Beachwatch and Harbourwatch State of the Beaches 2000-2001

References 257

References

ANZECC (1992). Australian Water Quality Guidelines for Fresh and Marine Waters. ANZECC,Australia.

APHA (1992). Standard Methods for the Examination of Water and Wastewater, 18th edition.American Public Health Association, Washington, D.C.

APHA (1998). Standard Methods for the Examination of Water and Wastewater, 20th edition.American Public Health Association, Washington, D.C.

Beachwatch (1995). Beachwatch 1995 Season Report. EPA (NSW), Sydney.

Beachwatch (1996). Beachwatch and Harbourwatch 1996 Season Report. EPA (NSW), Sydney.


Beachwatch (1998). Beachwatch and Harbourwatch 1997–1998 State of the Beaches Report. EPA(NSW), Sydney.



Cabelli, V. J. (1983). Health Effects Criteria for Marine Recreational Waters. USEPA, North Carolina.

Cadden, R. and West, P. (1995). The Design and Implementation of Strategies to Manage Dry Weatherand Wet Weather Wastewater Flows in the Sydney Region, Proceedings of the 16th Australian Waterand Wastewater Association Federal Convention, Sydney, pp. 461–8.

Cornax, R., Moriñigo, M. A., Balebona, M. C., Castro, D. and Borrego, J. J. (1991). Significance ofseveral bacteriophage groups as indicators of sewage pollution in marine waters. WaterResources, 25: 673–8.

Dufour, A. and Ballentine, R. (1986). Ambient Water Quality Criteria for Bacteria 1986. USEPA,Washington DC.

Gerba, C. P., Goyal, S. M., LaBelle, R. L., Cech, I. and Bodgan, G. F. (1979). Failure of indicatorbacteria to reflect the occurrence of enteroviruses in marine waters. American Journal of PublicHealth, 69: 1116–9.

NHMRC (1990). Australian Guidelines for Recreational Use of Water. Australian GovernmentPublishing Service, Canberra.

NSW Environment Protection Authority (1996). Sydney Deep Water Outfalls EnvironmentalMonitoring Program: Final Report Series Volumes 1–7. EPA (NSW), Sydney.

258 References

Palmer, M. D., Lock, J. D. and Gowda, T. P. H. (1984). The Use of Bacteriological Indicators forSwimming Water Quality. Water and Pollution Control, May/June.

Sydney Water Corporation (2000). Annual Environment and Public Health Report 2000. SydneyWater Corporation, Sydney.

USEPA (1986). Ambient Water Quality Criteria for Bacteria – 1986. United States EnvironmentProtection Agency, Office of Water, Office of Science and Technology, Washington DC.

Vivian, C. M. G. (1986). Tracers of sewage sludge in the marine environment: a review. TheScience of the Total Environment, 53: 5–40.

Glossary 259

Glossary

CDS (continuous deflective separator) – essentially a type of GPT designed to capture coarsesediment, trash and debris. CDSs are installed underground and separate stormwater fromgross pollutants in a circular separation and containment chamber.

cfu (colony forming unit) – a colony from which one microorganism has grown. For purposesof analysis, one cfu represents one organism.

Enterococci – a bacterial indicator used to determine the extent of faecal contamination ofrecreational waters. The enterococcus group is a sub-group of faecal streptococci, and isdifferentiated from other faecal streptococci by growth at higher temperatures and saltconcentrations in the laboratory, and the ability to survive in marine waters under adverseconditions.

Faecal coliforms – thermotolerant bacteria that inhabit the intestines of humans and othermammals. Faecal coliforms are present in faeces and are used as indicators of sewage pollutionin marine and fresh waters. These organisms have a relatively short life span in marine waters,indicating the presence of relatively recent sewage contamination.

GPT (gross pollutant trap) – a permanent installation in an urban watercourse designed tointercept and retain coarse sediment, trash and debris. Traps usually consist of a combination offloating booms, trash racks and ponds, with provision for access to maintain and clean the trap.

Indicator microorganisms – bacteria (generally faecal coliforms and/or enterococci) thatindicate the presence of faecal contamination in waterways. Indicators are generally used tomonitor recreational water quality, because searching for specific microorganisms that causedisease, such as viruses, is both difficult and costly.

Influent – wastewater entering a sewage treatment plant.

Intertidal protected area – an area between high and low tide where the collection ofinvertebrate animals is prohibited.

Intertidal zone – the area between high and low tide.

NPWS – National Parks and Wildlife Service.

NSOOS (Northern Suburbs ocean outfall system) – the sewerage system that collects andtransports household, commercial and industrial sewage from Sydney’s northern and westernsuburbs to the North Head Sewage Treatment Plant.

Pit basket – a wire basket that sits inside a stormwater drainage pit to collect rubbish.

Plume – a jet or column of water containing a high concentration of suspended materials.

Primary contact recreation – bodily immersion or submersion where there is direct contact withthe water; includes activities such as swimming, diving, water skiing and surfing.

260 Glossary

Primary sewage treatment – physical treatment of sewage, designed to remove settleable solids(sludge) and floatable solids such as oil, fats and grease by first screening and then ponding theeffluent.

Riverkeeper – an initiative of the Georges River Combined Councils Committee. The programaims to improve the ecological health of the Georges River, with a major focus on communityinvolvement.

SSROC– Southern Sydney Regional Organisation of Councils

Secondary contact recreation – where there is some direct contact with water but the probabilityof swallowing water is unlikely; includes activities such as paddling, wading, boating andfishing.

Secondary sewage treatment – biological and/or chemical treatment of sewage designed toremove the majority of organic matter and solids through several possible processes by usinganaerobic bacteria, chemicals and settling ponds.

SQIDS – stormwater quality improvement devices

Stencilling – painting a simple message on a street gutter adjacent to a stormwater drain toheighten public awareness of stormwater pollution; messages include ‘Drains to beach’ or‘Drains to creek’.

STP (sewage treatment plant) – the point of collection for household, commercial and industrialsewage via the sewerage system. Sewage is treated at an STP to either primary, secondary ortertiary level before being discharged as effluent to receiving waters.

Surfactant – a surface-active agent found in detergents.

Tertiary sewage treatment – designed to improve secondary treated sewage by removing finesuspended solids, nutrients and pathogens (by disinfection). Treatment to a tertiary level caninvolve a combination of filtration methods, chemical additives and ponding.

Trash rack – a metal grate installed in a stormwater system and designed to screen litter andother debris from stormwater. An integral component of gross pollutant traps.

Appendix 1 – Indicator Microorganisms 261

Appendix 1Indicator Microorganisms

Viral pathogens

A number of enteric viral pathogens, suchas the hepatitis A virus, may be detected bywater quality testing. These tests may detectthe presence of viruses, may identify strainsand, in some instances, may count them.This is a new and evolving field that isattracting considerable scientific interest anddebate.

However, on the basis of currentknowledge, the direct detection of viralpathogens is not a feasible option forroutine assessment as:

• Viruses can occur intermittently in theenvironment and can be difficult torecover. Viruses can associate withinsoluble particles and are typicallyincorporated into the bottom sediments.The sampling of water may not indicatethe presence of viral pathogens.Sediment samples may also need to becollected.

• Some viral pathogens may persist in theenvironment, particularly in bottomsediments, sometimes for up to severalmonths. Such monitoring may not beindicative of a recent pollution event orcurrent water quality.

• There are insufficient epidemiologicaldata available on the interpretation ofviral pathogen test results to link thedetection of viruses to health effects. Thismakes the undertaking of health riskassessments difficult at the present time.The results of available studies fromocean sewage outfalls, for example, maynot be applicable to estuarine or freshwaters because of the different behaviourof viral pathogens in these environments.

• Further to the point above, there is a lackof standards to determine acceptableviral pathogen levels (if any) in water.This makes the assessment of waterquality, wastewater discharge qualityand disinfection standards difficult.

• Tests to detect the presence of viralpathogens and to identify and (in someinstances) count them are relatively newand expensive. The collection of waterand sediment samples for such tests isspecialised and labour intensive. A highdegree of quality assurance and qualitycontrol is required.

It is important to note that because oftechnical difficulties in isolating virusesfrom environmental samples, a negativeresult (for example no viral pathogenisolated), cannot necessarily be interpretedas no viral pathogen present or no healthrisk.

Indicator bacteria

Various indicator microorganisms are usedto test for faecal contamination ofrecreational waters. Indicator bacteria areused to indicate recent faecal contamination(‘pollution’) and as indicators of health risk(by referencing results to recognisedguidelines). Indicator bacteria are clearlygood indicators of recent faecalcontamination but imperfect indicators ofhealth risk.

The coliform group of bacteria has been themost widely used indicator organism (forexample, APHA 1992; Cabelli 1983).Coliforms, and more specifically the faecalcoliform sub-group, were initially chosenbecause of their consistent association withthe faecal wastes of warm-blooded animals;however, because of the relatively short life

262 Appendix 1 – Indicator Microorganisms

of these organisms in the marineenvironment, this group of bacteriaindicates the presence offaecal-contaminated water for a relativelyshort time after its release (for example,Vivian 1986; Gerba et al. 1979). The use offaecal coliforms as indicator microorganismshas been widely adopted in NSWwaterways.

However, some studies have demonstrateda number of deficiencies in the use of faecalcoliforms as indicator organisms in marinewaters (Palmer et al. 1984; Cornax et al.1991; APHA 1992). Some epidemiologicalstudies, for example, have shown poorerrelationships between faecal coliformdensities and illness rates in bathers thanthose obtained using enterococci. For thisreason, many countries recommendguidelines for recreational waters in termsof enterococci (USEPA 1986). However, therelationship between indicator bacteria (ofany type) and health risk is not consistent,because other factors, such as the incidenceof illness in the catchment, also have abearing on health risk.

The use of enterococci as indicatororganisms has become more common inNSW, although faecal coliforms are usuallymeasured simultaneously. The NationalHealth and Medical Research Council ofAustralia (NHMRC) favours the use offaecal coliform bacteria as indicatororganisms and recommends that enterococcibe measured in marine waters wherepollution is suspected but only low numbersof faecal coliforms can be detected. TheAustralian and New Zealand Environmentand Conservation Council (ANZECC) hasrecommended guidelines for recreationalwater quality in terms of faecal coliformsand enterococci.

The Beachwatch Program

Beachwatch has been testing for faecalcoliforms since the program commenced in1989, and others have monitored faecalcoliforms in Sydney beach water since 1965.Faecal coliform levels at Sydney’s oceanbeaches were well above national healthguideline limits before the construction ofthe deepwater ocean sewage outfalls in 1990

and 1991. Once the extended outfalls wereoperational, faecal coliform levels droppedto levels consistently below the nationalhealth guideline limits. This trend can beseen in the following figure for MalabarBeach (Figure 32). Malabar Beach is locatedadjacent to the Malabar SewerageTreatment Plant and was frequently affectedby sewage before the extended outfall wasconstructed.

As a result of the emerging scientificliterature on the value of using enterococcias indicators of faecal contamination inmarine waters, in 1993 Beachwatchcommenced sampling for enterococci inaddition to faecal coliforms. Before this,samples were analysed for faecal coliformsand faecal streptococci. Enterococci are asub-group of faecal streptococci and aredifferentiated from other faecal streptococciby growth in the laboratory at a highertemperature and salt concentration.

Results for Sydney’s ocean beaches showthat lower rates of compliance with waterquality criteria are detected usingenterococci than with faecal coliforms.

Faecal coliforms are extremely abundant intreated sewage (about 1 to 10 million cfu inevery 100 mL of primary treated effluent);as a result, they are useful indicators offaecal contamination in the marineenvironment, despite their rapid die-offafter being released. If high levels of faecalcoliforms are detected in marine waters, it islikely that the pollution event was recent.However, because of their greater toleranceof the marine environment, enterococci mayindicate residual contamination of marinewaters, and may survive in marine watersfor periods that can parallel some pathogensurvival times.

The EPA is not aware of any study that hasestablished a consistent relationshipbetween the levels of faecal coliforms andenterococci, and is not aware of any studythat has unequivocally established a clearrelationship between the levels of faecalcoliforms or enterococci in waters andenteric viral pathogen levels and associatedhealth risks.

Appendix 1 – Indicator Microorganisms 263

The EPA recognises that faecal coliformsand enterococci are useful indicator

organisms that are available for testing forfaecal contamination of recreational waters.

Figure 32: Deviation of indicator microorganism levels from National Health Guidelinesfor Malabar Beach

Summer Season

1989

-90

1990

-91

1991

-92

1992

-93

1993

-94

1994

-95

1995

-96

1996

-97

1997

-98

1998

-99

1999

-00

Rel

ativ

e d

evia

tion

fro

m n

atio

na

l hea

lth

-1.5

-1.0

-0.5

0.0

0.5

1.0

1.5g

uid

elin

e li

mit

(log

10)

Median health guideline limit

Faecal coliformsEnterococci

Recent developments

The NHMRC and ANZECC are currentlyreviewing the Australian and New ZealandGuidelines for Fresh and Marine Water Qualityas part of the National Water QualityManagement Strategy. It is intended thatthe new Australian recreational waterquality guidelines should be largely basedon recommendations from the WorldHealth Organisation (WHO).

There will be a period of public consultationon the new Australian recreational waterquality guidelines after the draft is released.

Meanwhile, the WHO documents, Guidelinesfor Safe Recreational Water Environments:Coastal and Fresh Waters (1998) and Health-based Monitoring of Recreational Waters: TheFeasibility of a New Approach (1999) (alsoknow as ‘the Annapolis Protocol’), areavailable for public review on the WHOWebsite (www.who.int).

The EPA will continue to followdevelopments in this area and monitor forboth faecal coliforms and enterococci untilthe new guidelines are developed andpublished. Beachwatch will then review itsmonitoring program based on the newnational water quality guidelines.

Appendix 2 – Quality Assurance Laboratory Results 265

Appendix 2Quality Assurance LaboratoryResults

Overview of sample preparation

Two types of samples are used in thequality assurance program:

• laboratory strains of bacteria diluted insterile saline solution

• samples collected from swimming areasas part of the routine Beachwatchmonitoring program.

At the beginning of each month, three setsof replicate samples are prepared from oneof the above types of samples andsubmitted to each laboratory for analysis offaecal coliforms and enterococci.

Overview of data analysis

The geometric mean of each of the threereplicate samples is calculated from theresults of all laboratories. This consensusmean is taken to represent the true densityof the particular bacterial group in thesample. The individual results for eachlaboratory are then compared with theconsensus mean to calculate the relativedeviation.

Performance of all laboratories

The distribution of deviations from theconsensus mean for faecal coliforms andenterococci is presented in Figure 33 for alllaboratories.

For faecal coliforms, variation across the sixlaboratories is generally small and similar tothat determined for 1999–2000. The highestvariation is apparent for Laboratory Five,with Laboratory Two generating two highervalues. For enterococci, the variationbetween laboratories is also small. Theseresults indicate a marked improvement inthe performance of the contracted

laboratory, Laboratory One, from theprevious year.

Performance of contracted laboratory

Distribution of data

The distribution of the deviations from theconsensus mean for faecal coliforms andenterococci are presented in Figure 34.

The vast majority of the contractedlaboratory’s faecal coliform results lie within0.3 log units of the consensus mean. This isequivalent to a halving or doubling on alinear scale and reflects the tightly clusteredvariation around the consensus mean inFigure 33.

For enterococci, several values lie outside0.3 log unit range (that is, they are less thanhalf or more than double the consensusmean). In most cases, the values are higherthan the consensus mean and are apparentin Figure 33 as outliers above the box plot.Less frequently, the contracted laboratorygenerated enterococci densities lower thanthe consensus mean, and these are alsoapparent on Figure 33.

Differences between the results from thecontracted laboratory and the otherlaboratories were further investigated usingstatistical analysis.

Statistical analysis

The Student-Newman-Keuls (SNK) test is amultiple comparison test used to identifysignificant differences within a dataset. Thistest was employed to analyse the laboratoryquality assurance data. Faecal coliform andenterococci data were log-10 transformed tomeet assumptions of normality. Data wereanalysed by using the Statistical AnalysisSystem (SAS Institute, Cary N.C.).

266 Appendix 2 – Quality Assurance Laboratory Results

Figure 33: Distribution of Log Deviation from the Consensus Mean for each Laboratory inthe QA Program for Faecal Coliforms and Enterococci

The contracted laboratory is Laboratory One.

Faecal coliforms

Laboratory

1 2 3 4 5 6

Log D

iffere

nce

fro

m t

he c

onse

nsu

s m

ean

-2

-1

0

1

2Enterococci

Laboratory

1 2 3 4 5 6

Log D

iffere

nce

fro

m t

he c

onse

nsu

s m

ean

-2

-1

0

1

2

Figure 34: Distribution of Quality Assurance Results for the Contracted Laboratory

Faecal coliforms

Consensus Mean (cfu/100 mL)

1 10100

100010000

Labora

tory

Resu

lt (c

fu/1

00 m

L)

1

10

100

1000

10000

100000Enterococci

1 10100

100010000

100000

Initially, all results were used in theanalysis. It was found that faecal coliformand enterococci results produced by each ofthe laboratories were not significantlydifferent.

Data were then analysed to determinewhether there were significant differences inresults close to and less than the medianswimming guideline limits. This type ofanalysis is often termed a sensitivityanalysis.

The consensus means were used to subsetthe data. For faecal coliforms, samples witha consensus mean of 150 cfu/100 mL or lesswere used in the analysis. For enterococci,

samples with a consensus mean of35 cfu/100 mL or less were used in theanalysis.

The sensitivity analysis revealed nosignificant difference in the faecal coliformor enterococci results from each laboratory.

This analysis confirms that there has been asignificant improvement in the performanceof the contracted laboratory. In 1999–2000the contracted laboratory was found to beoverestimating enterococcal results, and anaction plan was implemented to improveperformance. This strategy has clearly beensuccessful.

Appendix 3 – Olympic Study 267

Appendix 3Olympic Study

Introduction

The Olympic study was undertaken toassess the bacterial density at five siteswithin Sydney Harbour that were used forwater-based sporting events during the 2000Olympic Games. Results presented in thisreport cover the period 18 October 1995 to27 October 2000.

During the 2000 Olympic Games, SydneyHarbour was used to host the triathlon,swimming and sailing events, whereathletes came into both primary andsecondary contact with Sydney Harbourwaters. The harbour was a focus for Sydneyin the lead-up to, and during, the OlympicGames, and was also used to accommodatea large number of cruise ships and pleasurecraft during the games.

Sampling sites

Two sites were monitored for the triathlonevents, and three sites for the sailing events.

Farm Cove was used for the swimming legof the triathlon. Two sampling sites werelocated in this area (map on page 268). TheFarm Cove site was located in the middle ofthe cove, adjacent to Fleet Steps in the RoyalBotanic Gardens. The Man O’ War Jetty sitewas located on the eastern side of the cove,adjacent to the Sydney Opera House.Sampling at these sites commenced inOctober 1995 and October 1996,respectively.

The three Olympic sailing sites were namedPort Jackson B, Port Jackson C and PortJackson D (map on page 268), and arelocated as close as possible to the middle ofeach race area. Sampling at these sitescommenced in January 1997. To keep theposition of the individual sample sitesconsistent each week, a series of landreference points were established.

Method

Water samples were collected by boat everysix days as part of the routineHarbourwatch sampling program.

Samples were collected at a depth ofapproximately 30 cm by using aseptictechnique, placed immediately on ice andthen transported to the laboratory foranalysis. Samples were analysed for faecalcoliform and enterococci densities.

Primary contact recreation guidelines

Primary contact recreation includesactivities such as swimming and divingwhere there is likely to be full immersion ofthe body and some ingestion of water. Theguideline levels are based on guidelinespublished by the NHMRC (1990).

Beachwatch considers that waters areunsuitable for swimming if:

• the median faecal coliform densityexceeds 150 colony forming units per 100millilitres (cfu/100 mL) for five samplestaken at regular intervals not exceedingone month, or

• the second-highest sample contains equalto or greater than 600 cfu/100 mL for fivesamples taken at regular intervals notexceeding one month.

Beachwatch considers that waters may beunsuitable for swimming if:

• the median enterococci density exceeds35 cfu/100 mL for five samples taken atregular intervals not exceeding onemonth, or

• the second-highest sample contains equalto or greater than 100 cfu/100 mL for fivesamples taken at regular intervals notexceeding one month.

268 Appendix 3 – Olympic Study

Monitored Olympic Sites

Man O' War Steps Port Jackson B

Farm Cove

Port Jackson C

Bradley'sHead

PORT JACKSON

Port Jackson D

NORTHHARBOUR

South Head

North Head

MIDDLEHARBOUR

Kilometres

10.50

!

s

SEWERAGE SYSTEM

LEGEND

LANDUSE CLASSIFICATION

Undirected Sewage Overflow

Designed Structure Sewage Overflow

Sewage Treatment Plant

Surf Club

Sampling Site

Major Road

National Park/Park/Open Space

Other Landuse


Secondary contact recreation guidelines

Secondary contact recreation includesactivities such as boating, fishing andsailing, where there is some direct contactwith water, but less probability of the waterbeing swallowed. The guideline levels forthe indicator organisms are therefore higherthan those for primary contact recreation.Secondary contact guidelines, based onNHMRC (1990) and ANZECC (1992),require a minimum of five samples to betaken at regular intervals not exceeding onemonth, with:

• for faecal coliforms, the median notexceeding 1000 cfu/100 mL, and four outof five samples less than 4000 cfu/100mL

• for enterococci, the median notexceeding 230 cfu/100 mL, and four outof five samples less than 700 cfu/100 mL

Results

The results of water quality monitoring areshown on individual site pages (pages 270to 274). Each site page includes:

• a brief description of the site

• Olympic event dates

• pollution sources

• compliance with water quality guidelines

• response of bacterial density to rainfall

• a season graph showing data fromJanuary to November 2000.

Compliances for Farm Cove and Man O’War Steps, the triathlon sites, werecalculated by using the primary contactrecreation guidelines. Compliances for PortJackson B, C & D, the sailing sites, werecalculated by using the secondary contactrecreation guidelines.

Discussion

Compliance

Faecal coliform levels at the five monitoredOlympic sites complied highly withrecreational water guidelines over themonitored period.

Enterococcal compliance at Farm Cove andMan O’ War Jetty was varied. Low levels ofcompliance were recorded during 1998–1999, when Sydney received above-averagerainfall and almost twice the averagenumber of rain days. In the lead up to the2000 Games, enterococcal levels compliedwith guidelines 100% of the time at bothsites.

At the sailing sites, enterococcal compliancewith secondary contact recreationguidelines was high, generally 100% of thetime.

Response to rainfall

Faecal coliform densities remainedrelatively low at most sites until more than20 mm of rainfall was received in 24 hours.In contrast, elevated enterococcal densitieswere recorded at most sites after as little as5 mm of rain in 24 hours.

Water quality during 2000 OlympicGames and Paralympic Games

Triathlon

Water quality at Farm Cove and Man O’War Jetty during the period of the OlympicGames was very high. All samples taken atthese sites contained bacterial densitiesbelow the median swimming guidelines forfaecal coliforms and enterococci.

For example, samples taken in Farm Covethe day before the men’s triathlon contained1 cfu/100mL for faecal coliforms and1 cfu/100 mL for enterococci. Withsubsequent fine weather conditions, it canbe assumed that athletes competing in thetriathlon events were unlikely to be exposedto water-borne viruses or pathogens.

Sailing

Water quality at the sailing sites, PortJackson B, C and D, during the period of theOlympic Games and Paralympic Games wasalso high. All faecal coliform andenterococci measurements were well belowthe median guidelines for secondary contactrecreation. These results indicate thatathletes competing in the sailing eventswere also unlikely to be exposed to water-borne pathogens or viruses.


Farm Cove

Description The site is located in the middle of Farm Cove, adjacentto Fleet Steps in the Royal Botanic Gardens.

Events Farm Cove was the venue for the swimming legs of themen’s and women’s triathlons, held on 16 and 17September 2000.

Pollution Sources Water quality may be affected by poor quality dischargesfrom Parramatta and Lane Cove rivers after heavy rain.

See page 268 for key to map

Compliance Faecal coliform compliance has been consistently highover the last five years, ranging from 86% to 100% of thetime. In contrast, enterococcal compliance has beenhighly variable. The lowest levels of enterococcal compliance were recorded during1998–1999 in response to above-average rainfall in that period. Enterococcal levelscomplied 100% of time in period leading up to the Olympics.

n winter seasonn summer season

Faecal Coliforms

100 100

86

100 10097 100 97 100

0

25

50

75

100

1996-97 1997-98 1998-99 1999-00 2000-01

% C

ompl

ianc

e

Enterococci

100 100

24

71

100100

59

47

97

0

25

50

75

100

1996-97 1997-98 1998-99 1999-00 2000-01

Response to Rainfall Elevated faecal coliform densities are generally recorded after more than 20 mm ofrainfall in 24 hours. Enterococcal densities frequently exceed the median guidelineafter more than 5 mm of rain has fallen, with the majority of elevated readingsoccuring after more than 20 mm of rainfall in 24 hours.

− − median guidelines

Faecal Coliforms

24hr Rainfall (mm)

0 0 - 5 5 -1010 -20 20+B

act

eria

l cou

nt /1

00 m

L

1

10

100

1000

10000

100000Enterococci

24hr Rainfall (mm)

0 0 - 5 5 -1010 -20 20+

1

10

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1000

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100000

Season Data Faecal coliform and enterococcal densities were generally low in the lead up toSeptember 2000, and did not exceed the guidelines during the Olympic Games orParalympic Games (shaded periods).

rainfallo individual result rolling median− − rolling 80th percentile

n period of Games

Guidelines are also shown: median¨ ¨ 80th percentile

Faecal Coliforms

1

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100

1000

10000

100000

Jan-00Mar-0

0May-00

Jul-00

Sep-00Nov-00

Ba

cte

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t/1

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Enterococci

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0May-00

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200

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Rain

fall

(mm

)

Farm Cove

ROYAL BOTANICGARDENS


Man O’ War Jetty

Description The site is located on the eastern side of Farm Cove,adjacent to the Sydney Opera House.

Events Man O’ War Jetty was the start of the swimming legs of themen’s and women’s triathlons, held on 16 and 17September 2000.

Pollution Sources Water quality may be affected by poor quality dischargesfrom the Parramatta River and Lane Cove River after heavyrain.


Compliance Faecal coliform levels have complied with swimmingguidelines more than 95% of the time over the last fiveyears. Enterococcal compliance has been variable, with lowlevels of compliance recorded during 1998–1999, followed by 100% compliance overthe next three seasons. Low levels of compliance in 1998–1999 were probably theresult of above-average rainfall in that period.


Faecal Coliforms

10095

100 100100 100 100 100

0

25

50

75

100

1996-97 1997-98 1998-99 1999-00 2000-01

% C

ompl

ianc

e

Enterococci

100

14

100 100100

7566

100

0

25

50

75

100

1996-97 1997-98 1998-99 1999-00 2000-01

Response to Rainfall Elevated faecal coliform and enterococci levels are apparent after more than 20 mmof rainfall in 24 hours. Relatively high enterococcal densities were also measuredafter little or no rain. This trend is also apparent from the season data plots below.


Faecal Coliforms

24hr Rainfall (mm)

0 0 - 5 5 -1010 -20 20+B

act

eri

al c

ou

nt

/10

0 m

L

1

10

100

1000

10000Enterococci

24hr Rainfall (mm)

0 0 - 5 5 -1010 -20 20+

1

10

100

1000

10000

Season Data During the first three months of 2000, elevated faecal coliform and enterococcaldensities were measured on several occasions, usually in response to rainfall.Bacterial levels were mostly low in the lead-up to, and during, the Olympic andParalympic Games (shaded periods).


n period of Games


Faecal Coliforms

1

10

100

1000

10000

100000

Jan-00Mar-0

0May-00

Jul-00

Sep-00Nov-00

Ba

cte

ria

l co

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Enterococci

Jan-00Mar-0

0May-00

Jul-00Sep-00

Nov-00

0

50

100

150

200

Daily

Rain

fall

(mm

)

SydneyOperaHouse

Man O' WarJetty

ROYAL BOTANICGARDENS


Port Jackson B

Description The site is located in the centre of Olympic Sailing Site B,midway between Bradleys Head and Garden Island,opposite Darling Point.

Events Olympic sailing was held at this site between 17 and 30September 2000. Paralympic sailing was held between 20and 27 October 2000.

Pollution Sources Stormwater discharges from within the Port Jacksoncatchment and poor quality discharges from the ParramattaRiver and Lane Cove River may affect water quality at thissite after heavy rain.


Compliance Faecal coliform levels have complied with secondary contact guidelines 100% of thetime since monitoring began in 1996. With the exception of the 1998–1999 winterseason, enterococcal levels have also complied with guidelines 100% of the time.


Faecal Coliforms

100 100 100 100100 100 100 100

0

25

50

75

100

1996-97 1997-98 1998-99 1999-00 2000-01

% C

ompl

ianc

e

Enterococci

100

71

100 100100 100 100 100

0

25

50

75

100

1996-97 1997-98 1998-99 1999-00 2000-01

Response to Rainfall Elevated faecal coliform and enterococcal levels are apparent after more than 20 mmof rain has fallen in 24 hours. However, even after significant rainfall, bacterial levelsrarely exceed the median guidelines for secondary contact recreation.


Faecal Coliforms

24hr Rainfall (mm)

0 0 - 5 5 -1010 -20 20+B

act

eria

l co

un

t /1

00

mL

1

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100

1000

10000Enterococci

24hr Rainfall (mm)

0 0 - 5 5 -1010 -20 20+

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10

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1000

10000

Season Data During the first five months of 2000, elevated faecal coliform and enterococcaldensities were measured on several occasions, usually in response to rainfall.Bacterial levels were consistently low in the lead-up to, and during, the Olympic andParalympic Games (shaded periods).


n period of Games


Faecal Coliforms

1

10

100

1000

10000

100000

Jan-00Mar-0

0May-00

Jul-00

Sep-00Nov-00

Ba

cte

ria

l co

un

t/1

00

mL

Enterococci

Jan-00Mar-0

0May-00

Jul-00Sep-00

Nov-00

0

50

100

150

200

Daily

Rain

fall

(mm

)

Port Jackson B

Bradley'sHead


Port Jackson C

Description The site is located in the centre of Olympic Sailing Site C,between Bradleys Head, Point Piper and Steel Point.

Events Olympic sailing was held at this site between 17 and 30September 2000.

Pollution Sources Stormwater discharges from within the Port Jacksoncatchment and poor quality discharges from theParramatta River and Lane Cove River may affect waterquality at this site after heavy rain.


Compliance Faecal coliform levels have complied with secondarycontact recreation guidelines 100% of the time over thelast five years. Enterococcal compliance has also been very high, ranging from 97%to 100% of the time during the monitored period.


Faecal Coliforms

100 100 100 100100 100 100 100

0

25

50

75

100

1996-97 1997-98 1998-99 1999-00 2000-01

% C

ompl

ianc

e

Enterococci

100 100 100 100100 97 100 100

0

25

50

75

100

1996-97 1997-98 1998-99 1999-00 2000-01

Response to Rainfall Faecal coliform and enterococcal levels generally remain below median guidelinelimits for secondary contact recreation. Elevated faecal coliform levels are apparentafter more than 20 mm of rain has fallen in 24 hours. The response to rainfall is lessdefined for enterococci, with elevated levels apparent after more than 5 mm of rainhas fallen, and again after more than 20 mm of rainfall in 24 hours.


Faecal Coliforms

24hr Rainfall (mm)

0 0 - 5 5 -1010 -20 20+

Ba

cter

ial c

oun

t /10

0 m

L

1

10

100

1000

10000Enterococci

24hr Rainfall (mm)

0 0 - 5 5 -1010 -20 20+

1

10

100

1000

10000Faecal Coliforms

24hr Rainfall (mm)

0 0 - 5 5 -1010 -20 20+

Ba

cter

ial c

oun

t /10

0 m

L

1

10

100

1000

10000Enterococci

24hr Rainfall (mm)

0 0 - 5 5 -1010 -20 20+

1

10

100

1000

10000

Season Data During the first five months of 2000, elevated faecal coliform and enterococcaldensities were measured on several occasions, usually in response to rainfall.Bacterial levels were consistently low in the lead-up to, and during, the Olympic andParalympic Games (shaded periods).


n period of Games


Faecal Coliforms

1

10

100

1000

10000

100000

Jan-00Mar-0

0May-00

Jul-00

Sep-00Nov-00

Ba

cte

ria

l co

un

t/1

00

mL

Enterococci

Jan-00Mar-0

0May-00

Jul-00Sep-00

Nov-00

0

50

100

150

200

Daily

Rain

fall

(mm

)

Port Jackson C


Port Jackson D

Description This site is located in the centre of Olympic Sailing SiteD, midway between Dobroyd Head, Middle Head andQuarantine Head.

Events Olympic sailing was held at this site between 17 and 30September 2000.

Pollution Sources Stormwater discharges from within the Port Jacksoncatchment and poor quality discharges from MiddleHarbour after heavy rain may affect water quality at thissite.


Compliance A high level of compliance with secondary contactrecreation guidelines was recorded for faecal coliforms and enterococci. Bothindicators complied with the guidelines 100% of the time over the monitoring period.


Faecal Coliforms

100 100 100 100100 100 100 100

0

25

50

75

100

1996-97 1997-98 1998-99 1999-00 2000-01

% C

ompl

ianc

e

Enterococci

100 100 100 100100 100 100 100

0

25

50

75

100

1996-97 1997-98 1998-99 1999-00 2000-01

Response to Rainfall Levels of faecal coliforms and enterococci generally remain below the medianguidelines for secondary contact recreation. Elevated bacterial levels are apparentafter more than 20 mm of rain has fallen 24 hours.


Faecal Coliforms

24hr Rainfall (mm)

0 0 - 5 5 -1010 -20 20+B

act

eria

l co

un

t /1

00

mL

1

10

100

1000

10000Enterococci

24hr Rainfall (mm)

0 0 - 5 5 -1010 -20 20+

1

10

100

1000

10000

Season Data Elevated faecal coliform and enterococcal densities were measured on occasionduring the first few months of 2000, usually in response to rainfall. Bacterial levelswere consistently low in the lead-up to, and during, the Olympic and ParalympicGames (shaded periods).


n period of Games


Faecal Coliforms

1

10

100

1000

10000

100000

Jan-00Mar-0

0May-00

Jul-00

Sep-00Nov-00

Ba

cte

ria

l co

un

t/1

00

mL

Enterococci

Jan-00Mar-0

0May-00

Jul-00Sep-00

Nov-00

0

50

100

150

200

Daily

Rain

fall

(mm

)

Port Jackson D

Dobroyd Head

Middle Head

Appendix 4 – Further Reading 275

Appendix 4Further Reading

This section provides additional sources of information on monitoring and assessment ofbacteriological water pollution and water quality. The information given here is notcomprehensive. The intention is to provide a starting point and to list some of the most recentresources available relating specifically to the Sydney region.

1. Reports and texts

ANZECC (Australian and New Zealand Environment and Conservation Council) (2000). Coreenvironmental indicators for reporting on the State of the environment, ANZECC, Canberra.

Apte, S. C., Batley, G. E. and Ashbolt, N. J. (1993). Rapid detection of faecal coliforms in coastalwaters. Australian Water and Wastewater Association 15th Federal Convention 18–23 April 1993,Technical Papers Vol. 2.

(Research and development – monitoring faecal coliforms in marine waters – rapidassessment for early warning)

Ashbolt, N. J. (1995). Health-related water microbiology: Australia leads: But where next? WaterJournal, Vol. 22 No. 2 May/June 1995, Australian Water and Wastewater Association, Sydney.

(Discussion on research and development for recreational and drinking water qualityindicators and guidelines – includes alternative health-related indicators)

Ashbolt, N. J., Riedy, C. and Haas, C. N. (1997). Microbial health risk at Sydney’s coastal bathingbeaches. Australian Water and Wastewater Association 15th Federal Convention 16–21 March 1997Vol. 2, pp. 104–111.

(Microbial quantitative risk assessment at Sydney’s urban coastal beaches using historicalmicrobial data – models used to estimate exposure to pathogenic bacteria, protozoa and amodel virus – enteric viruses pose the highest risk to bathers at Sydney ocean beaches)

Australian Water Technologies (1993). Long Term Beach Water Quality Reporting Series – Reports 1–8. Water Board, Sydney.

(Report 1 – Sampling Strategies and Methods of Analysis 1965–1992

Summary of bacteriological data held by AWT for the period 1965–1992 from Sydney andIllawarra regions.

Report 2 – Assessment of Water Quality of Sydney’s Metropolitan Beaches

Beach water quality for the period 1969–1991 for Sydney beaches – assessments are based onappropriate bacteriological water quality guidelines – likely pollution sources are discussed.

Report 3 – Trends in Densities of Faecal Coliforms at Seven Target Beaches in Sydney

Examination of trends in faecal coliform levels at seven Sydney beaches between 1969 and1991 – comparisons are made between pre- and post- deepwater ocean outfall commissioningbacterial counts.

Report 4 – Assessment of Water Quality of Beaches in the Illawarra Region

276 Appendix 4 – Further Reading

Report 5 – Spatial and Temporal Variations in Bacterial Densities at Selected Sydney Beaches

Determination of the major sources of variation associated with faecal coliform sampling.

Report 6 – The Influence of Some Environmental Factors on Densities of Faecal Coliforms at FourteenSydney Beaches

Twenty-four hour rainfall, hours of sunshine, wind direction and speed and tide areexamined for influence on faecal coliform counts.

Report 7 – Trends in Visual Sewage Pollution and Densities of Faecal Coliform Bacteria and their Useas Indicators of Bathing Water Quality at 14 Sydney Beaches

Visual sewage pollution between the years 1969 and 1990 – associations between faecalcoliform counts and visual sewage pollution indicators.

Report 8 – Trends in the Concentration of Grease at 13 Sydney Beaches)

Australian Water Technologies, Sydney Water Corporation, NSW Environment ProtectionAuthority (2000). Offshore Sediment Program 2000: Report – Final, AWT, Sydney.

Bartram, J., Rees, G. (2000). Monitoring Bathing Waters: A Practical Guide to the Design andImplementation of Assessments and Monitoring Programs. European Commission, World HealthOrganization, and United States Environmental Protection Agency, E & F Spon, London.

Beachwatch (1995). Beachwatch Winter Season 1994. EPA (NSW), Sydney.

(Bacterial monitoring results for Sydney ocean beaches, Winter 1994 – visible sewagepollution indicators – correlation study between faecal coliforms and rainfall for oceanbeaches)

Beachwatch (1995). Beachwatch 1995 Season Report. EPA (NSW), Sydney.

(Bacterial monitoring results for Sydney ocean beaches, Summer 1994–1995 – visible sewageand stormwater pollution indicators – correlation between visible indicators and bacteria –correlations between rainfall and bacteria – effluent and plume distribution study fromCronulla and Warriewood shoreline outfalls)

Beachwatch (1996). Harbourwatch 1995 Season Report. EPA (NSW), Sydney.

(Bacterial monitoring results for Sydney Harbour, Botany Bay, Georges River and PortHacking beaches, Summer 1994–1995 – background to Harbourwatch program – pollution inSydney Harbour – factors affecting water quality in Sydney Harbour)


(Bacterial monitoring results for Sydney ocean, Sydney Harbour, Pittwater, Botany Bay,Georges River and Port Hacking beaches, Summer 1995–1996 – changes to Bulletin criteria –impact of drains on flagged areas – sediment bag monitoring of faecal coliforms – Secchi disk– community expectations of Beachwatch)

Beachwatch (1998). Beachwatch and Harbourwatch 1997–1998 State of the Beaches. Sydney, Hunter,Illawarra. EPA (NSW), Sydney.

(Bacterial monitoring of Sydney, Hunter and Illawarra ocean beaches, Sydney Harbour,Pittwater, Botany Bay, Georges River and Port Hacking – communications initiatives –microbiological quality assurance program – post–rainfall recovery study – Olympic study)



(Bacterial monitoring of Sydney, Hunter and Illawarra ocean beaches, Sydney Harbour,Pittwater, Botany Bay, Georges River and Port Hacking – microbiological quality assuranceprogram – effect of rainfall on Sydney beach compliance – post–rainfall recovery study –Olympic study)


(Bacterial monitoring of Sydney, Hunter and Illawarra ocean beaches, Sydney Harbour,Pittwater, Botany Bay, Georges River and Port Hacking – microbiological quality assuranceprogram – effect of rainfall on Sydney beach compliance – post–rainfall recovery study –Olympic study)

Guest, C., Douglas, R. and Woodruff, R. (1999) Health and the Environment. AustralianConservation Foundation, Australian Medical Association, Fitzroy, Vic.

(Public Health - Environmental Health – Environmental Study - Health Planning, Australia)

Healthy River Commission (2000). Independent Inquiry into the Georges River – Botany Bay System.HRC, Sydney.

Healthy Rivers Commission (2000). Securing Healthy Coastal Rivers: A Strategic Perspective. HRC,Sydney.

Kirby, A., Van Roo, S. and Collie, T. (1995). Georges River and Botany Bay Faecal ColiformMonitoring Program, February 1993 – March 1994, Interpretive Report No. 94/104, Sydney WaterCorporation, Sydney.

(Analysis of trends in faecal coliforms in Georges River and Botany Bay – development ofsampling strategies for faecal coliforms specifically for Georges River and Botany Bay –correlations with rainfall – pilot faecal coliforms recovery study)

Laws, E. A. (2000). Aquatic Pollution: An Introductory Text – 3rd Edition. John Wiley and Sons Inc,New York.

Leeming, R., Nichols, P. D. and Ashbolt, N. J. (CSIRO Division of Marine Research) (1998).Distinguishing Sources of Faecal Pollution in Australian Inland and Coastal Waters using SterolBiomarkers and Microbial Faecal Indicators. Urban Research Association Australia, Melbourne.

NSW Department of Land and Water Conservation (2000). NSW Conservation Strategy. NSWDLWC, Sydney.

NSW Environment Protection Authority (2000). NSW State of the Environment Report 2000. EPA(NSW), Sydney.

NSW Environment Protection Authority (2000). NSW State of the Environment Report 2000: WaterBackgrounder. EPA (NSW), Sydney.

NSW Environment Protection Authority (1995). Provisional Water Quality Investigations Manual:Preferred Methods for Sampling and Analysis. EPA (NSW), Sydney.

(Aimed at water quality professionals – standardised monitoring for State of theEnvironment reporting – management of water quality investigations – sampling procedures– parameters (physico-chemical and biological) and analytical methods – quality assuranceand quality control – budgeting – data handling)


NSW Environment Protection Authority (1996). Sydney Deep Water Outfalls EnvironmentalMonitoring Program: Final Report Series Volumes 1–7. EPA (NSW), Sydney.

Raffensperger, C. and Tickner, J. A. (1999) Protecting Public Health and the Environment:Implementing the Precautionary Principle, Island Press, Washington

(Precautionary principle – environment protection – government policy, United States –health risk assessment)

Roberts, E. R. (2000). Water Quality Control Handbook, McGraw-Hill. New York.

Short, A. D. (1993). Beaches of the New South Wales Coast – a Guide to their Nature, Characteristics,Surf and Safety. Australian Beach Safety Management Program, Sydney.

Sydney Water Corporation (1998). Annual Environment Report. SWC, Sydney.

(Provides information on Sydney Water’s environmental performance during 1997–98.Includes water supply operations, sewage and stormwater transport, sewage treatment andresource conservation)

Sydney Water Corporation (1999). Annual Environment Compliance Report. SWC, Sydney.

(Provides information on Sydney Water’s environmental compliance during 1998–1999)

Sydney Water Corporation (2000). Annual Environment and Public Health Report 2000 SWC,Sydney.

(Provides information about Sydney Water’s performance in managing a range ofenvironmental and social impacts.)

Sydney Water Corporation (1998). Environmental Indicators Monitoring Program Methods Report.SWC, Sydney.

(Outlines the methodology for collection, analysis and storage of data collected for SydneyWater’s Environmental Indicators Monitoring Program. Also describes the quality systemassociated with the program and provides detail of indicators used.)

Sydney Water Corporation (2000) Environmental Indicators Monitoring Program Compliance Data2000 SWC, Sydney.

(Contains raw data gathered from Sydney Water’s Environmental Indicators MonitoringProgram.)

Sydney Water Corporation (2000) 2000–2005 Environment Plan SWC, Sydney.

Van Roo, S. and Collie, T. (1993). Port Jackson Faecal Coliform Monitoring Program. AWT Scienceand Environment Division, Dec 1993. Prepared for Clean Waterways Program, PollutionAbatement Branch, Sydney Water Board, Sydney.

Van Roo, S., Garforth, S., Kirby, A. and Collie, T. (1995). Port Jackson Faecal Coliform MonitoringProgram – December 1992 – March 1994, Interpretive Report No. 94/103, SWC, Sydney.

(Analysis of trends in faecal coliforms for Port Jackson – development of sampling strategiesfor faecal coliforms specifically for Port Jackson – correlations with rainfall and other physico-chemical parameters – pilot faecal coliforms recovery study)

Water EcoScience Pty Ltd: Urban Research Association of Australia (1999). AlternativeMicriobiological Indicators of Water Quality. Urban Water Research Association Australia,Melbourne.


Waterways Authority (2000). Sewerage Pollution from Vessels Discussion Paper – Findings andProposed Actions. Waterways Authority, Sydney.

(Outlines current situation, legislation – boat populations – infrastructure – otherjurisdictions – key findings – public health – environment – pump out facilities – monitoring,compliance and education – proposed actions)

Wong, T. H. F., Breen, P. F., Somes D and Nicholas, L. G. (1999). Managing Urban Stormwaterusing Constructed Wetlands. Cooperative Research Centre for Catchment Hydrology and MonashUniversity, Department of Civil Engineering, Monash University, Victoria.

2. Internet Sites

www.epa.nsw.gov.au – NSW Environment Protection Authority

(Information regarding environmental legislation, EPA programs, and other environmentalinformation. Links to other sites relating to the environment.)

www.epa.nsw.gov.au/beach/index.asp - Beachwatch

(Summary of Beachwatch and Harbourwatch programs, state of the beaches, pollutioncauses, health information and links to other relevant sites.)

www.epa.nsw.gov.au/stormwater

(Describes the urban stormwater program and stormwater treatment devices as well asStormwater Trust applications and conditions of funding.)

www.epa.nsw.gov.au/stormwater/resourceskit

(This site contains ideas and tools to help councils implement their stormwater educationcampaigns.)

www.dlwc.nsw.gov.au – NSW Department of Land and Water Conservation

www.erin.gov.au – Environment Australia

(This Federal Government environment site provides information on national environmentalissues, programs, legislation, policy and new initiatives for environmental management.)

www.fisheries.nsw.gov.au – NSW Fisheries

www.health.nsw.gov.au – NSW Department of Health

www.health.gov.au/nhmrc/ – National Health and Medical Research Council

(Health information in relation to recreational water use)

www.hunterwater.com.au – Hunter Water Corporation

(Water quality and sewage treatment/disposal information for the Hunter region)

www.livingthing.net.au – NSW Environment Service Sector website

(This site provides a comprehensive listing of environment online information services.)

www.ozemail.com.au/~mccnet/ - Marine and Coastal Community Network

(Provides information on marine and coastal environmental issues Australia wide. Thenetwork promotes information sharing between community groups, government agenciesand industry.)


www.slsa.asn.au - Surf Lifesaving Australia

(General beach information, surf safety and patrol dates)

www.realsurf.com.au

(Daily surf reports and information for surfers)

www.streamwatch.org.au/ - Streamwatch

(State community water quality and action network)

www.sydneywater.com.au – Sydney Water Corporation

(Water quality and sewage treatment/disposal information for the Sydney – Illawarra region.Introduces ‘WaterPlan 21’, the corporation’s vision for sustainable wastewater management.)

www.wr.com.au/tnd/surfrider/ – Australian Surfrider Foundation

(Aimed at surfers. Provides information on pressures and issues affecting the coastalenvironment.)

au.riversinfo.org

(This Australian-wide catchment management directory contains information about riversand catchments.)

www.waterwatch.org.au – Waterwatch Australia

(This site contains national information on water quality monitoring and education programsthat develop strategies to address water problems.)

www.waterways.nsw.gov.au – NSW Waterways Authority

(Contains information regarding NSW coastal conditions, the Annual Report, Corporate Planand a discussion paper on sewage from vessels. Describes pollutant sources for waterways.)

4. Other sources

A list of NSW EPA publications is available from the NSW EPA’s Pollution Line on 131 555.Alternatively, the list can be viewed on the NSW EPA Internet site at www.epa.nsw.gov.au. Thelisted publications are available from several State and Federal government agencies.

Other sources of information on water quality are State of the Environment Reports publishedby local councils, and the NSW State of the Environment Report, which is published every threeyears by the EPA.

The NSW EPA library holds books, reports and journals relating to most aspects of waterquality monitoring and assessment. The library is located on level 15 in the EPA’s Head Office(59–61 Goulburn Street, Sydney), and is open to academics, researchers, postgraduate students,environment groups, council officers and other government employees. An appointment to usethe library resources is essential and can be made by calling the NSW EPA on (02) 9995 5000.

In the Sydney region there are other specialist libraries and information centres that holdinformation on water quality and related issues. These libraries include the CoastalEnvironment Centre, Water Reference Library and the Manly Environment Centre. Governmentauthorities and agencies engaged in water resources management, such as the Department ofLand and Water Conservation and Sydney Water Corporation, also have libraries open forresearch purposes.

Documents

Beachwatch and Harbourwatch State of the Beaches 2000-2001