BBL 450 New Testament Backgrounds

BBL 450 New Testament Backgrounds

CLASS III: Greek Religion and Philosophy; Imperial CultDr. Esa Autero

Greek Religion, Philosophy, and Imperial Cult

1.1 Introduction What does NT say about Greek religion and practices?

What would have people heard when the apostles proclaimed that Jesus is the Lord?

What is the significance of Greco-Roman philosophy for understanding Paul’s letters?


2.1 Greek Religion

• Alexander the Great & Pan-Hellenic religion Classical pantheon + local gods

Greek religion was not: Exclusivist – multitude of gods and practices “propagandist” – no need to spread the faith Ethical – focus on procuring blessings & avoiding wrath Centralized cult, priesthood, sacred texts experiential/personal – rather a communal activity


Sources of Greek religion Literary sources

Epics of Homer, Hesiod “Homer comes first, middle, and last” (Dio, Or. 18.8)

Plays of Sophocles, Euripides, Aristophanes Like Bible & Shakespeare today

Epigraphic evidence Coins, dedications, inscriptions

Archaeological evidence Ancient temples, statues, frescoes etc.


• T


Pantheon at Athens Offspring of the Titans Supreme council of gods Lived on peak of Mt. Olympus

gods also lived in temples Zeus (chief deity) and Hera (wife) gods ageless (“frozen” in age) gods powerful w/ specific spheres but not

Self-existent, omnipotent, omniscient Anthropomorphic and flawed in character

Quarreling, trickery, immorality


• Translating words or message? What difficulties would a Chinese historian in year


• Forms & epithets of gods Attribution of gods

Aprodites Melainis (the “Black”) Poseidon soter (“savior”) Specific attribute/characteristic Less powerful offspring

Personifications of cosmos Hemera, Thalassa Potamoi, Eirene, dike

Nymphs (lesser nature deities) Caves, fields, winds…

Twelve Principal Greek Deities Zeus Ruler of the gods

Hera goddess of marriage; wife of Zeus

Athena Patron deity of Athens; goddess of wisdom, arts and crafts, and war; helper of heroes

Apollo god of music, prophecy, healing & archery

Artemis goddess of fertility, wilderness, hunting

Poseidon god of the sea & earthquake

Aphrodite goddess of beauty, sexual love, fertility

Hermes Messenger of the gods; helper of travelers and merchants

Ares god of war

Demeter goddess of grain

Dionysus goddess of wine, merriment & nature

Hephaestus

god of fire, blacksmith of gods; banished from Olympus


• Other gods and god-like figures W

Nymph wife of the North Wind


• Regional deities Provincial deities – assimilation of Olympian & local

Zeus-serapis & theos hypsistos

Heroes and daimones Heroes – semi-divine beings

Mortals turned into immortal spirits on death Theseus, Heracles, Perseus Aided mortals, protected towns

Daimones – spirits of great men/gods (Rep. 617d-e) Good/evil spiritual powers See Plutarch Mor. 153A; Philo Somn 1.141; 1Cor 10:20-21


16 As we were going to the place of prayer, we met a slave girl with an oracular spirit, who used to bring a large profit to her owners through her fortune-telling. 17 She began to follow Paul and us, shouting, “These people are slaves of the Most High God, who proclaim to you a way of salvation.” 18 She did this for many days. Paul became annoyed, turned, and said to the spirit, “I command you in the name of Jesus Christ to come out of her.” Then it came out at that moment. (Acts 16:16-19)

“Spirit of python” – mythological serpent worshipped in Delphi Most high God/god? Theos hypsistos - way of salvation highest god among the pantheon of deities & a way of salvation


• Social & public nature of religion Sacred architecture of Greek polis

Temples, power, central market Temple and cult

Temples not for worship gatherings “house” for the god/s & place for rituals & worship Sacrifices offered to gods

Honor gods Give thanks for material benefits Appease god/s Petition for help

Animal & food-type sacrifices Dedicatory offerings: any valuable item to secure favor (lock

of hair; clay representation of body part for healing)


Priesthood in the temples Male priests – gods; female priests – goddesses

Civic honor & financial support Larger temples - full-time staff

Temples also served as banks (deposits & loans; cf. Rom 2:22)

Facilities for private parties, guilds, associations Classes & lectures in porticoes Vendors of all kinds outside (cf. Acts 19:25-26)

Central social, religious, economic, political role


23 About that time a serious disturbance broke out concerning the Way. 24 There was a silversmith named Demetrius who made miniature silver shrines of Artemis and provided no little work for the craftsmen. 25 He called a meeting of these and other workers in related crafts and said, “Men, you know well that our prosperity derives from this work. 26 As you can now see and hear, not only in Ephesus but throughout most of the province of Asia this Paul has persuaded and misled a great number of people by saying that gods made by hands are not gods at all. 27 The danger grows, not only that our business will be discredited, but also that the temple of the great goddess Artemis will be of no account, and that she whom the whole province of Asia and all the world worship will be stripped of her magnificence.” (Acts 19:23-27)

Loss of honor, loss of finances & civil disturbance


• Festivals and competitions Communal concern, harmony, the gods

Magistrates of the polis – guardians of divine favor Reciprocity b/w gods and the community

Honoring gods through festivals and sports Grand processions – climax in Temple & sacrifice

Communal expression of religion & loyalty Sports, culture, worship & sacrifices See 1 Cor 8:1-13; 10:1-30; 2Cor 6:15-7:1

Public expression of religion – non-negotiable part of life


Domestic expression of religion Most common elements

Family altar or sacred space Hestia – the goddess of the hearth

Hearth – center of domestic activities & family rituals Zeus Herkeios – protected ‘fences’/boundaries Zeus Ktesios – of property Agathon daimon (“Good spirit”)

Depicted as snake who brought good luck/prosperity Homage – prayers, libations, offering

Food, unmixed wine, oil etc. To ensure favor of the gods – and avoid their wrath


• Individual expression of religion Ensure benefits, ward off evil, omens for tomorrow

Divination & oracles – knowledge of future Major centers of divine oracles

Delphi & Corinth (Apollo); Epidaurus (Asclepius) Question & answer: prophet – priest – supplicant Preparatory rituals and fee payment

“Shall I become a slave/senator?” “Divorce wife?” Haruspicy (entrails), augury (birds), dreams “dreams come from Zeus” (Illiad 1.63) Plutarch “the most ancient and respected form of divination” (Mor. 159A)


• Translating words or message? What difficulties would a Chinese historian in year


Superstition and magic To ensure protection, blessing, favor Existence of gods, spirits, heroes, nymphs

Dike (justice) and fortuna/tyche (luck, chance) Protective and imprecatory magic

Spirits/gods can be manipulated See Acts 8:9-25; 13:4-12; 16:16-18; 19:13-20; 28:1-6


1 Once we had reached safety we learned that the island was called Malta. 2 The natives showed us extraordinary hospitality; they lit a fire and welcomed all of us because it had begun to rain and was cold. 3 Paul had gathered a bundle of brushwood and was putting it on the fire when a viper, escaping from the heat, fastened on his hand. 4 When the natives saw the snake hanging from his hand, they said to one another, “This man must certainly be a murderer; though he escaped the sea, Justice [Gr. dike] has not let him remain alive.” 5 But he shook the snake off into the fire and suffered no harm. 6 They were expecting him to swell up or suddenly to fall down dead but, after waiting a long time and seeing nothing unusual happen to him, they changed their minds and began to say that he was a god. (Acts 28:1-6)


• Mystery religions – alternative expression of religion Variety of unrelated cults Some common features

Direct communion w/ god/s Conscious eternal life Degree of equality within cult service Sacred rites known only to initiates Ceremonial washings (Isis)

Meals (Mithras) ‘blood baptism’ of Cybele

cult - taurobolium Castration (Atargatis) Orgies (Dionysus)

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Taurobolium.jpg


Afterlife in the Greco-Roman world Homeric tales – hades, place of gloom and shadows Plato – transmigration of the soul (reincarnation) Elysian fields/Island of Blessed – “peaceful repose” for heroes Astral transformation – becoming a star/galaxy Epicureans – no afterlife Stoics – survival of the soul [in air/heaven] until next ekpyrosis

Continued existence in the tomb


Hope of afterlife - only c. 10% funerary epigrams Signs of resignation

I did not exist, I came into being, I will not exist anymoreI do not care – that’s life

---I was nothing, I am nothing; and you who [now] live,Eat, drink, play, come! (cf. 1 Cor 15:32; Isa 22:13; Klauck 2003: 80)

Variety of afterlife “hopes” (cf. 1 Thess 4:13) Unifying factor: denial of bodily resurrection (1Cor 15; Acts 17:32)


• 2 But if Christ is preached as raised from the dead, how can some among you say there is no resurrection of the dead?... 17 and if Christ has not been raised, your faith is vain; you are still in your sins. 18 Then those who have fallen asleep in Christ have perished. 19 If for this life only we have hoped in Christ, we are the most pitiable people of all…35 But someone may say, “How are the dead raised? With what kind of body will they come back?”…50 This I declare, brothers: flesh and blood cannot inherit the kingdom of God, nor does corruption inherit incorruption. 51 Behold, I tell you a mystery. We shall not all fall asleep, but we will all be changed, 52 in an instant, in the blink of an eye, at the last trumpet…58 Therefore, my beloved brothers, be firm, steadfast, always fully devoted to the work of the Lord, knowing that in the Lord your labor is not in vain. (1 Cor 15:2-58) How does the background help understand Corinthian unbelief in v. 2 & 35 and Paul’s

explanation of resurrection?


2.2 The Imperial Cult – divinized human beings How is imperial cult reflected in our calendar?

July (Julius Caesar) & August (Octavian Augustus) Background to imperial cult – Greek

Cult of Greek rulers & proskynesis [prostration]For he [Lysander, general of Spartans c. 300BC] was the first Greek, as Duris writes, to whom the cities erected altars and made sacrifices as to a god, the first also to whom songs of triumph were sung. One of these is handed down, and begins as follows:The general of sacred Hellas who came from wide-spaced Spartawill we sing, O! Io! Paean. (Plutarch, Lys. 18.3)

Due to rescue, protection, peace – functions of divinity Manifestation of divine power


Also, veneration of heroes and benefactors Alexander the Great and subsequent rulers Apostheosis

Roman emperors – divine honors to Julius Caesar Custom of divine rulers in the East Divine qualities, senate’s and people’s enthusiasm

Official act of apotheosis/consecration required: Member of senate to swear he saw the emperor ascend from

pyre to heaven (in form of eagle or alike) (Klauck 2003:293)


He [Julius Caesar] died in the fifty-sixth year of his age, and was ranked amongst the gods, not only by a formal decree, but in the belief of the vulgar. For during the first games which Augustus, his heir, consecrated to his memory, a comet blazed for seven days together, rising always about eleven o'clock; and it was supposed to be the soul of Caesar, now received into heaven: for which reason, likewise, he is represented on his statue with a star on his brow. The senate-house in which he was slain, was ordered to be shut up, and a decree made that the ides of March should be called parricidal, and the senate should never more assemble on that day.

(Suet., Div.Jul. 88)


Octavian Augustus – (Lat. divi filius; Gr. huios tou theou) Temple in Asia Minor for Dea Roma & Augustus (29BC)

Augustus – kyrios and soter who brought Peace (pax Romana; eirene), prosperity, harmony…since providence, which governs all things…in a divine manner…brought forth Augustus…as the savior for us…man who ends war and creates peace…and since the birthday of the god mean for the world the beginning of…peace [Gr. euanggelion] which has him as its author…(Klauck 2003:298)

Prodigies that aided Augustus’ divinization For as often as he heard that any person had died quickly and without pain, he wished for himself and his friends the like euthanasian (an easy death), for that was the word he made use of. He betrayed but one symptom, before he breathed his last, of being delirious, which was this: he was all on a sudden much frightened, and complained that he was carried away by forty men. But this was rather a presage, than any delirium: for precisely that number of soldiers belonging to the praetorian cohort, carried out his corpse. (Suet. Aug. 97)

Placed among the civic gods after death (14AD) Numericus Atticus swore an oath – Livia paid 1million sesterces


Subsequent emperors and apotheosis Tiberius – conservative (like Augustus) in accepting divine honors

“The people of Myra [honors] the emperor Tiberius, the exalted god, son of exalted gods, lord of land and sea, the benefactor, and savior of the entire world” (Klauck 2003:302; IGEE III, no:721)

Caligula – benefactor turned into “divine” beastHe ordered all the images of the gods, which were famous either for their beauty, or the veneration paid them, among which was that of Jupiter Olympius, to be brought from Greece, that he might take the heads off, and put on his own. Having continued part of the Palatium as far as the Forum, and the temple of Castor and Pollux being converted into a kind of vestibule to his house, he often stationed himself between the twin brothers, and so presented himself to be worshipped by all votaries; some of whom saluted him by the name of yupiter Latialis. He also instituted a temple and priests, with choicest victims, in honour of his own divinity. In his temple stood a statue of gold, the exact image of himself, which was daily dressed in garments corresponding with those he wore himself. The most opulent persons in the city offered themselves as candidates for the honour of being his priests, and purchased it successively at an immense price. (Suet. Cal. 22; cf. Philo Leg. Gai. 253)“Let them hate, so long as they fear”


Claudius – more reserved in divine honors – officially deified after death Nero – Nero redivivus myth

Nero’s rule in the East and good relations w/ Parthians Legend of Nero’s death – survived the suicide and remains in Parthia until his

return in power (earliest c. AD 69) About this time Achaia and Asia Minor were terrified by a false report that Nero was at hand. Various rumours were current about his death; and so there were many who pretended and believed that he was still alive…The pretender in this case was a slave from Pontus, …added to a resemblance in the face, gave a very deceptive plausibility to his pretensions. After attaching to himself some deserters, needy vagrants whom he bribed with great offers, he put to sea. Driven by stress of weather to the island of Cythnus, he induced certain soldiers, who were on their way from the East, to join him, and ordered others, who refused, to be executed. He also robbed the traders and armed all the most able-bodied of the slaves. The centurion Sisenna, who was the bearer of the usual emblems of friendship, from the armies of Syria to the Prætorians, was assailed by him with various artifices, till he left the island secretly, and, fearing actual violence, made his escape with all haste. Thence the alarm spread far and wide, and many roused themselves at the well-known name, eager for change, and detesting the present state of things. The report was daily gaining credit when an accident put an end to it. (Tac. Hist. 2.8.1)


Other emperors Titus Vespasian – general who defeated Jerusalem

Reported miracles of healing (Suet. Vesp. 7.2) Pliny the Elder (Hist. Nat. 2.18)

“…now Vespasian…greatest ruler of all times…a place among gods”

Domitian – Dominus et deus noster (Suet. Dom. 13.2) “our lord and god” (cf. John 20:28)


• Issues less clear Did the emperors accepted/demand divine worship?

Most only received divine honors More like heroes, unlike the Olympian (Roman) deities Sacrifice offered for emperors not to emperors

Sacrifices and feast b/f statue of emperor More like from a semi-divine (life) to full status (death)

Worship during lifetime to ‘spirit’/genius Caligula most clearly demanded divine worship alive


Connections to NT texts Jewish polemic of emperor worship (Wisd. 14:17-21; 2 Macc 9:8-

12) “God has fixed a day on which he will have the world

brought to justice” (Acts 17:31); also Phil 3:20 How could Paul also state Rom 13:1-7?Pliny the Younger’s “sacrificial test” (Ep. 10.96.5)https://archive.org/stream/letterswithengli02plinuoft#page/400/mode/2up

Other relevant texts Acts 12:20-24 & Josephus Ant. 19.343

https://archive.org/stream/letterswithengli02plinuoft#page/400/mode/2up

https://archive.org/stream/letterswithengli02plinuoft#page/400/mode/2up

Greek Religion, Philosophy, and Imperial Cult20 He had long been very angry with the people of Tyre and Sidon, who now came to him in a body. After winning over Blastus, the king’s chamberlain, they sued for peace because their country was supplied with food from the king’s territory. 21 On an appointed day, Herod, attired in royal robes, [and] seated on the rostrum, addressed them publicly. 22 The assembled crowd cried out, “This is the voice of a god, not of a man.” 23 At once the angel of the Lord struck him down because he did not ascribe the honor to God, and he was eaten by worms and breathed his last.24 But the word of God continued to spread and grow. (Acts 12:20-24)

Greek Religion, Philosophy, and Imperial CultNow when Agrippa had reigned three years…there he exhibited shows in honor of Caesar, upon his being informed that there was a certain festival celebrated to make vows for his safety. At which festival a great multitude was gotten together of the principal persons, and such as were of dignity through his province. On the second day of which shows he put on a garment made wholly of silver, and of a contexture truly wonderful, and came into the theater early in the morning; at which time the silver of his garment being illuminated by the fresh reflection of the sun's rays upon it, shone out after a surprising manner, and was so resplendent as to spread a horror over those that looked intently upon him; and presently his flatterers cried out, one from one place, and another from another, (though not for his good,) that he was a god; and they added, "Be thou merciful to us; for although we have hitherto reverenced thee only as a man, yet shall we henceforth own thee as superior to mortal nature." Upon this the king did neither rebuke them, nor reject their impious flattery. But as he presently afterward looked up, he saw an owl sitting on a certain rope over his head, and immediately understood that this bird was the messenger of ill tidings, as it had once been the messenger of good tidings to him; and fell into the deepest sorrow. A severe pain also arose in his belly, and began in a most violent manner. He therefore looked upon his friends, and said, "I, whom you call a god, am commanded presently to depart this life; while Providence thus reproves the lying words you just now said to me; and I, who was by you called immortal, am immediately to be hurried away by death. But I am bound to accept of what Providence allots, as it pleases God; for we have by no means lived ill, but in a splendid and happy manner." When he said this, his pain was become violent. Accordingly he was carried into the palace, and the rumor went abroad every where, that he would certainly die in a little time…Now the king rested in a high chamber, and as he saw them below lying prostrate on the ground, he could not himself forbear weeping. And when he had been quite worn out by the pain in his belly for five days, he departed this life… (Ant. 19.343)


Luke 1-2 – God and Jesus Kyrios/Soter (1:47; 2:11-14) Augustus, world peace & golden age (Virgil, Aen 1.286-96; 6.789-807)

“Nero, lord of all the world” “Caesar, lord of all” Gr. Euangelion – good tidings of the [birth] new emperor (cf.

Philo, Leg. Gai 18; War 4.618) Parousia of the kyrios (“return of the lord”) cf. 1 Thess 4:15

The beast of Rev 13:1-4 w/ blasphemous names Symbol of Rome and her power – “worship the beast”

Rev 17:8 Beast from abyss, Nero redivivus from underworld


1 Then I saw a beast come out of the sea with ten horns and seven heads; on its horns were ten diadems, and on its heads blasphemous name[s]. 2 The beast I saw was like a leopard, but it had feet like a bear’s, and its mouth was like the mouth of a lion. To it the dragon gave its own power and throne, along with great authority. 3 I saw that one of its heads seemed to have been mortally wounded, but this mortal wound was healed. Fascinated, the whole world followed after the beast.4 They worshiped the dragon because it gave its authority to the beast; they also worshiped the beast and said, “Who can compare with the beast or who can fight against it?” (Rev 13:1-4)


What were the implications for Christians who worshipped Confessed Jesus the crucified peasant rebel as the only

soter and kyrios Gathered in homes to worship & shunned emperor cult and

civic religion Persuaded others to accept this worship


2.3 Greek Philosophy and philosophical schools17 So he debated in the synagogue with the Jews and with the worshipers, and daily in the public square with whoever happened to be there.18 Even some of the Epicurean and Stoic philosophers engaged him in discussion. Some asked, “What is this scavenger trying to say?” Others said, “He sounds like a promoter of foreign deities,” because he was preaching about ‘Jesus’ and ‘Resurrection.’19 They took him and led him to the Areopagus and said, “May we learn what this new teaching is that you speak of? 20 For you bring some strange notions to our ears; we should like to know what these things mean.” (Acts 17:17-20)

What philosophical schools existed at the time of NT? How were they related to Christian beliefs?


• Greek philosophy in the ancient world Concerned with

What is good life and how to attain it Ethics and virtue Cope w/ hardships, gain happiness (autarkeia & eudaimonia) Rational worldview “Spiritual/pastoral care; life-coaching; therapy”

Philosopher’s task See beyond the superficial – true perception


O philosophy, guide of life, discoverer of virtue, victress over the vices! What would we be without you…you give birth to states, you have called together scattered mortals into fellowship of life. We take our refuge in you, we ask you for help and we entrust ourselves to you…For it is you who has given us rest in our life, and taken away from us the fear of death (Cicero, Tusc. 5.5)


• Major philosophical schools in NT times The Academy (Plato’s disciples) Peripatetic school (Aristotle’s disciples) Scepticism (Pyrrho of Elis, d. 271BC) Neopythagoreanism (Pythagoras’ disciples) Cynicism (Diogenes of Sinope’s disciples) Epicureanism (Epicurus’ disciples) Stoicism (Zeno’s disciples)

Only last two mentioned by name in NT


• The Academy (Plato) &Peripatetic school (Aristotle) Plato (d. 347BC)

Concrete things – secondary and illusory, space-time copies of the higher realm Knowledge of concrete things mere opinions/beliefs

World of ideas/forms – true world, true knowledge Immortality of soul

Aristotle (d. 322BC) Logic & syllogism – truths logically derived from prior truths Teleology and virtue ethics ‘unmoved mover’ and single deity

Revival of the Academy and Peripatetic school


• Epicureans – current “western mindset” Epicurus (d. 270BC) – the “garden” philosopher

Gods far removed from the world Universe made of ‘atoms’ Randomness of life Human detachment from the world akin gods

Gr. ataraxia – undisturbedness Pleasure is good, pain bad (not hedonism)

Lucretius (c. 94-55BC)


• Stoicism – monistic pantheism Zeno of Kition (d. 262BC)

Seneca, Epictetus, Musonius Rufus, Marcus Aurelius Some basic beliefs and practices

God and gods – fiery presence in all (ta pan) gods as multiple facets of the divine

Logos – creative reason, operative principle (fire/aether) pneuma – fiery breath as inner vitality giving cohesion to things

Divine (to theoin)


• Seneca, Ep. Mor 41.1-2


Ekpyrosis – getting ready for new edition World perishes periodically in fire – only to emerge again

Soul survives until the next ekpyrosis in air Only ‘Zeus’ as “the operative fire” ‘survives’ ekpyrosis

Ethical principle – telos formula Live in harmony with logos

Becoming ‘truly free’ – live kata physin autarkeia Conscience as highest moral authority

Cross-examination of self All is divine – nothing is inherently wrong with the world

Rise above it OR use “escape hatch” [suicide]


“You are a portion of God, you have a small part of him in yourself…you carry a god around you, you wretched man, and you do not know it.” (Epictetus Diss. 2.8.11)

[Zeus] has assigned to each a guardian, namely the protective spirit [daimona]…he has charged this spirit to observe this person…letting itself being deceived…eve if you close the door…do you think…you are alone…rather the god is within…so is your protective spirit. (Seneca Diss. 1.14.12-14)

Greek Religion, Philosophy, and Imperial Cult22 Then Paul stood up at the Areopagus and said:“You Athenians, I see that in every respect you are very religious. 23 For as I walked around looking carefully at your shrines, I even discovered an altar inscribed, ‘To an Unknown God.’ What therefore you unknowingly worship, I proclaim to you. 24 The God who made the world and all that is in it, the Lord of heaven and earth, does not dwell in sanctuaries made by human hands, 25 nor is he served by human hands because he needs anything. Rather it is he who gives to everyone life and breath and everything.26 He made from one the whole human race to dwell on the entire surface of the earth, and he fixed the ordered seasons and the boundaries of their regions, 27 so that people might seek God, even perhaps grope for him and find him, though indeed he is not far from any one of us. 28 For ‘In him we live and move and have our being,’ as even some of your poets have said, ‘For we too are his offspring.’ 29 Since therefore we are the offspring of God, we ought not to think that the divinity is like an image fashioned from gold, silver, or stone by human art and imagination. 30 God has overlooked the times of ignorance, but now he demands that all people everywhere repent 31 because he has established a day on which he will ‘judge the world with justice’ through a man he has appointed, and he has provided confirmation for all by raising him from the dead.”32 When they heard about resurrection of the dead, some began to scoff, but others said, “We should like to hear you on this some other time.” 33 And so Paul left them.34 But some did join him, and became believers. Among them were Dionysius, a member of the Court of the Areopagus, a woman named Damaris, and others with them.

What are some points of contact with Epicureanism and Stoicism in Paul’s speech? Disagreements & agreements…


Other relevant NT texts & parallels Acts 17:28 quotes Aratus of Soli, Phaenoma (d. 240BC)

Let us begin with Zeus, whom we mortals never leave unspoken.For every street, every market-place is full of Zeus.Even the sea and the harbor are full of this deity.Everywhere everyone is indebted to Zeus.For we are indeed his offspring

Col 2:8, 13, 20 Tit 1:12 (Epimenides of Crete) Book of Hebrews and possible platonic influence 2 Cor 4:16 and possible platonic infuence Acts 17:22; 25:19 & deisidaimonia (fear of gods – pos. or neg.)

Cicero De Div. 9.19 & Polybius Hist. 6.56


Other relevant NT texts & parallels 1 Tim 6:10 – an echo of Stobaeus Anth, 3.417

“Bion the Sophist said, ‘the love of money is the maxim of all evil’”

1 Cor 15:33b – Fragments of Menander: “Bad company corrupts good character”

Acts 17:28-29 – Aratus Phaen. 5 Acts 14:11-13 & Ovid Met. 8.610-700 – appearance of incognito gods Household codes Col 3:18-4:1; 1 Pet 2:11-3:12 & Aristotle Pol I

1253b 1-14; Eth. Nic. V 1134b 9-18

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BBL 450 New Testament Backgrounds