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BBA Project
Will our food consumption amount be affected by the server’s body shape?
BY
Kitty, Tsoi Wai Nga
08030014
Marketing Major
Mandy, Lam Sin Kwan
08035644
Marketing Major
An Honours Degree Project Submitted to the
School of Business in Partial Fulfillment
of the Graduation Requirement for the Degree of
Bachelor of Business Administration (Honours)
Hong Kong Baptist University
Hong Kong
April 2011
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Table of Contents
Abstract------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------- 4
I. Introduction ----------------------------------------------------------------------------------5
II. Problem Development and Research Objectives-------------------------------------6
III. Literature Review and Hypotheses----------------------------------------------------8
The Effect of Body Shape of Server on Customer’s Amount of Food Consumption-8
The Moderating Role of Server’s Gender ---------------------------------------------11
The Moderating Role of Customer’s Self Esteem----------------------------------- 12
Only female customers (students)------------------------------------------------------12
IV. Method--------------------------------------------------------------------------------------14
Participants--------------------------------------------------------------------------------14
Design and measure--------------------------------------------------------------------- 14
Results--------------------------------------------------------------------------------------16
Manipulation check----------------------------------------------------------------------16
Reliability test----------------------------------------------------------------------------16
Moderating effect of gender-----------------------------------------------------------17
Moderating effect of self esteem------------------------------------------------------18
Discussion--------------------------------------------------------------------------------- 19
Gender effect-------------------------------------------------------------------------------19
Effects of Self esteem--------------------------------------------------------------------23
Overall Discussion----------------------------------------------------------------------24
V. Conclusion----------------------------------------------------------------------------------25
VI. Limitation---------------------------------------------------------------------------------27
VII. Recommendations for future study-------------------------------------------------29
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Appendix---------------------------------------------------------------------------------------- 30
A: Manipulations------------------------------------------------------------------------------30
B: SPSS output--------------------------------------------------------------------------------32
C: Questionnaire sample---------------------------------------------------------------------36
Reference----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------42
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Abstract
This research studies how the amount of food consumption can be affected by the
body shape of others and the moderating effects of gender and self esteem. By
manipulating the body shape of the server by given pictures made in Photoshop, we
find out the body shape of the server can affect the amount of food consumption. The
comparison consequences depend on factors such as gender and self esteem. These
factors determine the mechanisms that may undertake during the comparison process.
Participants who encounter a server of the same-gender undergo assimilation,
whereas those who encounter a server of the different-gender undergo contrast effect.
Moreover, those with low self esteem experience assimilation, whereas those with
high self esteem experience contrast effect. The study has important implications for
marketers, sociologists or related parties to better control customers’weights through
controlling people’s food consumption amount in restaurant dining.
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I. Introduction
According to the Department of Health, Hong Kong is within the top three Asian
countries with the highest number of overweight people. It was found that about
38.9% of the population was overweight or obese (Lee, 2005). The problem remains
serious as overweight problems are also found among youngsters. With the statistics
gathered by the Chinese University of Hong Kong, 10% of youngsters were
overweight in 1993; the number has risen by 15% in 2008. The reason is that children
eat more but walk and exercise less nowadays (Mohit, 2008).
Overweight not only causes health problems but also increases the hospitalization
costs in Hong Kong. Obesity causes chronic illnesses like heart disease, cancer,
diabetes, high blood pressure and stroke. In addition, as it raises the likelihood of the
illnesses mentioned, more people need medical treatments which lead to the increase
in the hospitalization costs in Hong Kong. It was estimated that the operating costs in
Hong Kong' public hospitals had been risen from HK$ 2.29 billion in 1998 to HK$
3.36 billion in 2002, which were about 8.2–9.8% of the annual total public
expenditures in Hong Kong (Ko, 2008).
To prevent the health problems and ease the hospitalization costs in Hong Kong, it is
important to find ways to control people’s weight. Hong Kong people nowadays are
mostly very busy. They usually dine outside, no matter during lunch hour or dinner
time. Thanks to the unhealthy and oily cooking style of restaurants in Hong Kong,
overweight problems become much more urgent. Therefore, from a socially
responsible perspective, it should be beneficial if we can control factors that affect the
amount of people’s food consumption in restaurant dining.
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II. Problem Development and Research Objectives
A recent journal (McFerran et al., 2010a) has proved that the body shapes of the
servers could affect the amount of food consumed by different customers (dieters and
non-dieters). The rationale behind is one’s body shape can infer the food choices he or
she make, thus can be served as a relevant cue for the consumption amount of
customers. The research addresses people behaviors are affected by their personal
identification with the server. This leads to assimilation towards similar servers in the
way that dieters (non-dieters) would eat more (less) when the server is obese than
when the server is slim (Mussweiler et al., 2004).
However, inspired from various journals comparing assimilation and contrast effect
(e.g., Michael, 2004; Mussweiler et al., 2004; Mary & Robert, 2009), we propose that
contrast effect, rather than assimilation, determines people’s reaction to body shapes
of servers. To illustrate, when facing an overweight server, the customer will think
himself or herself thin, which drives him or her to eat more. Moreover, since gender
difference and self esteem are factors that could affect how one is compared with
others, they are likely to influence the strength of the relationship between server’s
body shape and food consumption amount. Thus, we will examine these two factors
in this study as well.
Having analyzing above aspects, two objectives are expected to be reached in this
research. The first aim is to investigate if contrast effect will occur and affect
customer’s food consumption amount in restaurant dining when a server is presented.
The second aim is to find out whether gender difference and self esteem will have an
effect on the strength of the relationship respectively. We predict that server’s body
shape is positively related to customer’s food consumption amount. The effect of
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server’s body shape on food consumption amount will be stronger among
same-gender comparison and among consumers with low self esteem than that with
high self esteem. Knowing the research findings, marketers, sociologists or related
parties can better control customers’ weights through controlling people’s food
consumption amount in restaurants. This contributes to the society by easing the
obesity problems in Hong Kong or even other places in the world.
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III. Literature Review and Hypotheses
Fig.1 The model developed
The Effect of Body Shape of Server on Customer’s Amount of Food Consumption
Although it seems that we control what we order and what we eat in restaurant, we
are aware of only part of the decisions and are unaware of the effects of the
environment on these decisions (Wansink, 2006).
In theory, the model of automatic processes suggests that in general, the presence of
an environmental feature can activate an automatic process and then to an outcome
(Chartrand, 2005). Refers to the restaurant dining context, existence of other people
can lead to automatic self evaluation of customer, which in turn influences customer’s
choice. In other words, the food we choose (i.e. food consumption amount) can be
influenced by other people around us. One of the relevant cues may be other people’s
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body shape. A research examines how costumers’ body shape affects another
costumer (McFerran et al., 2010a). The results showed the quantity of food one
chooses was affected by others, but whether the customers being affected to consume
more or less depends on the body shape of the other consumer. Therefore, other’s
body shape can serve as an inference about what food choice ones will make
(McFerran et al., 2010a).
A recent study of McFerran, Dahl, Fitzsimons and Morales (2010b) indicates the
amount we eat and what we choose to eat can be affected by the body shape of those
serving us. In the research, two experiments were done. Experiment 1 discovers a fat
(vs. thin) server influenced dieters to increase the amount of food consumed. The
opposite result was found for non-dieters. Experiment 2 indicates influential effect of
server’s body shape on their recommendations of food choice. Dieters were
discovered to be more influenced by fat server while opposite result was found for
non-dieters (McFerran et al., 2010b). The research proposes one’s perceptions and
choices are determined by identification, a psychological process which ones
assimilates an aspect or attributes of a similar others (Laplanche & Pontalis, 1973), or
the perceived similarity with the servers, resulting in assimilation (i.e. integrating
newly obtained information into an existing schema of ideas) towards similar ones
(Mussweiler et al., 2004). To illustrate, dieters who perceive they are fat, are more
identified with obese servers. Therefore, they are more persuaded by obese servers
which in turn will eat more and will be more likely to take in the servers’
recommendations.
While the research suggests assimilation results occur due to identification, we
believe that sometimes contrast effect is also likely to be resulted. In this case,
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contrast effect means the enhanced or diminished judgments we would make, relative
to the normal, when there is a stimulus that we could compare with. To make it
simple, it means we tend to evaluate one, including ourselves against another and
make judgments based on the comparison.
Social comparison theory (Festinger, 1954) provides a rationale for how others may
affect what we think about ourselves. According to this theory, a relative nature in the
evaluation of oneself meaning people tend to compare themselves to others to have an
accurate picture of them. “Virtually everyone engages in social comparison from time
to time” (Gibbons and Bunnk, 1999), comparison occurs without conscious control,
when seeing models in advertising campaigns (Gilbert et al., 1995). Even when an
irrelevant standard who has not been deliberately selected and explicitly provided or
have briefly exposed can be enough for triggering comparison (Festinger 1954;
Mussweiler et al., 2004). We infer that people with or without dieting will also
engage in social comparison unconsciously when seeing servers with different body
shapes.
Contrast effect is more likely to be resulted when features of the standard are
unreachable (Micheal, 2004); when the degree of overlap between the contextual cues
and target is low (Mary & Robert, 2009); and when self evaluation is based upon an
extreme standard (Mussweiler et al., 2004). By seeing an underweight server, it is
possible for customers to perceive themselves fat and thus order less food because of
body dissatisfaction. On the other hand, seeing an overweight server, more food will
be ordered as customers think themselves thin which enhanced their body satisfaction.
To illustrate, customers eat more when an overweight server is presented due to body
satisfaction; while they eat less when an underweight server is shown due to body
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dissatisfaction. Therefore, we hypothesize that:
H1: Body shape of server is positively related to food consumption amount of
customer.
The Moderating Role of Server’s Gender
Based on the social comparison theory (Festinger 1954; Goodman 2005; Bessenoff
2006), humans compare their opinions and abilities to others who are similar. Because
the more similar others are to them, the more likely they use the information gained
through social comparison in better understanding themselves as well as their future
plans of action (Stephen, et al., 2007). So, it is consistent to the statement that
comparisons with similar others may have more influence on affect and esteem than
that with dissimilar others (Lin & Kulik, 2002). In our case, since behaviors of
individuals of the same-gender are more similar than those of the different-gender, we
expect that comparison with a same-gender server would have a greater impact on
individuals’ esteem than a different-gender server (Nathalie et al., 2008). To illustrate,
when facing an overweight server, female customers eat more with the presence of
either a male or female server. However, the extent of the increased food
consumption is larger in the presence of female server than the male server. Hence,
with the moderating effect of gender, we hypothesize that:
H2: The effect of body shape of server on food consumption amount will be stronger
among same-gender comparison.
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The Moderating Role of Customer’s Self Esteem
In our research, it is predicted that people with different levels of self esteem respond
differently in terms of their food consumption amount in the same situation (i.e.
presence of a server of a particular body shape). One research shows high self esteem
individuals prompt egocentric contrast effect (Dunning & Beauregard, 1998).
Egocentric contrast effects occur when our judgments of others are skewed by our
own characteristics, expectations and judge others in a self-serving ways. However,
for low esteem individuals, they are less likely to judge others in a self-serving ways
compared with high esteem individuals (Brown, 1986; Campbell, 1986). Therefore,
we predict that, the higher the self esteem of one person, the more likely one will
judge oneself in a self-serving way and the less likely one’s food consumption
amount will be affected by the server and their own body shapes. To illustrate, when
facing an overweight server, customers eat more with the presence of either a male or
female server. However, the extent of the increased food consumption is larger if the
customer has low self-esteem than high self-esteem. Thus, after adding the second
moderator of self esteem, our last hypothesis is:
H3: The effect of body shape of server on food consumption amount will be stronger
among customers with low self esteem than among customers with high self
esteem.
Only female customers (students)
In general, people place a premium on women’s physical attractiveness (Davis, 1990;
Franzoi & Chang, 2000). Women were taught when they were a child that body is an
indicator of beauty that it is also an important value-judging factor (James, 2000).
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This explains why college women compared themselves to professional models more
frequently than college men when evaluating body aspects associated with weight
concern and sexual attractiveness (Stephen L et al., 2007). And so there is always a
stronger connection between social comparison and body image, especially for
appearance-related attributes, among women than men (Heinberg & Thompson,
1992). Therefore, in order to generate a greater effect of the result, our respondents
will be based on female students only.
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IV. Method
Participants
180 female students participated in this research; they were recruited at Hong Kong
Baptist University’s campus and were invited to spend about three minutes to
complete one questionnaire with sixteen questions (Appendix B). We randomly
assigned the participants to four scenarios evenly such that each scenario had 30
observations.
Design and Procedures
The experiment had a 2 × 2 between-subjects design, where the two manipulated
factors were server’s gender (male/female) and their body shape
(underweight/overweight). This design resulted in four scenarios, which are presented
in Fig.2. Across the four conditions, participants read a scenario in which they were
asked to imagine that they dined in a restaurant for lunch one weekday afternoon.
After finding a seat, they were told that a server, as shown in a picture at the end of
the scenario, came and served them with a menu and two glasses of water. Standing
nearby, the server was ready to serve them. The scenarios are the same across the four
conditions except for the picture of the server shown, which the servers shown are
different by their body shapes and genders. Participants in the gender-male condition
were told that a male server came to serve them, while participants in the
gender-female condition were told that a female server came to serve them. To
manipulate server’s body shape, Photoshop was used to generate servers with
different body shapes (Fig. 3). The fat server was made fatter by making the whole
body as well as face wider and rounder while maintaining the height so that they
differ only in the body shape. On the other hand, the thin server was made thinner by
making the whole body and face narrower in dimension.
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After reading the scenario, the participants were asked to indicate the gender of the
given server to check the manipulated variable of server’s gender. Besides, body
shape was measured with two seven-point scales, with questions of “What do you
think about the body shape of the server?” and “What do you think about the weight
of the server?”
Next, participants were asked to indicate the amount of food they were more likely to
consume after reading the scenario. To measure the amount of food consumption,
pictures with main dish, drink and dessert in different serving sizes were shown to
require participants to choose from three seven-point scales (“Smallest amount” to
“Largest amount”) respectively. At the end of the questionnaire, self esteem was
measured by a 10-item seven-point scale (“Strongly Disagree” to “Strongly Agree”)
(Rosenberg, 1965).
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Results
Manipulation check:
Table1: Data extracted from Test of Between-Subjects Effect table
(Manipulation check)
F ratio Significance
Body shape 143.091 0.000
Server’s gender 0.707 0.331
Body shape ×
Server’s gender
0.077 0.748
To assess the body shape of the servers, two questions of “What do you think about
the body shape of the server?” (from very thin to very fat) and “What do you think
about the weight of the server?” (from extremely underweight to extremely
overweight) were asked and measured in seven-point scales (from 1 to 7). A 2 (body
shape) × 2 (gender) ANOVA on the average score of these two items revealed a main
effect of body shape, such that the server in the body shape-fat condition (M = 5.11)
was perceived to be heavier than the server in the body shape-thin condition
(M = 3.57, F =143.1, p < .05). Importantly, no other effects were significant. This
indicates the effectiveness of our body shape manipulation.
Reliability test:
Table2: Reliability Test result of all variables
Server’s body
shape
Food consumption Self esteem
Cronbach’s
Alpha
0.813 0.624 0.835
No of items 2 3 10
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The Cronbach’s alpha of the body shape measurement was 0.813 and that of self
esteem measurement was 0.835. In both case, the measurements showed high internal
consistency reliability. When food consumption amount was measured using main
dish, drink and dessert, the Cronbach’s alpha was 0.584. After the measurement of
food consumption amount in terms of dessert was ignored, the alpha value increased
to 0.624. Although a value of 0.7 or higher represents a high internal consistency
reliability (Nunnally, 1978), more than 0.6 but less than 0.7 was sometimes
considered acceptable by some researches, especially for the exploratory studies (G.
David, 1998). As a result, we used only the main dish and drink consumption amount
to compute the average food consumption.
Moderating effect of gender:
Table3: Data extracted from Test of Between-Subjects Effect table
(Body shape x Server’s gender)
F ratio Significance
Body shape 0.003 0.954
Server’s gender 0.044 0.833
Body shape ×
server’s gender
4.606 0.033
A 2 (server’s body shape) × 2 (gender) ANOVA on food consumption amount
revealed that the interaction effect between server’s body shape and gender is
significant (F = 4.61, p < .05). The pattern showed that, when presented with
same-gender server, participants ate less when the server was fat (M = 4.10) versus
thin (M = 4.39). However, when presented with different-gender server, participants
ate more when the server was fat (M =4.41) versus thin (M = 4.13). While
participants presented with the different-gender server showed effects consistent with
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our first hypothesis (H1), participants presented with the same-gender server showed
an opposite result.
Moderating effect of self esteem:
Table4: Data extracted from Test of Between-Subjects Effect table
(Body shape × Self esteem)
F ratio Significance
Body shape 0.002 0.957
Self esteem 0.035 0.834
Body shape x Self
esteem
3.345 0.041
A 2 (server’s body shape) × 2 (self esteem) ANOVA on food consumption amount
revealed that the interaction effect between server’s body shape and participants’ self
esteem is also significant (F = 4.26, p < .05). The pattern showed that, low self
esteem participants ate less when the server was fat (M = 4.12) versus thin (M = 4.39).
However, high self esteem participants ate more when the server was fat (M =4.41)
versus thin (M = 4.14). While high self esteem participants showed effects consistent
with our first hypothesis (H1), low self esteem participants showed an opposite result.
In both cases, although the moderating effects are significant, the patterns of the
moderating effect of server’s gender and participant’s self esteem are different from
what we have proposed in hypothesis 2 (H2) and hypothesis 3 (H3) respectively. That
is to say, assimilation occurs when participants are in the same-gender with the server
or have a high self esteem. Whereas contrast effect occurs when participants are in
the different-gender with the server or have a low self esteem.
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Discussion
Effect of Gender
In the experiment, we demonstrated the amount of food consumption can be affected
by the body shape of the server. We expected contrast effect would occur when
participants undergo social comparison with the server presented. However, the result
showed that both contrast effect and assimilation may occur depending on the gender
of the server. When the participant and the server had a different-gender, our results
were consistent with the contrast effect explanation. When the participant and the
server had the same-gender, assimilation rather than contrast effect occurred. This
finding showed an important implication – the social comparison process undergoes
different mechanism depending on the situation presented. It is the comparison stage
that determines the result of the self-evaluation (Mussweiler & Wu rzburg, 2003).
This can be supported by several past researches which study when contrast effect
and assimilation will occur. In fact, even factors that seem trivial affect whether one
assimilates towards or contrasts away from the comparison standard. For example, it
was shown that whether self-evaluation of attractiveness are assimilated towards or
contrasted away from a comparison standard can depend on whether one believes that
they have the same birthday (J. D. Brown et al., 1992).
One research shows that during social comparison process, when the self is judged as
consistent with the comparison standard, the judgment of self tends to identify with
the comparison standard. On the other hand, when the self is judged as inconsistent or
opposite with the comparison standard, the judgment of self tends to move away from
the comparison standard (Lockwood & Kunda, 1997; Mussweiler, 2001). Another
research claims that how one reacts towards the comparison standard depends on the
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perceived similarity with the comparison standard – assimilation occurs when the
comparison standard is perceived as similar to the self, but contrast effect occurs
when the comparison standard is perceived as dissimilar to the self (Mussweiler,
Rüter & Epstude, 2003).
Some researches present whether one perceives the comparison standard as similar or
dissimilar to oneself depending on the most obvious information that is accessible or
the knowledge that is activated at the time of the comparison. That means one will
first briefly consider a small number of features such as category membership, to
determine whether both are similar or dissimilar (Smith, Shoben & Rips, 1974). This
knowledge or information leads one to focus on similarities or differences, which
critically determines whether assimilation or contrast effect will occur. After
accessing the perceived similarity with the standard, the hidden mechanisms that
either leads to contrast effect or assimilation is similarity testing and dissimilarity
testing. Similarity testing means selectively render accessible information indicating
that one is similar to the standard. Dissimilarity testing means selectively render
accessible information indicating that one is dissimilar to the standard. Therefore, the
effects of the comparison mechanisms of similarity testing and dissimilarity testing
are in opposite directions. If one’s evaluation is based on standard-consistent
knowledge, the evaluation will move close to the comparison standard. On the other
hand, if one’s evaluation is based on standard-inconsistent knowledge, the evaluation
will move away from the comparison standard. As a result, when the informational
focus is based on similarities, assimilation occurs; whereas contrast effect occurs
when the informational focus is based on dissimilarities. This is regarded as the
selective accessibility model (Mussweiler, Ru ter & Epstude, 2003). It has also been
shown that the behavioral consequences can be shaped by whether one focus on
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similarity or dissimilarity during the comparison process. One who focuses on
similarities assimilates their behaviors toward the standards, whereas one who
focuses on dissimilarity contrasts their behaviors away from the standards (Haddock,
Macrae & Fleck, 2002).
The accessible knowledge or information can be the psychological closeness between
the self and the standard. One may assimilate toward a comparison standard that is
psychologically close to them and contrast away from a standard that is
psychologically more distant. For example, a shared birthday with the comparison
standard can lead to assimilation (Brown et al., 1992). Moreover, from the inclusion–
exclusion model (Schwarz & Bless, 1992), assimilation occurs when the standard was
included the self in the representation; whereas contrast effect occurs if standard
information was excluded from the self. A series of researches also state that whether
one belongs to the same category or in-group as the comparison standard determines
whether similarity testing or dissimilarity testing is more likely to occur. For example,
one research (Mussweiler & Bodenhausen, 2002) involves male participants in a
spontaneous comparison with a standard who was described as tidy and clean. The
standard either belonged to the same or the different-gender category as the
participants. It was found that similarity testing, which resulted in assimilation, was
more likely to occur after comparing with standard that was in the same-gender
category than those in the different-gender category. This suggests that
self-evaluations are assimilated toward in-group standards and contrasted away from
out-group standards. This is further supported by a study that shows male participants
assimilate self-evaluation of how caring and understanding they are to a highly caring
male and contrast them away from a highly caring female.
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In our experiment, the result can also be explained by the Selective accessibility
model. When a female participant was presented with a server, the most accessible
knowledge would be the gender of the server. If the server is a female, then the
female participant will quickly regard her as being in the same-gender category. In
this case, the participant will undergo similarity testing. She will render accessible
information indicating that one is similar to the standard and assimilation will occur.
To illustrate, when the server is fat, the participant will evaluate herself as fat, body
dissatisfaction then resulted and thus she will eat less; if the server is thin, the
participant will evaluate herself as thin and will be more comfortable to eat more. On
the other hand, if the server is a male, then the female participant will quickly regard
her as being in the different-gender category. In this case, the participant will engage
in dissimilarity testing. She will render accessible information indicating that one is
dissimilar to the standard and contrast effect will occur. When the server is fat, the
participant will evaluate herself as thin, body satisfaction resulted and she will eat
more; if the server is thin, the participant will evaluate herself as fat and eat less.
Another possible explanation for female participants eating less when seeing a fat
female server is that the server could be a reminder to reduce food consumption
amount to avoid becoming as fat as the server. Researches show standard associated
with a behavior can shape consumer choice (Escalas & Bettman, 2005). People
imitate the behaviors of aspiration standards (Englis & Solomon, 1995) but diverge
behaviors linked with dissociative standards. Fat female server may be dissociative
standards of female participants as they would not want to look like them. In one
research, participants were asked to read an article that associated junk food
consumption with people whom these participants do not want to be identified with.
Then, they were asked to make food choices. It was shown that this led participants to
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make healthier choices (Berger & Rand, 2008). Refer to our case, as fat server is
associated with eating a lot of food and regarded as someone the female participants
do not want to identify with, the participants will then eat less in that situation.
Effect of Self Esteem
Based on our literature reviews, when self esteem serves as a moderator, we predicted
that people with high and low self esteem would both exhibit contrast effects, which
is what many studies of psychophysics demonstrate. However, the outcomes we
found from our data were even more interesting: although people with high and low
self esteem were both sensitive to social comparisons, opposite direction of effects
were shown, in which assimilation occurred in the case of low self esteem while
contrast effect appeared when people with high self esteem. So, the key is to know the
relationship between self esteem and social comparison processes; or in order words,
how self esteem affects the occurrence of assimilation and contrast effect.
We examine a feasible explanation of why low esteem people tend to have
assimilation to others. Brown, Collins and Schmidt (1988) propose that low self
esteem people rely more on indirect forms of self enhancement and confirmed they
are especially apt to benefit from their association with others. Contrary to high self
esteem people, low esteem group tend to seek similarity with others, such connection
with others imply a tendency to assimilation, which is typically resulted in this group.
On the other hand, people with high self esteem perceive themselves better than
others to achieve self enhancement. As found in previously mentioned study by
Jonathon et al (1992), high self esteem people are more motivated to the need of
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maintaining superiority over others than the desire to connect themselves with others.
Such difference or dissimilarity from others implies a tendency to contrast with others
the dissimilarity.
Applying the above concepts in our study, when facing an overweight server, female
customers with low self esteem think they have similar overweight body shape (i.e.
assimilation), body dissatisfaction resulted and therefore they will eat less. While
facing the same overweight server, people with high self esteem contrary think
themselves thin (i.e. contrast effect), body satisfaction resulted and thus they will eat
more.
Overall Discussion
To summarize, contrast effect occurs under boundary conditions, i.e. at the situations
of different-gender and high self esteem. In other words, the occurrence of which type
of social comparison process-contrast effect or assimilation depends on situations
(conditions). At present stage, we infer one of the conditions is the existence of
similarity perceived by customers between themselves and the server (standard). As
such, when similarity occurs, assimilation will result; if dissimilarity occurs, contrast
effect will present.
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V. Conclusion
To solve the overweight problems in Hong Kong, we begin with restaurant dining to
explore whether the body shape of server may affect the amount of food customers
consume.
Our research is mainly based on a previous research (McFerran et al., 2010b) which
indicates the amount we eat and what we choose to eat can be affected by the body
shape of those serving us. It proposes that one’s perceptions and choices are
determined by assimilation. What is new in our study, we would like to discover
whether contrast effect may present as other studies have shown that contrast effect
may occur in some situations (Mary & Robert, 2009; Mussweiler et al., 2004). We
also believed that factors such as gender and self-esteem may affect the strength of
the contrast effect.
The result turned out that both assimilation and contrast effect may occur depending
on the situations presented. With the presence of the gender factor, the result can be
explained by the selective accessibility model (Mussweiler & Wu rzburg, 2003). It
has shown that factors resulted in different comparison process consequences can be
related to the mechanisms of similarity and dissimilarity testing. When comparing
with those who are regarded as similar, assimilation occurs. On the other hand, when
comparing with those who are regarded as dissimilar, contrast effect occurs.
Regarding the effects of self esteem, we deduce the probable explanation may be that
low esteem group tends to seek similarity with others and thus assimilation occurs.
On the other side, high self esteem people are more motivated to maintain superiority
over others, contrast effect therefore occurs.
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On the whole, we infer that similarity with comparison standard leads to assimilation,
whereas dissimilarity with comparison standard leads to contrast effect. Hence, while
prior studies have demonstrated that server’s body shape affect customers’food
consumption amount based on identification and assimilation mechanism, this
research provides additional insight to existing studies that whether assimilation
occurs or not depends on the conditions presented.
Moreover, the research shows the body type of others may be sufficient to affect our
food consumption amount. There are important practical implications for marketers,
sociologists or related parties in which these parties could better control customers’
weights through controlling people’s food consumption amount in restaurant dining.
To illustrate, restaurant marketers could decrease the amount of food consumption of
customers by assigning a fat server to serve customers with the same-gender or
assigning a thin server to serve customers with different-gender.
Last but not least, this study could also be used for making customers to aware of
how unrealized others can largely impact on customers’own food consumption
amount than the people they realize. Being aware of how these situational influences
might impact our food consumption amount is important for us to make healthier
lifestyle decisions.
- 27 -
VI. Limitation
Before giving any further considerations to our findings, several limitations should be
noticed. Firstly, we admit that one of the manipulated factors – server’s body shape
was controlled poorly, although manipulation check was passed. Due to restrictions in
resources, Photoshop was used to generate overweight and underweight body shapes
of servers. However, looking at a 2D picture, every person has his or her own
subjective definitions on fatness and thinness, it is better to use more scientific
method such as adding element of Body Mass Index (BMI) in our scenario setting.
The second concern is our sample of female University students. With reference to
the research done by Sears (1986), college students tend less to possess a firm sense
of self, compared to older adults. Furthermore, evidence given by Social comparison
theory (Rosenberg, 1979) that women are especially apt to be more influenced by
social comparison information, only female students were invited as our sample
targets. However, the use of only female participants limits the generalizability of our
findings in gender moderating effect. Hence, these factors suggest that it is desirable
to use older subjects of both genders in the replication of our present study.
The third limitation of the present research concerns the research design. Outcomes
may have been more persuasive when the laboratory experiment was implemented
using manual setting. Food consumption amount is set as our only dependent variable
but because of its abstract nature, it is difficult to measure it in terms of main dish,
drink and dessert’s size by the 7 point-scales; this is the reason why there is 0.624
unsatisfactory internal consistency reliability in our dependent variable. If a taste
testing can be implemented in which actual menu is given by a confederate server for
participants to order, food consumption amount may be measured more reliably.
- 28 -
Lastly, in order to implement a true experiment, apart from the manipulation of the
independent variables and randomization, we may have to set a scenario without any
servers as a control group. As both experiments and control groups are influenced by
extraneous factors such as history and statistical regression, etc, the difference found
between the groups should be caused only by the experimental treatment. Such
difference may contribute to the correlation between the cause and effect variables
and is what we mostly desire to discover.
- 29 -
VII. Recommendations for future study
According to the Selective Accessibility Model (SAM) of comparative thinking
(Mussweiler 2003), the first step of any social comparison is: people make a quick
initial assessment of the similarity between the self and the standard. Therefore, we
suggest to add questions such as “How similar you are to the server?” in the
beginning of the questionnaire to identify the similarity element. As such, further
analysis can be carried out to see whether low self esteem people tend to seek
similarity from others which in turn engaging in assimilation, as we mentioned in the
discussion part.
Moreover, apart from gender and self esteem, we would like to investigate the
influence of other potential moderators on the effect of server’s body shape on
customer’s food consumption amount. For example, the desire for eating of
customers, their mood during dining in restaurants as well as the frequency of dining
at that particular restaurant, etc. Above all, to further achieve our objective of easing
obesity problem, other controllable factors beside server’s body shape that affect the
amount of people’s food consumption in restaurant dining should be examined. One
possible independent variable may be the physical environment of the dining
restaurant.
Last but not least, for further academic research, a 2 (self esteem) × 2 (gender) × 2
(server’s body shape) ANOVA on people’s food consumption amount can be
generated and analyzed. Because significant interactions were found in both cases of
two moderators – gender and self esteem, we propose that self esteem may further
affect the influence of gender effect on the relationship between server’s body shape
and customer’s food consumption amount.
- 30 -
Appendix A: Manipulations
Male server Female server
Thin
server
Thin + Male server
Scenario A
Thin + Female server
Scenario C
Fat
server
Fat + Male server
Scenario B
Fat + Female server
Scenario D
Fig.2 Combination of the manipulated factors in four scenarios
- 31 -
Scenario A : Thin + Male server Scenario C: Thin + Female server
Scenario B: Fat + Male server Scenario D: Fat + Female server
Fig.3 The manipulated servers
- 32 -
Appendix B: SPSS output
Reliability Test
Server’s body shape
Reliability Statistics
.813 2
Cronbach'sAlpha N of Items
Food consumption
Reliability Statistics
.584 3
Cronbach'sAlpha N of Items
Item-Total Statistics
8.28 4.092 .464 .4138.35 3.827 .423 .4438.51 3.167 .334 .624
Main dish consumptionDrink consumptionDessert consumption
Scale Mean ifItem Deleted
Scale Varianceif Item Deleted
CorrectedItem-TotalCorrelation
Cronbach'sAlpha if
Item Deleted
Self esteem
Reliability Statistics
.835 10
Cronbach'sAlpha N of Items
- 33 -
Manipulation check
Tests of Between-Subjects Effects
Dependent Variable: Average Body shape
107.352a 3 35.784 48.118 .0003391.445 1 3391.445 4560.422 .000106.413 1 106.413 143.091 .000
.707 1 .707 .950 .331
.077 1 .077 .103 .748130.886 176 .744
3631.250 180238.238 179
SourceCorrected ModelInterceptBodySerSexBody * SerSexErrorTotalCorrected Total
Type III Sumof Squares df Mean Square F Sig.
R Squared = .451 (Adjusted R Squared = .441)a.
- 34 -
Interaction effect between body shape and gender
Descriptive Statistics
Dependent Variable: AvgCon
4.0978 .77186 464.4091 1.01313 444.2500 .90644 904.3889 .95280 454.1333 .78625 454.2611 .87803 904.2418 .87357 914.2697 .91097 894.2556 .88987 180
Server's genderFemaleMaleTotalFemaleMaleTotalFemaleMaleTotal
Body shapeFat
Thin
Total
Mean Std. Deviation N
Tests of Between-Subjects Effects
Dependent Variable: AvgCon
3.654a 3 1.218 1.552 .2033261.600 1 3261.600 4156.992 .000
.003 1 .003 .003 .954
.035 1 .035 .044 .8333.614 1 3.614 4.606 .033
138.091 176 .7853401.500 180141.744 179
SourceCorrected ModelInterceptBodySerSexBody * SerSexErrorTotalCorrected Total
Type III Sumof Squares df Mean Square F Sig.
R Squared = .026 (Adjusted R Squared = .009)a.
- 35 -
Interaction effect between body shape and self-esteem
Descriptive Statistics
Dependent Variable: AvgCon
4.1064 .75135 474.4070 1.03657 434.2500 .90644 904.3864 .92046 444.1413 .82773 464.2611 .87803 904.2418 .84447 914.2697 .93862 894.2556 .88987 180
Percentile Group of AvgEstLow Self-esteemHigh Self-esteemTotalLow Self-esteemHigh Self-esteemTotalLow Self-esteemHigh Self-esteemTotal
Body shapeFat
Thin
Total
Mean Std. Deviation N
Tests of Between-Subjects Effects
Dependent Variable: AvgCon
3.385a 3 1.128 1.435 .2343262.927 1 3262.927 4150.607 .000
.002 1 .002 .003 .957
.035 1 .035 .044 .8343.345 1 3.345 4.256 .041
138.359 176 .7863401.500 180141.744 179
SourceCorrected ModelInterceptBodyNAvgEstBody * NAvgEstErrorTotalCorrected Total
Type III Sumof Squares df Mean Square F Sig.
R Squared = .024 (Adjusted R Squared = .007)a.
- 36 -
Appendix C: Questionnaire sample - Scenario A (Thin male server)
Hong Kong Baptist University
BBA Marketing
Honors Project Questionnaire
We are BBA marketing final year students conducting a study on restaurant dining.
We would like to cordially invite you to participate in the study. Please spend about
three minutes’ time to complete this questionnaire. There is no right or wrong answers.
All information obtained will be kept strictly confidential and will be used for
academic purpose only. Thank you very much for your participation!
Part A
Imagine you are in the following situation…
One weekday afternoon, you and your friend decide to go out and have lunch. After
walking for about 15 minutes, you two pick a restaurant and go in. You find a seat
near the entrance and sit down. A server, as shown in the picture below, comes and
serves you with a menu and two glasses of water. He stands nearby and is ready to
serve you…
- 37 -
Part B
Base on the situation described earlier, please answer following questions.
1. The server is a… (please “”)
Female.
Male.
2. The server is…
Very ugly Normal Very good looking
1 2 753 4 6
- 38 -
3. What do you think about the body shape of the server?
Very thin Normal Very fat
4. What do you think about the weight of the server?
Extremely Normal Extremely
underweight overweight
5. What size of the uniform do you think the server wears?
□ Size XS (very small)
□ Size S (Small)
□ Size M (Average)
□ Size L (Large)
□ Size XL (very large)
1 2 753 46
1 2 753 4 6
- 39 -
After looking through the menu, you are going to take order…
6. According to the following scale (1 = smallest amount; 7= largest amount), which
amount of each will you order?
a) Main dishes
b) Drink
c) Dessert
Normal
Largest
amount
Smallest
amount
1 2 753 4 6
1 2 753 4 6
1 2 753 4 6
Smallest
amount
Largest
amount
Largest
amount
Smallest
amount
Normal
Normal
- 40 -
Part C
The following table consists of 10 sentences describing people. Please circle the most
suitable number to indicate the extent to which each sentence represents you.
Strongly
Disagree Disagree
Slightly
Disagree Neutral
Slightly
Agree Agree
Strongly
Agree
1 I feel that I’m a person of
worth, at least on an equal
plane with others.
1 2 3 4 5 6 7
2 I feel that I have a number
of good qualities.
1 2 3 4 5 6 7
3 I am able to do things as
well as most other people.
1 2 3 4 5 6 7
4 I take a positive attitude
toward myself.
1 2 3 4 5 6 7
5 On the whole, I am satisfied
with myself.
1 2 3 4 5 6 7
6 I am inclined to feel that I
am a failure.
1 2 3 4 5 6 7
7 I feel I do not have much to
be proud of.
1 2 3 4 5 6 7
8 I wish I could have more
respect for myself.
1 2 3 4 5 6 7
9 I certainly feel useless at
times.
1 2 3 4 5 6 7
10 At times, I think I am no
good at all.
1 2 3 4 5 6 7
- 41 -
Part D
Can you guess the objective of this study?
□ Yes, it is about ______________________________________
□ No
Part E: Personal Information
Gender： □Male □Female
Year of study： □Foundation □Year 1 □Year 2
□Year 3 □Year 4 or above □Postgraduate
Faculty/School： □Arts □Business □Chinese Medicine
□Communication □Social Science □Science
□Visual Arts □Other
End.
Thank you!
- 42 -
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