Battin Person - Gang Membership

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*a.in,x_~a,/iMN, @ A",c'e of4@ PublisherInfo.lak~Bij~a iSiS riMarkarticle Articleformat:IText+GraphicsIJBMl~~,Si]g~BRIsavesthisdocumentasaDurable Linkunder"Results-MarkedList"Childhood riskfactorsforadolescentgangmembership:ResultsfromtheSeattleSocialDevelopmentProjectThejournalofResearch inCrime and Delinquency;BeverlyHills;Aug 1999;Kar]G Idill;.ialnesC Howell;JDavjdHawkins;Sar"R BattjnPea_rson;Volume: 36Issue: 3StartPag@: 300-322ISSN: 00224278SubjectTerms: GangsChildren&youthTeenagersJuveniledelinquencyResearchAbstract:Adolescents whojoingangs aremore frequenflyinvolvedinseriousdelinquencycompared withthose who do not, yetfewstudieshave conductedaprospectiveexamination ofriskfactors forgang membership. Thepresentstudy uses longitudinaldata topredictgang membership inadolescence from factorsmeasuredinchildhood.FullText:Copyrightsage Publications, Inc.Aug 1999[Headnote]AdolescentswhoJoingangsaremore frequentlyinvolvedinserious delinquencycompared withthosewho do not,yetfewstudieshaveconducted aprospectiveexaminationofriskfactorsforgang membership.The presentstudy uses longitudinaldatatopredictgang membership inadolescence from factors measured inchildhood. Oata werefrom theSeattle SocialDevelopment ProJect,an ethnicallydiverse,genderbalanced sample (n=808) followed prospectivelyfrom age 10 to 18.Logisticregression was used toidentify riskfactorsatages 10 through 12 predictiveofjoiningagang between the agesof13and 18. Neighborhood, family,school, peer,and individualfactorssignificantly predictedjoiningagang inadolescence. Youthexposed tomultiple factorswere much more likelytojoinagang. Implicationsforthedevelopment ofgang preventioninterventions arediscussed.YoL'thviolence,propertycrime,andsubstance abuseresultinenormousmonetary,social,andpersonalcosts.These andothercriminalactshavebeenconsistentlylinkedtogangmembership(Howell1997). Thus,itisimportanttolearnwhyyouthjoingangsandhowtointerruptthisprocess.Thepresentstudyuseslongitudinaldatatopredictgangmembershipinadolescence,fromneighborhood,family,school,peer,andindividualfactorsmeasuredinchildhood.Ganamembersaremorelikelythannonmemberstocommitviolentoffensesandpropertycrimeandtousedrugs(Spergel1995;Thornberry1998). BjerregaardandLizotte(1995)foundthat,whencomparedwithnongangmembers,gangmembersweremorethantwiceaslikelytocarryagunandtoengageinseriousdelinquencyand morethanthreetimesaslikelytoengageindrugsales.Similarly,EsbensenandHuizinga(1993)found measuresofdrugsalesanduse,aswellasserious andminordelinquency,tobesubstantiallyhigherforgangmembers thannongang members. Battinetal.(1998)foundthatgangmembershipcontributedtocriminalbehavioroverandabovethecontributionofhavingdelinquentpeers.Therelationshipbetweengangmembershipandcrimeisrobustandhasbeenreportedinvirtuallyall studiesofgangbehaviorintheUnitedStatesregardlessofhistoricalperiod,methodologyanddesign,orsample(Howell1997).Itisimperativetolearnwhyyouthjoingangstobetterunderstandhowtopreventthemfromjoininggangs,butthisquestionhasnotbeenwellstudied.Thefirstgangtheoristsviewedgangdelinquencyasaresultof

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socialdisorganization,endemictoslumareas(ShawandMcKay 1931, 1942;Thrasher[1927]1963).Oneoutgrowthof thislineofreasoningwascontroltheory,suggestingthatentryintodeviantpeergroupsisafunctionofalackofsocialcontrolexperiencedbyyouth(Hirschi1969).Deviantgroups suchasgangsalsohavebeenviewed asthecontextfordifferentialassociationthroughwhichcriminalbehaviorsarelearned(SutherlandandCressey 1978). Othertheoristsdescribeddelinquentsubcultureswithinthelower-andworkingclasscommunities(Cohen 1955;Cohen andShort1958)thattheearlierChicagotheoristsbelievedtobetheorigin ofgangformation. Miller(1958)suggestedthatyouthwhoengageingangdelinquencyarebehavinginamannerconsistentwithlower-classculture.Finally,straintheoristssuggestedthatdelinquencyandganginvolvementarise asanadaptationtostructuralpressures: blockedconventionalopportunitiesleadtofrustration,whichleadstoantisocialactsandthepursuitofgainthroughillegitimateopportunities(ClowardandOhlin 1960). Recentcontributorstogang theoryhave revivedthesocialdisorganizationtradition(BursikandGrasmick 1993;SpergelandCurry1993), oftenembedding itintheunderclass conceptofsocialdisadvantageandeconomicinequality(Fagan 1996;Short1996;Wilson 1987,1996).RISKFACTORS FOR GANG MEMBERSHIPReviewsofthelast30yearsoflongitudinalresearchhaveidentifiedanumberofpredictorsofdelinquencyandviolence(Hawkinsetal.1998; LipseyandDerzon1998;Loeberetal.1991)and substance abuse(Hawkins,Arthur,andCatalano 1995; Hawkins,Catalano,andMiller1992;SimchaFagan, Gersten,andLangner1986).Althoughdelinquency, violence,and substanceabusearenotsynonymouswithgangmembership,predictorsofthesebehaviorsprovideastartingpointforexamining thepredictorsofgangmembership.Thesepredictorsofdelinquency,violence,andsubstance abusearesummarizedinTable 1.Severalofthefactors inTable1havebeenfoundto distinguishgangfromnongangmembers incross-sectionalstudies(seeHowell 1997).Theseincludeneighborhood factorssuchasavailabilityof drugs(CurryandSpergel1992, Hagedorn 1988, 1994a,1994b),familyfactorssuchaspoorfamilymanagementandlowbonding tofamily(Adler,Ovando, and Hocevar1984;Bowkerand Klein1983; Friedman, Mann,andFriedman 1975;Maxson, Whitlock,andKlein1998),schoolfactorssuchaslowcommitmenttoschool(BowkerandKlein1983;Maxsonetal.1998), peerfactorssuchasassociationwithdelinquentpeers(Fagan1990;Maxsonetal.1998;VigilandYun 1990),andindividualfactorssuchasfewerconventionalbeliefs(Fagan1990)andpositiveattitudesaboutgangmembership(Friedmanetal.1975).Moore(1978, 1991)retrospectivelyexaminedfamily historiesofgangmembers,althoughwithoutthebenefitofacomparisongroup.Gang members reportedfrequentconflictandabuse amongtheirparents,childabuse,familymemberalcoholismanddrugaddiction,andfamilytroublewiththepolice.Todate,only twolongitudinalstudieshavereportedprospectivedataongangparticipation:theRochesterYouthDevelopmentStudy(Bjerregaardand Smith1993;Lizotteetal.1994;Thornberry etal.1993)andtheDenverYouthSurvey(EsbensenandHuizinga1993;Esbensen, Huizinga,andWeiher1993). IntheRochesterStudy,Bjerregaardand Smith(1993)examinedfactorsassociatedwithgangmembershipusingwavestwoandthree of theirstudy(coveringages13to15)andfoundsubstantial similarityamong malesandfemalesintherisk factorsassociatedwithgangparticipation.They foundthat,inRochester, neithersocialdisorganizationnorpovertywassignificantlyrelatedtogangmembership. However,they acknowledgedthatbecause thestudyoversampledhigh-riskyouth,therangeof the socialdisorganizationvariables waslimited.Having lowexpectationsforcompletingschoolsignificantlypredictedgangmembershipamongfemalesbutnotamong males. Havingdelinquentpeerswassignificantforbothgroups.Neitherattachment toparentsnorfamilysupervisionwasasignificantpredictoroflatergang membership.Lowself-esteemalsowasunrelatedtogangmembership.Earlysexualactivitywassignificantlyrelatedtogangmembershipforbothsexes,andtheassociationwassignificantlystrongerfor femalesthanformales.Theseanalysesmaybesomewhatconfounded, however, bythefactthatthepredictorsweredrawnfromwave twooftheirstudy,whereasgangmembershipwasameasurethatcombinedwavestwoandthree.Thus,clear statementsastowhetherthesefactorswerepredictorsorconsequencesofgang membershiparedifficulttomakefromtheseanalyses.IntheDenversample, Esbensenetal.(1993)examineddifferencesatwavethree oftheirstudy(malesandfemales,ages11to17)forthose youthwhowereeithergangmembers,nongangstreetoffenders(committed rape,robbery,oraggravatedassault),orneitheratwavefour(ages12to18).Comparedwithnonoffenders, bothgangmembersandnongangstreetoffendersreported(1)higherlevelsof commitmenttodelinquentpeers;(2)lowercommitmenttopositivepeers;(3)higherlevelsofnormlessnessin thefamily,peergroup,andschool context;(4)morenegativelabelingbyteachers;and(5)highertoleranceforcriminalactivityonthepartoftheirpeers.However, nodifferenceswereobservedamongthe threegroupswithrespecttosocialisolation,perceivedlimitedopportunities,andself-conceptmeasures. Theonlyfactorthat



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distinguishedgangmembersfromstreetoffenderswasthatgangmembersreportedsignificantlymorenegativelabelingbytheirteachers.Esbensenandhiscolleaguesfoundnodifferencesamongthethreegroupsintheirinvolvementinarangeofactivities(includingschool-yearjob,summerjob,attendingschool,schoolathletics,schoolactivities,communityathletics,communityactivities,andreligiousactivities).Theysuggestedthatthisfindingcallsintoquestiontheassumptionthatgettingyouthinvolvedinsuchactivitieswillpreventorreducegang involvement."*."q huh.*.-" ~ h$*4*

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TABLE 1:Thesestudiesprovideanimportantbaseforexaminingthepredictorsofgangmembership. However,alimitednumberofpossiblepredictorsofgangmembershiphavebeenstudied,and thesehavebeenlimitedtofactorseitherjustpriortoorduring thetypicalperiodforinitiationofgangmembership. Theextenttowhichchildhoodexperiencesduringthe elementarygradespredictadolescentgangmembership hasnotbeenexaminedlongitudinally.Thepresentstudyexaminesprospectivelyarangeofchildhoodpredictorsofadolescentgangmembership.METHODSampleSeattlehasbeen characterizedas an"emerginggangcity"(SpergelandCurry,1993);however, littleempiricalresearchhasdocumentedthenatureorextentofgangmembership inSeattle.Self-reportedstudiesconductedinthe1970sand 1980sfoundthat theproportionofgangmembersinSeattleyouthpopulationsstudiedrangedfrom10percent(Hindelang, Hirschi,andWeis1981)to13percent(Sampson 1986).Thepresentstudyexaminespredictorsfromages10to12ofjoininga gangbetweenages13and 18,usinglongitudinaldatafromtheSeattleSocialDevelopment Project(SSDP). Data are from amultiethnic sampleofmalesandfemalesfollowedprospectivelyfrom1985,when participantswereinthefirstsemesterofthefifthgrade(age10),to1993,when participantswere18yearsofage. Dataon gangmembershipwerecollectedannuallystartingwiththe age 13survey.Thesample consists of808fifth-gradestudentsattending18elementaryschoolsservinghighcrimeneighborhoodsofSeattlein the fallof1985.Toselecttheschools,wemetwithmembersof theSeattlePoliceDepartmenttoreviewneighborhoodcrimestatisticsandthenapproachedthefeeder-elementary schoolsforthoseneighborhoodswith highercrimerates.The 18elementaryschoolsrepresentedapproximately25percent ofthe totalnumberofelementaryschoolsinSeattleatthattime.The808who consentedtoparticipatein thelongitudinalstudyrepresent77percentofthepopulationoffifthgradersintheseschoolsservinghigh-crimeneighborhoods.Ofthe808students,396(49percent)werefemale,372(46percent)wereEuropeanAmerican, 195(24percent)wereAfricanAmerican, 170(21percent)wereAsianAmerican,45(2percent)were NativeAmerican,andtheremaining26studentswereofotherethnicbackgrounds(primarilyHispanic).Asubstantialportionofsubjectswerefromlow-incomehouseholds.Medianannualfamilyincomein1985wasapproximately$25,000. Forty-sixpercentofparentsreportedamaximumfamilyincomeof lessthan$20,000peryear,andmorethanhalfofthestudentsample(52percent)hadparticipatedintheNationalSchoolLunch/SchoolBreakfast Programatsome pointinthefifth,sixth,orseventhgrade, indicatingthat theycamefromfamiliesliving inpoverty.AssessmentsDatawereobtainedfrommultiplesources,includingtheyouth,theirparentsoradultcaretakers,teachers,schoolrecords,andKingCountycourtrecords.Datawerecollectedin1985whenmostparticipantswere10yearsold(M= 0.3, SD=.52)andtheninthe spring ofeachyearthrough1991. Dataforthepresentstudywerecollectedagaininthespringof1993when mostsubjectswere18yearsoldandthoseprogressingnormallyinschoolweregraduatingfromhighschool.InGrades5and6,surveysinprojectschoolswere

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group-administeredquestionnairescompletedinclass.Youthwhonotprojectschoolswereindividuallyinterviewed.Startingin1988,allstudentswereindividuallyinterviewedinperson.Theinterviewsaskedfortheyouth'sconfidentialresponsestoawiderangeofquestionsregardingfamily,community,school,andpeers,aswellas theirattitudesandexperienceswithgangs, alcohol,drugs,drugselling,violence,weaponuse,delinquency,andvictimization.The interviewstookaboutonehour.Earlyinthe studyyouthreceivedasmallincentive(e.g.,anaudiocassettetape)fortheirparticipation;latertheyreceivedmonetarycompensation. Participationrateswerehigh;94percentofthesample(757participants)completedtheage18assessmentin1993. School, police,andcourt recordswereobtainedfrom1985through 1993. Inaddition,adultcaretakers(83percentofwhom werethesubject'smother)wereinterviewedatrecruitmentinthe fall offifthgrade(age10)andannuallyeach springfrom1986through1991.ConstructsGang membershipwastheprimaryoutcomevariablefortheseanalyses.Itwasmeasuredfromage 13to18bythequestion,"Doyou belongtoagang?"followedby"Whatisthenameof thegang?"todistinguishgangsfrominformalpeergroups.Gangquestionswerenotaskedoftheyouth priortoage 13. Youthwho reportedthattheywereamemberofa gangand couldprovideanamewerecodedasbelongingtoagangduringthatwave. ThemostcommonlynamedgangsweretheBloods,theCrips,andtheBlackGangsterDisciples.Theuseofself-reporttodeterminegangmembershiphasbeenusedandadvocated insimilargangstudiesandbygangresearchers(BjerregaardandSmith 1993;EsbensenandHuizinga1995; Hindelangetal.1981;Klein1995;Sampson 1986;Savitz,Rosen,andLalli1980;Thornberryetal.1993).Riskfactorsforgangmembership. Predictorswere measuredatages10through12.Forcontinuousmeasures,themeanofthe age 10throughage 12valueswas used.Forthecategoricalpredictorsoffamilystructureand learningdisabled,thefall1985valueswereused.Familystructurewasobtainedfromin-depthlivingcalendarscompletedbytheparents.Fivecategorieswereconstructed:twoparents(biologicaloradoptive)inhome, onebiologicalparentandonestepparent,oneparentalone,oneparentlivingwithotheradults,and noparentsinthehome. Toinvestigatethepossibilitythatpossiblestrainsassociatedwithblendedfamiliesmightleadtohigherprobabilityofchildproblems,families withastepparentweretestedseparatelyfromothertwo-parentfamilies.Furthermore,torepresenttheconceptofriskexposure, allpredictorvariablesweredichotomized,whereonerepresentedbeing inthehighestquartileofriskonthatpredictorandzerorepresentedtheremainder,followingFarrington(1989, 1998).Anotof thesepredictorsandtheindicatorsthat operationalized themisprovidedintheappendix.Forthepresentanalyses,wesoughttooperationalizetheconstructs summarized inTable1usingdataavailableonthesample atages10through12.Some predictorsofinterestwerenotmeasuredatthese ages(e.g.,communitynormsfavorabletoantisocialbehavior,lowautonomicarousal, siblinginvolvementingangs),although theyweremeasured inlaterwavesofthestudy.Becausethepresentstudy examinesthechildhoodpredictorsof adolescentgangmembership,predictorsaddedintheadolescentinterviewswerenotincludedinthisanalysis.Severalpotentialpredictorswereincludedintheanalysis thathavenotbeen confirmedasrisk factorsforsubstanceuse,delinquency,orviolence.Theiradditionwasguidedbythesocialdevelopmentmodel,thetheory thatguidestheSeattleSocialDevelopment Project(CatalanoandHawkins 1996).The numberofyouthintroubleintheneighborhoodwasaddedtoexaminetheimpactofneighborhoodopportunitiesforantisocialinvolvement.Bondingtofamilywasaddedto examineitsimpact,familystructurewasincludedtoexamineitscontribution,and religiousservice attendancewasincludedtoexaminethecontribution ofthisformofinvolvementinprosocialactivities.AnalysisLogisticrandoddsratios.All regressionswereprospectiveindesign,predictingjoiningagangbetweentheagesof13and 18fromconstructs assessedat ages10through12.Giventhe dichotomousnatureofthedependentvariable,gangmembershipduringadolescence,logisticregressionwasused.Farrington(Loeber, Farrington,Stouthamer-Locker, andVanKammen 1998)hasshownthatcorrelationalmeasuressuchastheproduct-momentcorrelation,orthelogisticr,giveamisleading impressionofpredictiveefficiencybecausetheyaregreatlyaffectedby thebaseratesofthepredictorsandoutcomessuchthatthemaximum correlationisoftenmuch lessthan1.0.Afterreviewingavarietyofalternatives,Farringtonconcludedthat the odds ratioisapreferredwayofpresentingpredictiveefficiencybecauseitisnotaffectedbysamplesize,changesinbaserates,orotherfactors.Thus,twostrategieswereusedinthebivariatelogisticregressions:First,eachregressionwasrunusingthecontinuousmeasureof thepredictorand thelogisticrandsignificancewererecorded. Next,eachregressionwasrunusing adichotomizedhigh-risk



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quartilemeasureofthesame predictorandthe logisticr,significance,andoddsratioforganginitiationinthehigh-riskgroupwererecorded.Toidentifychildhoodpredictorsofadolescentgangmembership, separatebivariatelogisticregressionswererunforeachpotentialpredictor.Effectofexposuretomultipleriskfactors.Toobtainanassessmentoftheeffectsofexposuretomultipleriskfactorsinchildhoodonlatergang membership, anindexwascreatedthatcountedthenumberofsignificantriskfactorstowhicheachyouthwas exposed. Respondentswerethendividedintofourapproximatequartilesontheirlevelofriskexposureandalogisticregressionwasrunonthiscategoricalmeasureofnumberofriskfactorsandadolescentgang membership,witheachsuccessivelevelofriskcomparedto thequartileoflowestrisk.RESULTSGang prevalence.Cumulatively,15.3percentof thesampleself-reportedeverbelongingtoagangbetweentheagesof13and 18. Membership peakedatage 15(6percent),withaboutequalpercentages(almost5percent)reportinggangmembershipatages14, 16,and 18.Theprevalenceofgangmembershipwasmuchhigheramong males(21.8percent)than amongfemales(8.6percent).Twenty-sixpercentof AfricanAmericanadolescentsinthesample, 12percentofAsianAmericanyouth, 10percentofEuropeanAmericanyouth,and nearly20percentof othergroups,primarilyNativeAmericans, reported havingbelongedto agang.Thesedataaresummarizedin Table2.AlthoughAfricanAmericanyouthwere morelikelythan otherethnicgroupstojoingangs,they constitutedaminorityofthesamplewho becamegangmembers.Gang membershipbyrisk.ThelastcolumnofTable3presentsthe oddsratioforgangmembershipat ages13to18associatedwithbeingintheworstquartile oneachofthepredictorsatages10to12. Inaddition,columns3and4inTable3showtheprevalenceofgangmembershipforthoseintheworstquartileoneachpredictorandfortheremainderof thesample,respectively.Forexample,29.7percentofthosereportingthegreatestavailabilityofmarijuanaatages 10to12becamegang memberscomparedwith10.6 percentofthosewho reportedthatmarijuanawaslessavailable intheirenvironmentsatages 10to12.Table3alsopresentsthelogisticrforthedichotomizedpredictors.Logisticregressionsalsowereconductedusingthefullcontinuouspredictorswhereavailable.Theseanalysesprovidedsimilarlogisticrsandsignificancesto their dichotomized counterparts,althoughoccasionallythecontinuouspredictorlogisticrwasstronger.These resultsarenottabled.Twenty-oneof the25constructsmeasuredatages10to12predictedjoiningagangatages13to18. Predictorsofgangmembershipwerefound inalldomainsmeasured.lNeighborhood-levelpredictors.Youthfromneighborhoodsinthe topquartileofavailabilityofmarijuanahadTXiehanthreetimesgreateroddsofjoiningagangthanthosefromotherneighborhoods(oddsratio[OR]=Similarly,youthfromneighborhoodsinwhichmanyyoung peoplewereintroublehadthreetimesgreateroddsofjoiningagangthanyouthfromotherneighborhoods(OR=3.0).Levelofattachmenttotheneighborhoodwaslessstronglyrelatedtogangmembership(OR a 1.5).Family-levelpredictors.Familystructurepredictedgangmembership.When comparedwithyouthlivingwithtwoparents(eitherbiologicaloradoptive),youthlivingwithoneparent(OR :2.4),youthfromhomeswithoneparentandotheradults(OR : 3.0),andyouthwithnoparentsinthehome(OR= .9)hadgreateroddsofjoiningagang.Youthfromfamilieswithonebiologicalandone stepparentwerenotsignificantlymorelikelythanyouthlivingwithtwoparents(biologicaloradoptive)tobecomegangmembers. Parentalattitudesfavorabletoviolencewhenyouthwerebetweentheagesof10and 12alsopredictedlatergangmembership(OR= .3),asdidsiblingantisocialbehavior(OR : 1.9)andpoorfamilymanagementpractices(OR ar 1.7).Gang membership inadolescencewasnotsignificantlypredictedbyparentaldrinkingorattachmenttoparentsatages10to12. Logisticregressions wererunseparatelyforattachmenttomotherand attachmenttofather,andresultswerenotsignificant(notshowninTable3).School-levelpredictors.School-relatedvariablesatages10to12alsopredictedlatergangmembership.Theseincludedbeingidentifiedaslearningdisabled(OR= .5),pooracademicachievementasassessedbystandardizedtestscores(OR=3.1),lowattachment toschool(OR : 2.0),lowcommitmenttoschool(OR=1.8),andloweducational aspirations(OR 1.6).Peer-levelpredictors.Friendsengaged inproblembehaviors,as assessedbyhow manyoftheyouth'sthreebestfriendsatages 10to12didthingsthatgotthem introublewiththeteacherorhadtriedalcoholwithouttheirparents'knowledge,wassignificantlyassociatedwith latergangmembership(OR= .0).

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Individual-levelpredictors.Atages 10to12,havingtriedmarijuana(OR=3.7)andself-reportedviolenceasassessedbyfighting,throwingobjects,andhittingateacher(OR= .1 )werepredictiveofgangmembershipatages13to18.Youthhighinexternalizingbehavioras ratedbyfifth-andsixth-gradeteachershadmorethantwotimesgreateroddsofjoiningagangascomparedwithotheryouth(OR= .6).Othersignificantindividual-levelpredictorsincludedrejectionofconventionalbeliefs(OR= .0),poor refusalskills(OR=1.8),hyperactivityasratedbyfifth-andsixth-gradeteachers(OR=1.7),andearlyinitiationofdrinking(OR= .6).Religiousserviceattendanceat ages 10to12didnotsignificantlypredictgangmembership inadolescence.Interactionsofriskfactorswithgender.Thedifferentialimpactofeachriskfactoronmalesandfemaleswasexaminedbyconductinglogisticregressionsonthe fullsampleenteringeachriskfactoralongwithgenderandtheFactorxGenderinteractionterm(resultsnottabled).Resultsindicatedsubstantialsimilarityamongmalesandfemalesintheriskfactorsassociatedwithgang participation:OnlytheFamilyStructurexGenderinteractiontermwassignificant,suchthattheeffectofsingle-parenthouseholdsonsubsequentgangmembershipwasstrongerforgirlsthanitwasforboys.The impactofmultipleriskfactors.Toassesstheimpactofexposuretomultipleriskfactorsin childhoodonlateradolescentgang membership,anindexwascreatedthatcounted thenumberofsignificant riskfactorstowhicheachyouthwasexposed. Because21 significantpredictorsofgang membershipwerefound,scorescouldrange from0to21. Actualscoresrangedfrom0to19,divisibleintoapproximatequartilesofyouthexposedto0to1risk,2to3risks,4to6risks,and 7+ risks.A logisticregressionwasrunonthiscategoricalmeasureofriskfactorexposureandadolescentgangmembership,witheach levelofriskcomparedtothebase0to1risk.TheseresultsarepresentedinTable4. Notethatforeachsuccessivequartileofrisktheoddsofjoiningagangapproximatelydoubled, suchthat thoseyouthwithexposureto7ormorerisks inelementaryschoolhadmorethan13timesgreateroddsofjoiningagangthanthose exposedto0to1risk.The factthatexposuretomorerisksincreasedtheoddsofgangmembershipsuggeststhat,inspiteofpossiblecovariationamongthesefactors,eachofthesesignificantfactorscontributedtooverallriskfor gangmembership.DISCUSSIONLogisticregressionwasusedtoidentifyriskfactorsat ages 10through12predictiveofjoiningagangbetweentheages of13and 18. Factorsfromeverydomainofchildren'sexperience-theneighborhood,family,school,peer,andindividual-significantlypredictedjoininga ganginadolescence.Thestrongestpredictorsatages10to12weretheavailabilityofmarijuanaintheneighborhood, manyneighborhoodyouthintrouble,livingwithoneparentandanothernonparentadultinthehome, havinginitiatedmarijuanause,havingengaged inviolence,low academicachievement,and beingidentifiedaslearningdisabled inschool;allofthepredictorshadoddsratiosbetween3and4forthoseyouthwiththesecharacteristics. Notethatthepresentanalysesassesstheindependentchildhoodpredictorsoflatergangmembership. Multivariatemodelstestingspecifictheoretical hypothesesusingtimevaryingpredictorswould beareasonablenextstep.Some oftheseresultsreplicatepredictorsidentifiedinpreviouslongitudinalstudiesofgangmembership(familystructureand poverty,lowacademicaspirations,delinquentpeers,priordelinquency,andalcohol anddruguse).Thepresentresultsindicatethatthesefactorspredictlatergangmembershipfromasearlyasages10to12. Inaddition,thisstudy identifiedfactorspreviouslyunstudiedin longitudinalanalysesthatpredictedgangmembership,including livinginaneighborhoodinwhichmanyyouthareintroubleanddrugsareavailable,siblingantisocialbehavior,poorfamilymanagementpractices,parentproviolentattitudes,lowattachmentandcommitmenttoschool,beingidentifiedaslearningdisabled,beingratedbyteachersashighonexternalizing behavior andhyperactivity,andhavingpoorrefusalskills.

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~ "~ J"Enlarge400%.--.-.-.-...-..------.-----.--.g*,i,*4 *FkWw4kW~ hick **Wh~f*~mat(TABLE 4:Analysesoftheeffectofexposuretomultipleriskfactorsindicatedthatexposuretoagreaternumberofriskfactorsinchildhoodgreatlyincreasedtheriskofjoiningaganginadolescence. Thesefindingssupportinterventionstrategiesthattargetyouthinneighborhoods, families,orschoolsexposedtomultipleriskfactors.Atthecommunitylevel,thestrongest measured predictorsofgangmembershipweretheavailabilityofmariJuanaand thenumberofneighborhoodyouthintrouble,supportingcross-sectionalresultsreported bySpergelandCurry(1993).Thesefindingssuggestthatpreventioneffortsthatreduceopportunitiesforantisocialinvolvementinthe neighborhoodmayhelpinreducinglatergangmembership.Familycomposition(oneparentinthehomeversustwo)andpoorfamilymanagementsignificantlypredictedgangmembership,whereasattachmenttomotherorfatherdidnot.TheseresultssupportfindingsfromDeckerandVanWinkle's(1996)ethnographicinterviewsofgangmemberswho, although theyweremorelikelytocomefromsingleparenthomes,wouldchoosetheirfamilyoverthegangifforcedtochoose. It doesnotappear from thesedata thatgangsprovidenewfamiliesforchildrenwho havefailedtobondtotheirownfamilies.Helpingparentstodevelopskillsto bettermanagetheirchildrenmay reducerisksforgangmembership,particularlyforgirls.Siblingantisocialbehaviorandparents'proviolentattitudesalsopredicted



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latergangmembership. interventioneffortsmaybedirectedproductivelyatthesefamilyinfluencestowardgang membership. Ifpreventinggang membershipisagoal,preventiveinterventioneffortstoreachtheyounger siblingsofdelinquentadolescentsareclearlysupportedbythepresentdata,as areparent-focusedinterventionsthatencourageparentstoadoptandexpressnonviolentsolutionstoproblemsandconflictsituations.Thesedatashowtheimportanceof elementaryschoolexperiencesinpredictinglatergangmembership.Poorschoolachievement, attachment, commitment, andaspirationsatages 10to12allpredictedlatergangmembership,asdidbeingidentifiedaslearninglearningdisabledinelementaryschool.Theseresultssuggestthatelementaryschoolsthatincreaseacademicsuccessforallstudentscanreducetheriskthat theirstudentswilllaterjoingangs.Notethatinvolvementintheformof religiousserviceattendance atages10to12wasnotasignificantpredictoroflatergang membership.Thisfinding isinterestinggiventhemixedfindingsonparticipationinreligiousactivitiesinpreventingdelinquencyinadolescence(Bainbridge1989;Benda1995;Cochran,Wood,andArneklev1994; Evansetal.1996;Fernquist1995;Free1994; HirschiandStark1969;Maxsonetal.1998).ResearchbyMoffitt(1993)andBartuschetal.(1997)highlightstheimportanceofchildhooddelinquencyininitiatingapatternoflifecoursepersistent antisocialbehavior. Furthermore,recentanalysesbyHawkinsetal.(1997)foundthatanearlyageofinitiationofalcoholmediatedalmostallotherearlyriskfactorsforalcoholabuseat age 18.Thesestudies,coupledwiththepresentfindingthatearlyinitiationofproblembehaviorssuchasviolenceandmarijuanausepredictedlatergang membership, highlighttheimportanceofpreventingordelayinginitiationofsuchbehaviors wellbeforemostyouthjoingangs.Overall,gangmembershipappearstoresultfromantisocialinfluencesinneighborhoods,families,andpeergroups;failuretobecomesuccessfullyengagedinschool;andearlyinitiationofproblembehaviors.Thesefindingsprovideguidanceforgangprevention.We shouldnotwaituntiladolescencetobegingangpreventionefforts:Thepresentresultssuggestthatpreventiveinterventionsintheelementarygradescouldhaveasignificantimpactonadolescentgangmembership.Moreover,thesefindingshighlighttheimportanceofmultiple-component preventionstrategies addressingrisksacrossseveraldomains.[Footnote]Thisresearchwas supported byaresearch grant(No. 2158) from theOfficeofJuvenileJusticeand DelinquencyPrevention(O33DP), agrantfrom the NationalInstituteon Drug Abuse (No.1R0IDA09679), and agrantfrom theRobertWood JohnsonFoundation.The authorswould liketothank RobertAbbottand CynthiaShaw forlendingtheirstatisticaland editorialexpertise,respectively.Correspondence should beaddressed toKarlG. Hill,SocialDevelopment ResearchGroup, UniversityofWashington, 9725 3rdAvenue, NE, Suite401, Seattle,WA 98115; phone: (206) 685-3859; e-mail: [email protected].[FootnotelNOTE[Footnote]1.To examine theeffectofriskfactorsduetoearlygang experience,individualswho indicated gang membership attheearliestage thisquestionwas available(age 13)weredeleted inanexploratoryanalysis. Resultsfromthisanalysiswereconsistentwiththose presented inthearticleand areavailablefromthefirstauthor.[Reference]REFERENCES[Reference]Achenbach, T. M. 1991. IntegrativeGuide forthe 1991 CBCL/4-18,YSR,and TRF Profiles.Burlington:Universityofvermont,DepartmentofPsychiatry. Adler, Peter,CarlosOvando, and DennisHocevar. 1984. "FamiliarCorrelatesofGang Membership:An ExploratoryStudyofMexican-AmericanYouth." HispanicJournalofBehavioralSciences6:65-76.Bainbridge,williamS. 1989. "The ReligiousEcologyofDeviance." American SociologicalReview 54(2):285-95.Bartusch, Dawn 3.,Donald R. Lynam, TerrieE.No"itt,and PhilA.Silva. 1997. "IsAge Important?TestingaGeneralversusaDevelopmental Theory ofAntisocial Behavior." Criminology35(1):13-48.[Reference]Battin,Sara R., KarlG. Hill,Robert D.Abbott, Richard F. Catalano,and 3.David Hawkins. 1998. "The Contribution ofGangMembership toDelinquency Beyond DelinquentFriends:'Criminology36(1):93-115.Benda, Brent B. 1995. "The EffectofReligionon Adolescent DelinquencyRevisited"JournalofResearch inCrime andDelinquency 32(4):446-66.Bjerregaard, Beth and Alan 3.Lizotte. 1995. "Gun Ownership and Gang Membership." Journalof Criminal Law and Criminology86:37-58.[Reference]Bjerregaard, Beth and CarolynSmith.1993. "GenderDifferencesinGang Participation,Delinquency,and Substance Use."



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Journal ofQuantitativecriminology9:329-55. Bowker, Lee H. and Malcolm W. Klein. 1983. "The EtiologyofFemaleJuvenileDelinquencyand Gang Membership: A TestofPsychologicaland SocialStructural Explanations." Adolescence 18:739-51.Bursik,Robert3.,3r.,and HaroldG.Grasmick. 1993. NeighborhoodsandCrime:TheDimensionofEffectiveCommunity Control. New York: LexingtonBooks. Catalano,Richard Eand 3. DavidHawkins. 1996. "TheSocialDevelopment Model: ATheory ofAntisocial Behavior."Pp.149-97 inDelinquencyand Crime: CurrentTheories,edited by 3.David Hawkins. New York: Cambridge UniversityPress. Cloward, RichardA.and Lloyd E.Ohlin. 1960. DelinquencyandOpportunity: A Theory ofDelinquentGangs. New York: FreePress.Cochran, John K., Peter B. Wood, and Bruce3.Arneklev.1994. "Isthe Religiosity-Delinquency Relationship Spurious? SocialControlTheories." Journal of Research inCrime and Delinquency 31(1):92-123.[Reference]Cohen, Albert K. 1955. Delinquent Boys: The CultureoftheGang. Glencoe, IL: FreePress. Cohen, AlbertK.and ~Ames FShort. 1958. "Research inDelinquent Subcultures."Journal ofSocial Issues 14:20-37.Curry, G. David. and IrvingA.Spergel.1992. "Gang Involvementand Delinquencyamong Hispanicand African-AmericanAdolescent Males."Journal ofResearch inCrime and Delinquency29:273-91.Decker, ScottH.and BarrikVan Winkle.1996. LifeintheGang: Family, Friends,and volence. New York: Cambridge UniversityPress.Esbensen, Finne-Aageand David Huizinga.1993. "Gangs, Drugs, and DelinquencyinaSurvey ofUrban Youth." Criminology31:565-89.Esbensen, Finne-Aage, David Huizinga, and Anne W. Weiher. 1993. "Gang and Non-Gang Youth: Differences inExplanatoryVariables" Journal ofContemporary Criminal Justice9:94-116.Evans,T. David, FrancisT. Cullen,Velmer S. Burton,Gregory R. Dunaway, G. L. Payne, and Sesha R. Kethineni. 1996."Religion, Social Bonds, and Delinquency" Deviant Behavior 17(1):43-70.[ReferencelFagan, Jeffrey. 1990. "SocialProcessofDelinquencyand Drug UseAmong Urban Gangs." Pp. 183-219 inGangs inAmerica,edited by C. R.Huff. Newbury Park, CA: Sage.* 1996. "Gangs, Drugs, and Neighborhood Change." Pp. 39-74 inGangs inAmerica, 2d ed., edited by C. R. Huff.ThousandOaks, CA: Sage.Farrington, David P.1989. "EarlyPredictorsofAdolescentAggression and AdultViolence" Violenceand Victims4(2):79-100.* 1998. "Predictors, Causes, and CorrelatesofMaleYouthViolence" Pp.421-75 inCrime and Justice,Vol. 24, edited by M.Tonryand M. H. Moore. Chicago: Universityof Chicago Press.[ReferencelFernquist,RobertM. 1995. "AResearch NoteontheAssociationBetween Religiosityand Delinquency."Deviant Behavior 16(2):169-75.Free, Marvin D. 1994. "Religiosity,ReligiousConservatism, BondstoSchool,and Juvenile DelinquencyAmong ThreeCategoriesofDrug Users."Deviant Behavior 15(2):151-70. Friedman, C.tack, Fredrica Mann, and AlfredS. Friedman.1975. "AProfileofJuvenileStreetGang Members."Adolescence 10:563-607.Hagedorn,John M. 1988. Peopleand Folks: Gangs, Crime and theUnderclass inaRustbelt City.Chicago: Lakeview Press.1994a "Homeboys, Dope Fiends, Legits,and New Jacks."Criminology 32:197-217.[Reference]-.1994b. "Neighborhoods, Markets, and Gang Drug Organization."JournalofResearch inCrimeand Delinquency31:264-94.Hawkins,3.David, MichaelW. Arthur,and RichardECatalano. 1995. "PreventingSubstanceAbuse" Pp.343-427 inCrime andJustice:A Review ofResearch: Vol. 19. BuildingaSaferSociety: StrategicApproaches toCrimePrevention, edited by M.Tonryand D. Farrington. Chicago: UniversityofChicago Press.Hawkins, 3.David, Richard F.Catalano, and JanetY. Miller.1992."Riskand Protective Factors forAlcoholand OtherDrugProblems inAdolescenceand EarlyAdulthood: ImplicationsforSubstanceAbuse Prevention." Psychological Bulletin 12:64-105.[SDRG #86] Hawkins,3.David,John W Graham, Eugene Maguin, Robert D.Abbott,and Richard ECatalano. 1997. "Exploringthe EffectsofAge ofAlcohol Use Initiationand Psychosocial RiskFactorson SubsequentAlcohol Misuse."Journal ofStudiesonAlcohol58:280-90. Hawkins,3.David, Todd Herrenkohl, David P. Farrington, Devon D. Brewer, Richard F.Catalano,andTracyW. Harachi.1998. "A Review ofPredictorsofYouth Violence"Pp.10646 inSerious and ViolentJuvenileO RiskFactorsand SuccessfulInterventions,edited by R. Loeberand D. P.Farrington.Thousand Oaks,CA: Sage. Hindelang, Michael3.,Travis Hirschi,and Joseph G. Weis.1981. Measuring Delinquency. BeverlyHills,CA: Sage.Hirschi,Travis. 1969. Causes ofDelinquency. Berkeley: UniversityofCaliforniaPress. Hirschi,Travisand Rodney Stark. 1969."Hellfireand Delinquency" Social Problems17(2):202-13.Howell,tames C. 1997. "Youth Gang Violence Preventionand Intervention:What Works." ReporttotheU.S. DepartmentofJustice, Office ofJuvenile Justiceand DelinquencyPrevention.IReference]Klein, Malcolm. 1995. The American StreetGang. New York: Oxford University Press. Lipsey,Mark W. and fames H. Derzon.1998. "PredictorsofViolentorSerious DelinquencyinAdolescence and Early Adulthood: ASynthesis ofLongitudinalResearch." Pp. 86-105 inSeriousand ViolentJuvenile Offenders: RiskFactorsand Successfulinterventions, editedby R.Loeberand D. P.Farrington. Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage. Lizotte,Alan3.,James M.Tesoriero, Terence P. Thornberry, andMarvin D. Krohn.1994. "PatternsofAdolescent FirearmsOwnership and Use." JusticeQuarterly 11:51-73. Loeber, Rolf,Barrington, David P.,Stouthamer-Loeber, Magda, and Van Kammen, Welmoet B.1998. Antisocial behaviorand mental healthproblems: Explanatoryfactorsinchildhood and adolescence. Mahwah, N3: Lawrence Eribaum Associates, Inc. Loeber, Rolf,Magda S. Stouthamer-Loeber, Welmoet Van Kammen, and David PFarrington. 1991. "Initiation, Escalation,and DesistanceinJuvenileOffending and TheirCorrelates."Journalof CriminalLaw and Criminology82:36-82.Maxson, Cheryl L.,Monica L.Whitlock, and MalcolmW. Klein.1998. "VulnerabilitytoStreet Gang Membership: ImplicationsforPractice."Social Service Review 72:70-91. Miller,WalterB. 1958. "LowerClassCultureasaGenerating MilieuofGangDelinquency." Journalof SocialIssues 14:5-19.Moffitt,Terrie E. 1993. "Adolescent-Limited and Life-Course-PersistentAntisocial Behavior: A Developmental Taxonomy."



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Psychological Review 100:674-701. Moore,Loan W. 1978. Homeboys: Gangs, Drugsand PrisonintheBarriosofLosAngeles.Philadelphia Temple University Press.-. 1991. Going Down totheBarrio:Homeboys and HomegirlsinCharge. Philadelphia:Temple UniversityPress.Sampson, Robert 3.1986. "EffectsofSocioeconomicContexton OfficialReactiontoJuvenileDelinquency."AmericanSociologicalReview 5:876-85.[Reference]savitz, Leonard D., Lawrence Rosen, and Michael Lalli. 1980. "Delinquency and Gang Membership asRelated toVictimization."Victimology 5:152-60. Shaw, Clifford R.and Henry D. McKay. 1931. Social Factors inJuvenileDelinquency. Reporton theCauses ofCrime, VolILNational Commission on Law Observance and Enforcement. Washington, DC: U.S.GovernmentPrintingOffice..1942. Juvenile Delinquencyand UrbanAreas. Chicago: Universityof Chicago Press. Short,fames F.,3r.1996. Gangs andAdolescent Violence. Boulder, CO: Centerforthe Study and Prevention ofViolence.Simcha-Pagan, Ora, Joanne C. Gersten, and Thomas S. Langner. 1986. "EarlyPrecursors and ConcurrentCorrelates ofPatterns ofIllicitDrug Use inAdolescence."JournalofDrug Issues 16:7-28.[Reference]spergel, Irving.1995. The YouthGang Problem. New York: Oxford University Press.Spergel, IrvingA.and G. David Curry.1993. "The NationalYouthGang Survey: A Researchand Development Process."Pp. 359-400 inThe Gang InterventionHandbook, edited byA. Goldstein and C.R. Huff. Champaign, IL:Research Press. Sutherland, Edwin and Donald Cressey.1978. PrinciplesofCriminology. IOth ed. New York: Lippincott.[Reference]Thomberry, Terence P.1998. "Membership inYouth Gangs and Involvement inSerious and ViolentOffending."Pp. 147-66 inSeriousand ViolentJuvenileOffenders: Risk Factorsand SuccessfulInterventions,edited by R.Loeber and D. PFarrington.Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage. Thomberry, TerenceP,Marvin D. Krohn, Alan 3.Lizotte,and Deborah Chard-Wierschem. 1993."The RoleofJuvenileGangs inFacilitatingDelinquent Behavior."JournalofResearch inCrime and Delinquency 30:55-87.Thrasher, Frederic M. [1927] 1963. "The Gang: A Study of1,313 Gangs inChicago."Abridged withanew introduction by 3. FShort,3r.Chicago: UniversityofChicago Press.Vigil,James D.and SteveC.Yun. 1990. "VietnameseYouth Gangs inSouthernCalifornia."Pp. 146-62 inGangs inAmerica, edited byC. R. Huff. Newbury Park,CA: Sage. Wilson, William3.1987. TheTrulyDisadvantaged: TheInnerCity,theUnderclass,and PublicPolicy. Chicago: University ofChicago. .1996. When WorkDisappears. New York: Knopf.[Authornote]saraR.Battin-Pearson, M.Ed.,isan analyston theOfficeofJuvenileJusticeand Delinquency Prevention-funded study "EarlyOnsetOffending: Development and Consequences" intheSeattleSocial Development Project.Herexpertise isinmeasurement, statistics,and researchdesign, and herresearch interests includetheetiologyofadolescentdelinquency,substance use,and mental healthproblems.[Authornotel3.David Hawkins, Ph.D., isaprofessorofsocialwork and director oftheSocialDevelopmentResearch Group attheUniversityofWashington. His research focuseson understanding and preventing childand adolescent[Authornote]healthand behaviorproblems. He isalsoconmitted to translatingresearch intoeffectivepracticeand policytoimproveadolescent healthand development. Since1981 he has beenconductingth,SeattleSocial DevelopmentProject,alongitudinalpreventionstudy basedon Histheoreticalwork.[Authornote]KarlG. Hill,Ph.D., is theprojectdirector oftheSeattle SocialDevelopment Project. Currently,hedirectsactivitiesof theOfficeofJuvenileJusticeand DelinquencyPrevention-fundedstudies"The DevelopmentalDynamics ofGang Membership andDelinquency" and "EarlyOnset Offending: Development and Consequences" andtheNationalInstituteon DrugAbuse-fundedstudy "EarlyAdulthood Consequences ofAdolescentSubstanceUse." Hisresearchfocuseson asocial-developmental, lifespanapproach tothe developmentofpro-and antisocialbehaviors.[Authornote]famesC. Howell, Ph.D., isformerdirectorofresearch and program developmentattheOfficeofJuvenileJustice andDelinquency Prevention. He iscurrentlyanadjunctresearcherattheNational Youth Gang Center. Inaddition tothiswork, heisconducting researchon youthgangsand assistingjurisdictionsacrossthecountryon researchand program developmentdealingwithserious,violent,and chronicoffenders.[Appendix]APPENDIXItem List forMeasures ofPredictorsofGang MembershipDEMOGRAPHICSGender (youth interview)Female, Male

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Ethnicity (youth interview)Asian American, African American, European American, EuropeanAmerican,Other(primarilyNativeAmerican)NEIGHBORHOODAvailabilityofmarijuana (youth interview)

Do you know anyone who has tried marijuana?Have you ever had achance to trymarijuana? Ifyou had the money, and wanted toget marijuana,do you thinkyou couldgetsome?Neighborhood youth introuble(youth interview)Lotsofkids inmy neighborhood areintrouble.Low neighborhood attachment (youth interview)Iknow many people inmy neighborhood.Ilikemy neighborhood.Ifeel safeinmy neighborhood. FAMILYPoverty(parentinterview)Approximatelywhat isyourfamily'stotalyearlyincome before taxes?Familystructure(parentinterview)Thevarietyoffamilystructures inthesamplewerecombined intothefollowing fivecategories:both parents (biologicaloradoptive)at home,one biologicalparentand onestepparent,oneparentalone,one parentwithotheradultsliving inhome, andotheradultsonly (noparents).The last fourfamilystructureswereeachcompared with thecaseinwhichthechildhad both parents(biologicaloradoptive)athome.Parentdrinking(parentinterview)How oftendo you drink beer,wine,orliquor?Ifyouare livingwithaspouseorpartner, how often doesyourspouse orpartnerdrinkbeer,wine, orliquor?Siblingantisocialbehavior(youth interview)Ifyou Have brothersand sisters, do any ofthem smoke cigarettes?Do any ofyour brothersorsisterssmoke marijuana?Haveany ofyour brothersand sisterseverbeen suspended from school?Have any ofyour brothersorsisterseverbeen pickedupor arrested bythe police?Poorfamily management (youth interview)

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When you areaway from home, do your parents know where you areand who you arewith?

The rulesinmy familyareclear.Parentproviolentattitudes(youthinterview)How do you thinkyour parents feel (orwould feel)aboutyou hittingorthreateningtohitsomeone?

Low attachmentto parents (youth interview)

Would you liketo be the kind ofpersonyour mother is?Do you share yourthoughtsand feelingswith your mother?Would you liketo bethe kind ofpersonyourfatheris?Do you share yourthoughts and feelingswith your father?SCHOOLLow educational aspirations (youth interview)Ifyou could go as farasyou wanted inschool, how farwould you liketogo?Low schoolcommitment (youth interview)Ido extrawork on my own inclass.(reversed)When Ihavean assignmenttodo, Ikeep on workingon ituntilitisfinished.(reversed)Low schoolattachment (youth interview)Ilikeschool. (reversed)Most morningsIlookforwardtogoing toschool. (reversed)Ilikemy teacherthisyear. (reversed)Ilikemy classthisyear. (reversed)Low academic achievement inelementary school (schoolrecords)ScorefortheCaliforniaAchievementTest(fromschool records).This isacombined scoreof three subtests (reading, math,and language).Identified as learning disabled (schoolrecords)Special Educationdesignation as learning disabled (fromschool records).PEER Association withfriendswho engage inproblem behavior(youthinterview)Thisscalereflectsthemean amount oftimeastudentspendswitheach ofthreebestfriends,providingthefriendgets introublewiththeteacher, ordrinks.Doesyourbestfrienddo thingsthatgetherorhim introublewiththeteacher?Has yourbest friendtried beer, wine,orliquorwhen hisorherparentsdidnotknow aboutit?How often do you seeyour bestfriend?Does yoursecond bestfrienddo thingsthatgetherorhim introublewiththeteacher?Has yoursecond bestfriendtried beer, wine, orliquorwhen hisorherparentsdid notknow about it?How oftendo you seeyoursecond bestfriend?



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Does yourthird bestfriend do thingsthatgetherorhim introublewiththeteacher?

Hasyourthirdbestfriendtriedbeer,wine, orliquorwhen hisorherparents didnotknowaboutit?How oftendo you see yourthird bestfriend?INDIVIDUALReligiousserviceattendance (youth interview)How oftendo you attend religiousservices?Antisocialbeliefs(youth interview) Isitokay totakesomething withoutasking ifyou can getaway with it?To getahead you havetodo some thingsthatarenot right.You have tobe willingto break some rulesifyou want tobe popularwithyourfriends.Ifafriendasked tocopy yourexam, would you letyourfriendcopy it?Atschool,sometimes itisokay tocheat.Itisfunto do thingsyou arenotsupposed to.Respondent drinking (youth interview)Haveyou everdrunk beer, wine, whiskey, gin,orotherliquor?How many times inthepastmonth have you drunk beer, wine,whiskey,gin,orother liquor?Respondent marijuana initiation (youth interview)Haveyou eversmoked marijuana?Violence (youth interview)How many times inthepastyearhaveyou pickedafightwithsomeone?

How many times inthe pastyearhaveyou thrownobjectssuchas rocksorbottlesatcars orpeople?How many timeshave you hitateacherinthepastyear?Externalizing(teacherinterviews)Achenbach's (1991) broad-band externalizing scaleconsistingof66 teacherrated itemsreflectingthe subdimensions"inattentive "nervous-overreactive,"and "aggressive."Internalizing(teacherinterviews)Achenbach's (1991) broad-band internalizingscaleconsisting of25 teacherrated itemsreflecting thesubdimensions"anxious"and "socialwithdrawal."Hyperactive (teacherinterviews)Achenbach's (1991) scaleconsisting ofteacher-rated hyperactivebehavior(e.g.,itemssuchas"fidgety,""restless,"and"distracted").Poorrefusalskills(youth interview)Itemsincluded inthisscale assessed theappropriatenessofresponsesto thefollowingscenariosinvolvingpeer pressureforantisocial behavior:Ifyou were atapartyand one ofyourfriendsofferedyou a beer,whatwouldyou do?Ifoneofyourfriendsasked you toskipschool, whatwouldyou do?



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