 days long. Both urinary E, and P (Figure 1) showed a large increase during the second half of the cycle, suggesting that ovulation had occurred. The second cycle was abnormally long at 46 days and included 5 days of menses plus 11 days of spotting at the beginning of the cycle. This was concurrent with low levels of urinary EZ and P.

Subject 5. This subject had also reached menarche between the ages of 12 and 13 and also had children. She reported that the most she had weighed was 60 kg and the least was 54.1 kg. Her menstrual cycles were of consistent pattern every 26 to 27 days. She had not missed a menstrual period within the last year but her cycles sometimes shortened when she increased her exercise. Cycle 1 for this subject was 24 days long, with increased urinary concentrations of E, and P (Figure 2) during the latter part of the cycle. Competition occurred halfway through the second cycle. This cycle was about 30 days in length, with 3 days of menses. Although E, did not increase during Cycle 2, P did. The subject missed urine collections on Days 13 through 16 of this cycle, thus an E2 increase may have occurred during that time.

Discussion

This detailed examination of the dietary and body weight changes of female bodybuilders over 2 months illustrates their high degree of discipline and the uniqueness of their diet. All were successful in dramatically altering their diet and their body weight for the competition.

Precompefifion

The average weight loss observed in these female bodybuilders over 4 weeks, 2.7 kg, was similar to the rate reported for the female bodybuilders studied by Lamar-Hildebrand et al. (11). Their subjects lost 5.9 kg over 8 weeks before competition. Heyward et al. (7) found a similar difference of 6 kg between off- season and in-season body weight in their women. Since we did not follow our subjects prior to 4 weeks before competition, we cannot determine their total


5 10 15 20 1 5 10 15 20 25 1 5 10 Days

Figure 2 - Changes in urinary estradiol during a menstrual cycle before and after competition for Subject 5.

weight loss for the competition. However, the rate of weight loss, about 0.7 kg per week during the 4 weeks before competition, was similar to the few studies examining female bodybuilders (7, 1 1).

Examination of this group of female bodybuilders illustrated that although the average weight loss for competition was gradual, there were some who lost weight at an unhealthy rate. For example, the rapid weight loss of Subject 2 at 6.4 kg over 4 weeks (average 1.6 kg per week) could result in health and performance consequences. Some studies have demonstrated impairment of muscle strength or endurance as a consequence to weight loss (8, 18). The suggested mechanisms for these changes in muscle function with weight loss include alterations in muscle substrates, enzymes, structural proteins, and minerals (14).

The moderately energy restricted diet these athletes consumed to lose weight was similar to that reported by Heyward et al. (7) for competitive bodybuilders, but higher than the approximately 900 kcal-d-I consumed by the bodybuilders studied by Lamar-Hildebrand et al. (1 1) 4 weeks before they competed. Even Subject 2 in our study, who lost over 6 kg during 4 weeks, never consumed less than 1,400 kcal per day during the days that dietary records were kept. This rapid rate of weight loss may be possible in spite of modest caloric restriction, due to the high energy expenditure these athletes are likely to have both at rest (due to the high proportion of metabolically active muscle) and from their weightlifting and aerobic exercise. This moderate caloric restriction is in contrast to the finding of Kleiner et al. (10) that female bodybuilders in a national competition consumed


an average 2,260 kcal.d-I during the 7 days before the competition. This is surprising in light of the very low body fat, 9.8%, achieved by those women.

Although the caloric intake during the three recording periods prior to competition was similar, the macronutrient mix changed over that month. The first two recording periods (Pre 1 and 2) revealed a very high protein, low fat, moderate carbohydrate intake. The diet changed just prior to competition (Pre 3) to be very high in carbohydrate and much lower in protein and fat. Some of the athletes reported that their aim was to maintain a high protein intake while training but to "carbohydrate load" for the competition. The female bodybuilders studied by Lamar-Hildebrand et al. (11) also were reported to consume a very low fat (14%), high carbohydrate (69%) diet 1 week before the competition.

The diets of male bodybuilders during training have been studied by several researchers (6, 15), who also found a high protein but a higher fat and lower carbohydrate diet than that found in this study. Other studies (7, 10) of male bodybuilders examined just prior to competition found that they consumed between 13 and 15% of their calories from fat during the period just before competition. Thus it appears that both sexes will greatly reduce the amount of fat and increase their carbohydrate intake while preparing for a bodybuilding competition as compared to during training at other times.

The average precompetition diet was sufficient in vitamins, but on an individual basis it was deficient in at least one micronutrient for each athlete. The most common vitamin deficiencies were vitamins A, C, folate, and B12. The deficiency of BIZ in three of the women was likely alleviated since they reportedly were taking a multivitamin or B complex supplement. However, none of those with a low vitamin A or C intake were taking appropriate supplements for these deficiencies.

Mineral intakes from food during the weight loss tended to be poor. Average intake of the majority of minerals analyzed was less than the RDA during the first two precompetition diet collection periods. Calcium and zinc had the poorest pattern of intake, with all 6 athletes consuming less than 67% of the RDA for both minerals just prior to competition (Pre 3). Only 1 subject took a calcium supplement and another an iron supplement. None took supplements for any of the other deficient minerals. The fact that many of the bodybuilders did not consume red meat contributed to the low mineral intake. Several other research groups also found that the intake of some micronutrients such as folate, zinc, copper, and calcium was consistently below 67% of the RDA for female bodybuilders preparing for a competition (7, 10, 11). Low intake of these nutrients appears to be secondary to a low caloric intake, since some studies (7, 11) have found that deficiencies were resolved following competition or during the off- season. Other athletes, such as gymnasts, who typically consume a low energy diet, also have been reported to have inadequate dietary B6, folate, iron, and zinc (12).

Postcompetition

The weight gain noted in these athletes after competition was rapid, with a gain of almost 1 kg over the several days postcompetition and almost 4 kg within 3 weeks. Lamar-Hildebrand et al. (1 1) reported an even more exaggerated weight gain of 8.6 kg by 4 weeks postcompetition.


This rapid weight change has also been noted in wrestlers and has been called weight cycling (17). It has been hypothesized that possible negative consequences of repeated rapid weight loss and gain could be a reduction in resting metabolic rate, which could make subsequent weight loss more difficult (17). In addition, data from bulimics who binge following drastically restricted caloric intake show that blood pressure and blood lipids may increase to unhealthy levels (2).

It is not surprising that after competition these women who had been carefully restricting their diet immediately increased their caloric intake by almost 80%. Although micronutrient intake improved, the macronutrient composition of the diet deteriorated. The average percentage of fat increased more than fivefold and the percent carbohydrate decreased to 51% of calories. There is evidence from animal studies that cycles of weight loss followed by unrestricted feeding increases the preference for dietary fat (13). This may result in unhealthy changes in blood lipids as well as body fat. It should be noted that although some individuals consumed a higher fat diet after competition, the average fat intake was still below that of the average American. We are unable to compare these results with others since no other studies have looked specifically at the postcompetition diet.

The urinary hormone data give preliminary information, since only 2 subjects were evaluated and we did not have information from a cycle prior to diet manipulation. In spite of these limitations, a few generalizations can be made. Both women had cycle lengths shorter than average during the cycle prior to competition. The increase in E2 and P observed suggests that ovulation occurred in both women during this cycle. The second cycle, that occurring after competition, was prolonged for both women. E2 and P were lower during the second cycle, but it is unclear whether the women ovulated. One woman also experienced 11 days of spotting in addition to her menstrual period, suggesting abnormal reproductive hormone profiles.

Bullen et al. (3) also observed a lengthening of the menstrual cycle in women experiencing weight loss concurrent with high levels of exercise. Spotting was also reported by some of the women in that study. It is interesting that the woman whose cycle appeared most disrupted, Subject 2, had a more dramatic weight and calorie change during the period studied as compared to Subject 5. Other researchers have noted that energy restriction and weight loss were associated with reproductive hormone changes. Twenty-four hours of fasting has been shown to affect reproductive hormones including LH concentration and pulsatility (194).

A study from this laboratory as well as Elliot et al. (5) have reported increased menstrual disruption in female bodybuilders. The current study suggests that the cycle may be especially disrupted around competition. It is difficult to interpret the cause of the menstrual changes in this group since a variety of factors changed during this time including dietary energy and macronutrient mix, micronutrient intake, and probably stress levels. However, since other work suggests that energy restriction and weight loss may be factors in menstrual changes, further study in this area is warranted.

In summary, our examination of the diets of female bodybuilders before and after competition shows that although there can be wide variation between subjects, they tended to consume a moderately energy restricted diet during the


4 weeks before a competition. Although the degree of energy restriction and rate of weight loss was moderate, their ability to alter macronutrient composition of the diet was impressive. All subjects consumed nutritional supplements, primarily amino acid and protein powders. The above changes in the dietary quantity and quality may be involved in the menstrual disturbance noted in the subset of subjects examined.

This athletic group appears to have tremendous discipline concerning their precompetition diet. However, they could benefit from nutritional counseling designed to improve food choices and micronutrients intakes. In addition, information on ergogenic aids and on protein requirements of athletes would be helpful.

References

1. Bonen, A., F.J. Haynes, W. Watson-Wright, M.M. Sopper, G.N. Pierce, M.P. Low, and T.E. Graham. Effects of menstrual cycle on metabolic responses to exercise. J. Appl. Physiol. 55:1506-1513, 1983.

2. Brotman, A.W., N. Rigotti, and D.B. Herzog. Medical complications of eating dis- orders: Outpatient evaluation and management. Comp. Psych. 26:258-272, 1985.

3. Bullen, B.A., G.S. Skrinar, I.Z. Beitins, D.B. Carr, S.M. Reppert, C.O. Dotson, M.M. Fencl, E.V. Gervino, and J.C. McArthur. Endurance training effects on plasma hormonal responsiveness and sex hormone excretion. J. Appl. Physiol. 56:1453-1463, 1984.

4. Dyer, R.G., S. Mansfield, H. Corbert, and A.D.P. Dean. Fasting impairs LH secretion in female rats by activating an inhibitory opioid pathway. J. Endocrin. 105:91-97, 1985.

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Sports Medicine and Science in Tennis

National Conference

April 2&May 1, 1993, Sonesta Beach Hotel, Key Biscayne, FL

Presented by the U.S. Tennis Association. Topics to include a shoul- der symposium, prevention and rehabilitation of joint areas, physiology, nutrition, biomechanics, and psychology. Format of presentations: abstracts and posters.

For further information, contact USTA, Sport Science Dept., 201 S. Biscayne Blvd. 10th fl., Miami, FL 33131. Tel: 3051530-4241

Documents

Before and After Competition Diet and Weight Changes of ... · PDF fileDiet and Weight Changes of Female Bodybuilders Before and After Competition ... bodybuilding competitions, have