BASIC STRENGTH PROPERTIES OF ONCOSPERMA TIGILLARIUM … strength properties of oncosperma... · itu, satu siri ujian telah dijalankan ke atas specimen dalam keaadaan 'air-dry' Oncosperma

BASIC STRENGTH PROPERTIES OF ONCOSPERMA TIGILLARIUM AT SMALL CLEAR

Mohd Faiz Jafni Bin Ahmad Mustafa

Bachelor of Engineering with Honours TA (Civil Engineering) 210 2014 M697 2014

to the best of my knowledge is the said students work

PICHIDAT IIAICLUAT AICADEIIIIC

UNIAS

UNIVERSITI MALAYSIA SARAWAK IIIII1000268759ItttilIII ~I Grade WKOI

Please tick (J) Final Year Project Report o Masters D PhD D

DECLARATION OF ORIGINAL WORK

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Students Declaration I MOHD FAIZ JAFNI BIN AHMAD MUSTAFA 29038 FACULTY OF ENGINEERING hereby declare that the work entitled BASIC STRENGTH PROPERTIES OF ONCOSPERMA TIGILLARIUM AT SMALL CLEAR is my original work I have not copied from any other students work or from any other sources except where due reference or acknowledgement is made explicitly in the text nor has any part been written for me by another person

1qQ7~O~ Date submitted Mohd Fai

Supervisors Declaration I GADDAFI BIN ISMAIL hereby certify that the work entitled BASIC STRENGTH PROPERTIES OF ONCOSPERMA TIGILLARIUM AT SMALL CLEAR was prepared by the above named student and was submitted to the FACULTY as a partial fulfillment for the conferment of BENG (HONS) (CIVIL) and the aforementione

Receiv~d for examination by (Dr Gaddafi bin Ismaili)

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~

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Pusat Khidmat l-akJumat Akadern~ UNlVERSm MALAYSIA SAftAWAK


MOHD FAIZ JAFNI BIN AHMAD MUSTAFA

Thesis is submitted to Faculty of Engineering Universiti Malaysia Sarawak

In Partial Fulfillment of the Requirements For The Degree of Bachelor of Engineering with Honours

(Civil Engineering) 2014

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

I would like to thank Allah Almighty for giving me the opportunity to breathe till

this day to be able to complete this report paper Alhamdulillah and may He bless us all I

would also like to extend my greatest thanks my parents Rita binti Mohd Omar and Ahmad

Mustafa bin Wahid for giving me moral as well as monetary support in order to complete

this task I am nothing without their kind contribution and prayers

Secondly I would like to thank Dr Gaddafi Ismaili for giving me the opportunity to

work as his understudy and becoming my supervising lecturer Thanks to all his guidance

and assistance I would not have reached his far without him A million thanks to all my

friends who have always been there for me through thick and thin Thank you to Faculty of

Resource Science and Technology (FRST) especially to Head of Department of Science

and Environmental Ecology Prof Dr Cheksum bt Tawan and Mr Hidir Marzuki who

have assisted us for species ID identification Thank you to all the lecturers at the Civil

Engineering department for assisting me in any way possible

Not forgetting the Department of Asset and Department of Security of UNIMAS for

allowing me to proceed with my research by approving the sample collection and

constantly monitoring my progress during sample collection to ensure my safety Without

the concern of the fellow security guards I may have not made it in one piece out of the

wilderness ofUNIMAS Thank you very much

Last but not least I would like to thank the kind staffs and lab technician at the civil

engineering lab and also the laboratory technician from Sarawak Forestry Cooperate (SFC)

including Mr Nunggah Dr Alik Duju Mr Wong and Mr Chai for their assistance This

report would not have been realized without the help from all the parties responsible

Thanks also goes to all those who have helped me directly and indirectly Thank you and

may we all live long and prosper

ABSTRAK

Dalam dunia moden masa kini hutan konkrit merebak dengan cepat sekali di

seluruh dunia menolak hutan semula jadi keluar dari jalan Konkrit menjadi bahan binaan

yang semakin menuntut Walau bagaimanapun harga konkrit tidak murah Oleh itu kayu

bahan binaan yang boleh diperbaharui dan mesra alam diminta keluar sebagai altematif

dalam industri pembinaan Seperti mana-mana bahan pembinaan lain kayu mempunyai

rintangan sendiri dari segi degradasi biologi rintangan kimia kestabilan dimensi rintangan

haba luluhawa dan kerosakan Walau bagaimanapun jika dirawat dengan betul balak

boleh menjadi saingan sengit untuk konkrit Selain itu kayu mempunyai nilai estetika yang

sangat tinggi berbanding dengan bahan-bahan pembinaan lain Kayu keras adalah jenis

kayu sering dipilih sebagai bahan struktur kerana ia mempunyai kekuatan yang lebih tinggi

tetapi memerlukan masa yang sangat lama untuk matang kira-kira 100 tahun Oleh itu

spesis kayu berkembang pesat dengan nama Oncosperma Tigillarium atau lebih dikenali

dengan nama biasa kelapa Nibong dipilih untuk dieksperimentasikan untuk menentukan

sifat-sifat asas fizikal dan sifat mekanikal dalam mencari altematifkepada kayu keras Oleh

itu satu siri ujian telah dijalankan ke atas specimen dalam keaadaan air-dry Oncosperma

Tigillarium untuk mengkaji sifat-sifat kekuatan seperti kekuatan lenturan kekuatan

mampatan selari dengan ira kekerasan dan rintangan hentaman antara sampel dari 6 batang

pokok berbeza Ujian dijalankan mengikut Piawaian British BS 373 1957 Spesimen

diperolehi dalam kawasan kampus Universiti Malaysia Sarawak (UNlMAS) Ujian makmal

telah dijalankan di Perbadanan Perhutanan Sarawak (SFC) Berdasarkan analisis data

Oncosperma Tigillarium menunjukkan ciri-ciri kekuatan yang setanding dengan kayu keras

sederhana atau kayu keras yang lain walaupun ia dianggap sebagai non-worthy timber

ii

ABSTRACT

In the modem world today concrete jungles are spreading like wildfire all over the

world pushing natural forests out of the way Concrete becomes an ever demanded

construction material however the price of concrete is not cheap Therefore timber a

renewable and eco-friendly construction material is sought out as an alternative in the

construction industry Like any other materials timber has its own setbacks in terms of

biological degradation chemical resistance dimensional stability thermal resistance

weathering and decay However if treated properly timber can become a fierce adversary

to concrete Moreover timber has a very high aesthetic value compared to other

construction materials Hardwood is the type of timber often chosen as structural material

as it has higher strength but requires a very long time to mature about 100 years Thus a

species of fast-growing timber of name Oncosperma Tigillarium or better known for its

common name Nibong palm is chosen to be experimented on to determine its basic

physical properties and mechanical properties in the search for an alternative to hardwood

timber Therefore a series of tests were conducted on air dry specimens of Oncosperma

Tigillarium to study the strength properties such as bending properties compressive

strength parallel to grain hardness and impact resistance between samples from different

culms Tests are carried out in accordance to British Standard 373 1957 Method for testing

small clear specimens of timber Specimens were obtained within the vicinity of the

Universiti Malaysia Sarawak (UNIMAS) campus The laboratory tests were conducted at

the Sarawak Forestry Corporation (SFC) Based on the data analysis Oncosperma

Tigillarium shows strength properties which are comparable to other medium hardwood or

even hardwood even though is it classified to be a non-worthy timber

iii

TABLE OF CONTENTS

Content Page

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

ABSTRACT ii

LIST OF ABBREVIA nONS Xlll

ABSTRAK iii

TABLE OF CONTENTS iv

LIST OF TABLES ix

LIST OF FIGURES x

Chapter 1 INTRODUCTION 1

11 General

12 Problem Statements 2

13 Aims and Objectives 4

14 Scope of Work 5

15 Chapter Outline 6

Chapter 2 LITERATURE REVIEW 7

21 General 7

22 Palm 8

23 Nibong Palm (Oncosperma Tigillarium) 9

iv

Chapter 3

24

25

26

27

28

29

210

211

212

213

214

215

Pusat Kbidmat MakJumat Akademjl UNIVERSm MALAYSIA SARAWAh

Moisture Content

Shrinkage

Grain

Basic Density

Static Bending Test

Other Non-worthy Timber (Bamboo)

Mechanical Properties

Hardness

Impact Bending Test

Modulus of Elasticity (MOE)

Modulus of Rupture (MOR)

Effect of Moisture Content in Mechanical

Properties

METHODOLOGY

31 General

32 Desk Study

33 Approval from Authorities

331 Problems Faced

34 Sample Collection

341 Tools and Equipment

342 Marking and Cutting

343 Problems Faced

v

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12

15

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16

16

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17

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23

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]

35 Transportation of Sample 28

36 Sample Preparation 31

361 Tools and Equipment 31

362 Vertical Band Saw Mill 31

363 Single Rip Machine 32

364 Digital Double-Sided Planer 33

365 Marking and Cutting 36

37 Sample Testing 36

371 Physical Properties 37

3711 Moisture Content Determination 37

3712 Basic Density Determination 38

372 Strength Properties 39

3721 Static Bending Test 39

3722 Compression Pamllel to Gmin Test 41

3723 Janka Hardness Test 43

3724 Impact Bending Test 45

373 Problems Faced 46

38 Results and Discussion 47

39 Conclusion and Recommendations 47

Chapter 4 RESUL TS ANALYSIS AND DISCUSSION 48

41 General 48

42 Oncosperma Tigillarium 48

vi

43 Testing Result of Small Clear Specimens of 49

Different Tree Culms

431 Compression Parallel to Grain Test 49


433 Impact bending Test 51


435 Moisture Content 52

436 Basic Density 53

44 Discussion 54

441 Comparison in Moisture Content of Oncosperma 55

Tigilarium

442 Comparison in Basic Density of Oncosperma 56

Tigilarium

443 Comparison in Compression Parallel to Grain of 57

Oncosperma Tigillarium

444 Comparison in Static Bending Test of 58

Oncosperma Tigilarium

445 Comparison in Hardness Test of Oncosperma 59

Tigillarium

446 Comparison in Impact Bending Test of 62


45 Overall Average 64

46 Mechanical Properties vs Basic Density 66

vii

Chapter 5 CONCLUSION AND RECOMMENDATION 70

51 General 70

52 Conclusions 70

53 Recommendations for Oncosperma Tigillarium 71

54 Recommendations for Further Research and 71

Study

REFERENCES 73

APPENDIX 77

viii

LIST OF TABLES

Table Description Page

31 Item Used In Sample Collection and Its Purpose 23

32 Items Used In Sample Preparation and Its Purpose 31

33 Moisture Content for Nibong Culm Samples 37

34 Static Bending Test Results Table 39

35 Compression Parallel-to-Grain Test Results Table 41

36 Hardness Test Results Table 44

37 Impact Bending Test Results Table 45

41 Specimen Numbering for Oncosperma Tigillarium Sample 49

42 Average Value of Compression Parallel to Grain Test Result of 50

Different Tree Culms of Oncosperma Tigillarium in Air-dry

Condition

43 Average Value of Static Bending Test Result of Different Tree Culms 51

of Oncosperma Tigillarium in Air-dry Condition

44 Average Value oflmpact Bending Test Result of Different Tree 51

Culms of Oncosperma Tigillarium in Air-dry Condition

45 Average Value of Janka Hardness Test Result of Different Tree Culms 52


46 Average Value of Moisture Content of Different Tree Culms of 53

Oncosperma Tigillarium in Air-dry Condition

47 Average Value of Basic Density of Different Tree Culms of 54


48 Summary of Physical and Mechanical Properties of Oncosperma 64

Tigillarium in Sarawak

49 Comparison between Oncosperma Tigillarium with other Timber in 65

Borneo

ix

LIST OF FIGURES

Description ~age~

11 A Structure Constructed Mostly of Timber Federal Center South 1

Building 1202 USACE Seattle District Headquarters

12 Deforestation 3


21 Comparison Of C02 Emissions Related To Fabrication of One Beam 8

of Aluminum Steel Reinforced Concrete and Solid Wood

22 Nibong Posts and Joists at Bako Fishing Village Sarawak 10

23 Static Bending Test Data on Small Clear Specimens 13

24 Modified Static Bending Test Data to 12 Percent MC 14

25 Static Bending Test Force vs Displacement Graph 15

31 Research Work Flow Chart 19

32 Location of Site for Sample Collection Within UNlMAS 20

33 Roadside of Sample Collection Site 20

34 Tools and Equipment for Sample Collection 22

35 Marking and Cutting of Nibong Palm Samples 24

36 Measuring 24

37 Cutting 25

38 Removal of Thorns 26

39 Stacking of Trees 26

310 Cutting Trees Into 3 Segments 27

311 Security Guard Approaching 28

312 Ahed And Son Sdn Bhd 239 tons Lorry 28

313 Security Guard Routine Check 29

314 Forklift 30

315 Stacking at Sarawak Forestry 30



318 Removing Pith 34

x

II


320 Transporting Samples to Lab 35 ~ 321 Labeling Samples for Final Cutting 36

322 Weighted Sample 38

323 Measured Sample 38 ~

324 Static Bending Test on Sample 39 ~ I 325 Sample During Static Bending Test 40 8

326 Sample after Static Bending Test 40

327 Sample during Compression Test 41

328 Sample after Compression Test (Type ofFracture) 42

329 Sample after Compression Test (Type of Fracture) 42

0

~ 4

330 Sample after Compression Test (Type of Fracture) 43 ~

331 Hardness Test Concept 43 ~

332 Sample during Hardness Test 44 ~

333 Sample after Hardness Test 440

334 Sample During Impact Bending Test 45 ~

335 Sample after Impact Bending Test 46 ~

41 Moisture Content of Different Oncospenna Tigillarium Culms 55 ~ 42 Basic Density of Different Oncospenna Tigillarium Culms 56 ~

43 Maximum Load of Different Oncospenna Tigillarium Culms 57 ~

44 Maximum Compressive Strength For Different Oncospenna 57 ~

Tigillarium Culms ~ 45 Maximum Load For Different Oncospenna Tigillarium Culms 58 8

46 Modulus Of Rupture (MOR) For Different Oncospenna Tigillarium 59 ~ 9

Culms

47 Modulus Of Elasticity (MOE) For Different Oncospenna Tigillarium 59 0

Culms 0

48 Comparison Of Maximum Load Modulus OfRupture (MOR) And 60 ~

Modulus OfElasticity (MOE) For Different On cos penna Tigillarium ~

Culms ~

xi

I 1

49 Maximum Tangential Load For Different Oncosperma Tigillarium 61

Culms

410 Maximum Radial Load For Different Oncosperma Tigillarium Culms 61

411 Comparison Between Maximum Tangential And Radial Load For 62

Different Oncosperma Tigillarium Culms

412 Work Done In Joules For Different Impact Bending Specimens For 63


413 Maximum Load Compression V s Density 66

414 Maximum Compressive Strength Vs Density 66

415 Maximum Load Bending V s Density 67

416 MOR Vs Density 67

417 MOE Vs Density 68

418 Tangential Hardness V s Density 68

419 Radial Hardness V s Density 69

xii

ASTM

BS

FRIM

SFC

FSP

MOE

MOR

MC

LIST OF ABBREVIATIONS

American Society for Testing and Materials

British Standard

Forest Research Institute of Malaysia

Sarawak Forestry Corporation

Fiber Saturation Point

Modulus of elasticity

Modulus of rupture

Moisture content

xiii

CHAPTER 1

INTRODUCTION

11 General

Timber is one of the oldest materials used in construction since the birth of

construction technology It is one of the most readily available materials in recent times

Timber was the main material used in construction before concrete and steel

construction methods were discovered Timber is divided into two softwood and

hardwood Hardwood is wood from angiosperm trees strictly speaking non-monocot

angiosperm trees while softwood is wood from gymnosperm trees

Figure 11 A Structure Constructed Mostly of Timber (Architizer 2013)

1

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Wood is easily handled it has a long lifespan and nearly unlimited applications whether

in construction or other usages No other building material is produced and used with as

little energy and damage to the environment as wood Compared to other building

materials wood is light in weight and highly resilient Countless bridges towers and

wooden structures all over the world bear witness to this statement Wooden houses

roof trusses walls floors and stairs have been in use for generations Wood dwellings

over 700 years old yet still inhabited today are proofs of woods lifelong durability as a

building material People choose to build with wood on the grounds of economy

aesthetics and biology Wood radiates warmth and is harmless to the environment

Additionally modern construction methods do not require any chemical preservative

treatments Timber construction materials undergo strict control checks concerning

quality and performance The quality of many timber products is ensured by specific

standards Efficient prefabricating smooth processing and constant availability make

construction with wood quick and economic Building with wood is always the right

choice (GermanTimber 2007)

Timber is without a doubt one of the most environmentally friendly building

materials available in the environmentally challenged world we live in today It is

remarkably versatile able to work well with other materials such as concrete and metal

as composite structures It is also naturally renewable but requires human ethics to

preserve its renewability Timber also has high aesthetic value and not to mention light

and strong to build structures with It also has an inviting warm and welcoming sense

which makes us feel cozy and comfortable Whether it is a landmark building

government office housing school or hospital architects look to timber to express

contemporary art and beauty in the structure they design Timber is a high performance

material light in weight yet with excellent load bearing and thermal properties (Brash

2008)

12 Problem Statement

Deforestation and global warming are not a new epidemic in the modern world

today Vast development in developed and developing countries are stripping the Earth

of its forests Timber is abundant in most countries especially tropical countries like in

the Southeast Asia or South America Although there are still abundant trees in the

2

world it doesnt mean we can chop every tree we see just for our own personal gain

Mother Nature has taken care of us for generations its time for us to give back to

Mother Nature

Figure 12 Deforestation (Compost 2013)

Most hardwood stands mature in 70 to 120 years With proper management

renewing the forest takes less time The time required to mature a hardwood tree

depends on the species An oak tree requires 80-120 years to mature whereas a poplar

tree can mature and be ready to harvest in 40 years or less (Unknown) It takes tens of

years to grow a single hardwood tree but it takes merely hours to chop down entire

forests Irresponsible logging is one of the major factors which affect the sustainability

of timber as construction materials or other usages Loggers who do not cut down the

tree properly will cause the tree to not regenerate Harvesting timber also requires skills

Thus an alternative to slow growing hardwood is required to compensate for the

long time required to grow hardwood timber Fast-growing timbers such as medium

hardwood light hardwood and softwood are being tested and experimented to find the

most suitable alternative which could make timber the new concrete or steel

Oncosperma tigillarium is a very amazing-looking tall large slender palm massed with

armed trunks armed trunks and beautiful elegantly-arched drooping leathery fronds

which is sparsely distributed along the inland fringes of mangrove forest and other low

wet swampy vegetation Its trunk is slender up to 15 centimeters in diameter ringed

3

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with old leaf scars with up to 50 densely anned with scattered slender black spines

that are about 5 to 10 centimeters long crown shaft are conspicuous and anned with

slender black spines Fronds are feather-shaped ascending to spreading pendulous

elegantly-arched armed and dark to bright green Inflorescences are ramified (multishy

branched) and yellow up to 80 centimeters long infrafoliar (emerging from below the

fronds) and anned Its flowers are arranged in groups of 3 (2 male flowers to 1 female

flower) Its fruits are globose 1 centimeters in diameter mildly-depressed purple to

black and single-seeded (Ridley 2012) Oncosperma tigillariums common name is

Nibong palm in English or simply Nibong in Malay Oncosperma tigillarium may

prove to be a breakthrough in the search for new fast-growing timbers for construction

purposes It is available in abundance in the forests of Sarawak and can also be

exploited for plantation of softwood timber and harvested for construction purposes

Strength properties at small clear will be tested for this tree species

Figure 13 Oncosperma Tigillarium (Ridley 1864)

13 Aims and Objectives

In this research report the timber with the scientific name Oncosperma

tigillarium or better known for its common name in Malaysia Nibong is one of the

4

Pusat Khidmlt Maddumlt Akademik UNlVERSrrl MAlAYSIA SARAW

fast-growing timber available in the forests of Malaysia and also Indonesia where it is

said to originate (Ridley 2012)

The main aim in this project is to investigate and acquire the information on the

relationship of distribution patterns of strength and physical properties with small clear

sample sizes of the Oncosperma tigillarium timber

Objective

1 To determine the strength and physical properties at air-dry conditions of

Oncosperma tigillarium

2 To understand the relationship between the variation of strength from pith to

sapwood of Oncosperma tigillarium and

3 To identify the distribution pattern of strength and physical properties with


14 Scope of Work

A series of study and laboratory tests are required to be done in order to achieve

the aim and objective In order to accomplish this certain scopes of study of work shall

be done so that the whole laboratory procedures can be run at a more systematic way

The test will be conducted by using 20 x 20mm (A) x 300mm (L) and 20 x 20mm (A) x

60mm (L) small clear size sample Laboratory tests will be carried out to determine the

strength and physical properties of Oncosperma tigillarium at air-dry conditions The

types of laboratory tests to be carried out are as in the table below

Table 11 Laboratory tests for strength and physical properties of timber

No Laboratory Test

Static bending test

2 Compression test

3 Moisture content test

4 Basic density test

5 Hardness test

5

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The sample of Oncosperma tigillarium to be used in this research study was

collected in the wetland forest areas within the UNIMAS vicinity The sample

collection and sample preparation procedure are discussed more elaborately in Chapter

3 This research implements the standards from BS 373 1957 Methods for Testing

Small Clear Specimens of Timber

15 Chapter Outline

This report consists of five chapters Chapter one will focus on the importance of

timber and the role and contribution of timber in the construction industry Chapter one

shall also cover the problem statement aim and objective scope of works and chapter

outline

Chapter two consists of the literature review regarding this project This chapter

explains about the test that is listed under scope of works for further improvement

Chapter three covers the methodology where it elaborates on the methods used

in this research mainly sample collection and preparation

Chapter four is results and discussion this chapter shall convey the results

gathered from the series of laboratory tests and the discussions regarding the findings

Chapter five is conclusion and recommendation this chapter explains about the

conclusion of this research and recommendation on this research for further

improvement

6

CHAPTER 2

LITERA TURE REVIEW

21 General

Due to its heterogeneity and species diversity timber is a complex building

material Timber does not have consistent predictable reproducible and uniform

properties as the properties vary with species age site and environmental conditions

(Ahamada Zziwa Yasin Naku Ziraba amp Mwakali 2009) The demand for quality

timber for construction will increase in Malaysia and other developing countries due to

a boom in the building construction industry With extreme exploitation and scarcity of

traditional hardwood timber species such as chengal (Neobaanocarpus heimii) and

meranti (Shorea spp) there is a diversity of previously unpopular species on the

market Zziwa etal (2009) revealed that there are 48 timber species on market and

despite the big number consumers prefer only 20 The durability integrity and safety

of structures from such species cannot be assured Reliable structural use of timber has

always been hampered by lack of appropriate design codes and well-established

standards

Timber is one of the oldest construction materials used In Malaysia timber used

to be the main materials used to build houses especially traditional Malay houses

Examples of landmark timber structures in Malaysia are Istana Lama which was built in

1902 Istana Kenangan Perak which was built in 1960 and lastly Kampung Laut Mosque

which is over 300 years old Until today timber has been the preferable material used

for the construction of residential areas in European countries and North America

(Ahmad 2011)

Why should we build with timber For one timber is a renewable resource

According to Ahmad (2011) the growth rate of commercial forests in North America is

7

to the best of my knowledge is the said students work

PICHIDAT IIAICLUAT AICADEIIIIC

UNIAS

UNIVERSITI MALAYSIA SARAWAK IIIII1000268759ItttilIII ~I Grade WKOI

Please tick (J) Final Year Project Report o Masters D PhD D

DECLARATION OF ORIGINAL WORK

This declaration is made on the ~~~~ day of r~I~2014

Students Declaration I MOHD FAIZ JAFNI BIN AHMAD MUSTAFA 29038 FACULTY OF ENGINEERING hereby declare that the work entitled BASIC STRENGTH PROPERTIES OF ONCOSPERMA TIGILLARIUM AT SMALL CLEAR is my original work I have not copied from any other students work or from any other sources except where due reference or acknowledgement is made explicitly in the text nor has any part been written for me by another person

1qQ7~O~ Date submitted Mohd Fai

Supervisors Declaration I GADDAFI BIN ISMAIL hereby certify that the work entitled BASIC STRENGTH PROPERTIES OF ONCOSPERMA TIGILLARIUM AT SMALL CLEAR was prepared by the above named student and was submitted to the FACULTY as a partial fulfillment for the conferment of BENG (HONS) (CIVIL) and the aforementione

Receiv~d for examination by (Dr Gaddafi bin Ismaili)

Date ~l~ (dIltf












Current Address ~


I



~

L

I







ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

























ABSTRAK























ii

ABSTRACT























iii

TABLE OF CONTENTS

Content Page

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

ABSTRACT ii


ABSTRAK iii


LIST OF TABLES ix

LIST OF FIGURES x


11 General



14 Scope of Work 5



21 General 7

22 Palm 8


iv

Chapter 3

24

25

26

27

28

29

210

211

212

213

214

215


Moisture Content

Shrinkage

Grain

Basic Density

Static Bending Test



Hardness

Impact Bending Test




Properties

METHODOLOGY

31 General

32 Desk Study


331 Problems Faced




343 Problems Faced

v

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11

11

12

12

15

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17

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21

22

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23

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41 General 48


vi









44 Discussion 54


Tigilarium


Tigilarium






Tigillarium





vii


51 General 70

52 Conclusions 70



Study

REFERENCES 73

APPENDIX 77

viii

LIST OF TABLES












Condition














Borneo

ix

LIST OF FIGURES

Description ~age~



12 Deforestation 3













36 Measuring 24

37 Cutting 25







314 Forklift 30





x

II










0

~ 4












Culms


Culms 0



Culms ~

xi

I 1


Culms













xii

ASTM

BS

FRIM

SFC

FSP

MOE

MOR

MC



British Standard





Modulus of rupture

Moisture content

xiii

CHAPTER 1

INTRODUCTION

11 General








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2008)






2



Mother Nature


















3

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4







Objective







14 Scope of Work









No Laboratory Test

Static bending test

2 Compression test



5 Hardness test

5

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15 Chapter Outline




outline









improvement

6

CHAPTER 2

LITERA TURE REVIEW

21 General













standards







(Ahmad 2011)



7












Current Address ~


I



~

L

I







ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

























ABSTRAK























ii

ABSTRACT























iii

TABLE OF CONTENTS

Content Page

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

ABSTRACT ii


ABSTRAK iii


LIST OF TABLES ix

LIST OF FIGURES x


11 General



14 Scope of Work 5



21 General 7

22 Palm 8


iv

Chapter 3

24

25

26

27

28

29

210

211

212

213

214

215


Moisture Content

Shrinkage

Grain

Basic Density

Static Bending Test



Hardness

Impact Bending Test




Properties

METHODOLOGY

31 General

32 Desk Study


331 Problems Faced




343 Problems Faced

v

10

11

11

12

12

15

16

16

16

16

17

17

18

18

18

21

22

22

22

23

27

]





















41 General 48


vi









44 Discussion 54


Tigilarium


Tigilarium






Tigillarium





vii


51 General 70

52 Conclusions 70



Study

REFERENCES 73

APPENDIX 77

viii

LIST OF TABLES












Condition














Borneo

ix

LIST OF FIGURES

Description ~age~



12 Deforestation 3













36 Measuring 24

37 Cutting 25







314 Forklift 30





x

II










0

~ 4












Culms


Culms 0



Culms ~

xi

I 1


Culms













xii

ASTM

BS

FRIM

SFC

FSP

MOE

MOR

MC



British Standard





Modulus of rupture

Moisture content

xiii

CHAPTER 1

INTRODUCTION

11 General








1

of

~s

~e l

~d

ot


























2008)






2



Mother Nature


















3

middotn

to

tire

lity

the

lis

the

urn

the

ee

ith

ow

ged


















4







Objective







14 Scope of Work









No Laboratory Test

Static bending test

2 Compression test



5 Hardness test

5

is

of

to

th

lYe

~Il

y

u

~e

he






15 Chapter Outline




outline









improvement

6

CHAPTER 2

LITERA TURE REVIEW

21 General













standards







(Ahmad 2011)



7







ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

























ABSTRAK























ii

ABSTRACT























iii

TABLE OF CONTENTS

Content Page

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

ABSTRACT ii


ABSTRAK iii


LIST OF TABLES ix

LIST OF FIGURES x


11 General



14 Scope of Work 5



21 General 7

22 Palm 8


iv

Chapter 3

24

25

26

27

28

29

210

211

212

213

214

215


Moisture Content

Shrinkage

Grain

Basic Density

Static Bending Test



Hardness

Impact Bending Test




Properties

METHODOLOGY

31 General

32 Desk Study


331 Problems Faced




343 Problems Faced

v

10

11

11

12

12

15

16

16

16

16

17

17

18

18

18

21

22

22

22

23

27

]





















41 General 48


vi









44 Discussion 54


Tigilarium


Tigilarium






Tigillarium





vii


51 General 70

52 Conclusions 70



Study

REFERENCES 73

APPENDIX 77

viii

LIST OF TABLES












Condition














Borneo

ix

LIST OF FIGURES

Description ~age~



12 Deforestation 3













36 Measuring 24

37 Cutting 25







314 Forklift 30





x

II










0

~ 4












Culms


Culms 0



Culms ~

xi

I 1


Culms













xii

ASTM

BS

FRIM

SFC

FSP

MOE

MOR

MC



British Standard





Modulus of rupture

Moisture content

xiii

CHAPTER 1

INTRODUCTION

11 General








1

of

~s

~e l

~d

ot


























2008)






2



Mother Nature


















3

middotn

to

tire

lity

the

lis

the

urn

the

ee

ith

ow

ged


















4







Objective







14 Scope of Work









No Laboratory Test

Static bending test

2 Compression test



5 Hardness test

5

is

of

to

th

lYe

~Il

y

u

~e

he






15 Chapter Outline




outline









improvement

6

CHAPTER 2

LITERA TURE REVIEW

21 General













standards







(Ahmad 2011)



7

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

























ABSTRAK























ii

ABSTRACT























iii

TABLE OF CONTENTS

Content Page

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

ABSTRACT ii


ABSTRAK iii


LIST OF TABLES ix

LIST OF FIGURES x


11 General



14 Scope of Work 5



21 General 7

22 Palm 8


iv

Chapter 3

24

25

26

27

28

29

210

211

212

213

214

215


Moisture Content

Shrinkage

Grain

Basic Density

Static Bending Test



Hardness

Impact Bending Test




Properties

METHODOLOGY

31 General

32 Desk Study


331 Problems Faced




343 Problems Faced

v

10

11

11

12

12

15

16

16

16

16

17

17

18

18

18

21

22

22

22

23

27

]





















41 General 48


vi









44 Discussion 54


Tigilarium


Tigilarium






Tigillarium





vii


51 General 70

52 Conclusions 70



Study

REFERENCES 73

APPENDIX 77

viii

LIST OF TABLES












Condition














Borneo

ix

LIST OF FIGURES

Description ~age~



12 Deforestation 3













36 Measuring 24

37 Cutting 25







314 Forklift 30





x

II










0

~ 4












Culms


Culms 0



Culms ~

xi

I 1


Culms













xii

ASTM

BS

FRIM

SFC

FSP

MOE

MOR

MC



British Standard





Modulus of rupture

Moisture content

xiii

CHAPTER 1

INTRODUCTION

11 General








1

of

~s

~e l

~d

ot


























2008)






2



Mother Nature


















3

middotn

to

tire

lity

the

lis

the

urn

the

ee

ith

ow

ged


















4







Objective







14 Scope of Work









No Laboratory Test

Static bending test

2 Compression test



5 Hardness test

5

is

of

to

th

lYe

~Il

y

u

~e

he






15 Chapter Outline




outline









improvement

6

CHAPTER 2

LITERA TURE REVIEW

21 General













standards







(Ahmad 2011)



7

ABSTRAK























ii

ABSTRACT























iii

TABLE OF CONTENTS

Content Page

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

ABSTRACT ii


ABSTRAK iii


LIST OF TABLES ix

LIST OF FIGURES x


11 General



14 Scope of Work 5



21 General 7

22 Palm 8


iv

Chapter 3

24

25

26

27

28

29

210

211

212

213

214

215


Moisture Content

Shrinkage

Grain

Basic Density

Static Bending Test



Hardness

Impact Bending Test




Properties

METHODOLOGY

31 General

32 Desk Study


331 Problems Faced




343 Problems Faced

v

10

11

11

12

12

15

16

16

16

16

17

17

18

18

18

21

22

22

22

23

27

]





















41 General 48


vi









44 Discussion 54


Tigilarium


Tigilarium






Tigillarium





vii


51 General 70

52 Conclusions 70



Study

REFERENCES 73

APPENDIX 77

viii

LIST OF TABLES












Condition














Borneo

ix

LIST OF FIGURES

Description ~age~



12 Deforestation 3













36 Measuring 24

37 Cutting 25







314 Forklift 30





x

II










0

~ 4












Culms


Culms 0



Culms ~

xi

I 1


Culms













xii

ASTM

BS

FRIM

SFC

FSP

MOE

MOR

MC



British Standard





Modulus of rupture

Moisture content

xiii

CHAPTER 1

INTRODUCTION

11 General








1

of

~s

~e l

~d

ot


























2008)






2



Mother Nature


















3

middotn

to

tire

lity

the

lis

the

urn

the

ee

ith

ow

ged


















4







Objective







14 Scope of Work









No Laboratory Test

Static bending test

2 Compression test



5 Hardness test

5

is

of

to

th

lYe

~Il

y

u

~e

he






15 Chapter Outline




outline









improvement

6

CHAPTER 2

LITERA TURE REVIEW

21 General













standards







(Ahmad 2011)



7

ABSTRACT























iii

TABLE OF CONTENTS

Content Page

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

ABSTRACT ii


ABSTRAK iii


LIST OF TABLES ix

LIST OF FIGURES x


11 General



14 Scope of Work 5



21 General 7

22 Palm 8


iv

Chapter 3

24

25

26

27

28

29

210

211

212

213

214

215


Moisture Content

Shrinkage

Grain

Basic Density

Static Bending Test



Hardness

Impact Bending Test




Properties

METHODOLOGY

31 General

32 Desk Study


331 Problems Faced




343 Problems Faced

v

10

11

11

12

12

15

16

16

16

16

17

17

18

18

18

21

22

22

22

23

27

]





















41 General 48


vi









44 Discussion 54


Tigilarium


Tigilarium






Tigillarium





vii


51 General 70

52 Conclusions 70



Study

REFERENCES 73

APPENDIX 77

viii

LIST OF TABLES












Condition














Borneo

ix

LIST OF FIGURES

Description ~age~



12 Deforestation 3













36 Measuring 24

37 Cutting 25







314 Forklift 30





x

II










0

~ 4












Culms


Culms 0



Culms ~

xi

I 1


Culms













xii

ASTM

BS

FRIM

SFC

FSP

MOE

MOR

MC



British Standard





Modulus of rupture

Moisture content

xiii

CHAPTER 1

INTRODUCTION

11 General








1

of

~s

~e l

~d

ot


























2008)






2



Mother Nature


















3

middotn

to

tire

lity

the

lis

the

urn

the

ee

ith

ow

ged


















4







Objective







14 Scope of Work









No Laboratory Test

Static bending test

2 Compression test



5 Hardness test

5

is

of

to

th

lYe

~Il

y

u

~e

he






15 Chapter Outline




outline









improvement

6

CHAPTER 2

LITERA TURE REVIEW

21 General













standards







(Ahmad 2011)



7

TABLE OF CONTENTS

Content Page

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

ABSTRACT ii


ABSTRAK iii


LIST OF TABLES ix

LIST OF FIGURES x


11 General



14 Scope of Work 5



21 General 7

22 Palm 8


iv

Chapter 3

24

25

26

27

28

29

210

211

212

213

214

215


Moisture Content

Shrinkage

Grain

Basic Density

Static Bending Test



Hardness

Impact Bending Test




Properties

METHODOLOGY

31 General

32 Desk Study


331 Problems Faced




343 Problems Faced

v

10

11

11

12

12

15

16

16

16

16

17

17

18

18

18

21

22

22

22

23

27

]





















41 General 48


vi









44 Discussion 54


Tigilarium


Tigilarium






Tigillarium





vii


51 General 70

52 Conclusions 70



Study

REFERENCES 73

APPENDIX 77

viii

LIST OF TABLES












Condition














Borneo

ix

LIST OF FIGURES

Description ~age~



12 Deforestation 3













36 Measuring 24

37 Cutting 25







314 Forklift 30





x

II










0

~ 4












Culms


Culms 0



Culms ~

xi

I 1


Culms













xii

ASTM

BS

FRIM

SFC

FSP

MOE

MOR

MC



British Standard





Modulus of rupture

Moisture content

xiii

CHAPTER 1

INTRODUCTION

11 General








1

of

~s

~e l

~d

ot


























2008)






2



Mother Nature


















3

middotn

to

tire

lity

the

lis

the

urn

the

ee

ith

ow

ged


















4







Objective







14 Scope of Work









No Laboratory Test

Static bending test

2 Compression test



5 Hardness test

5

is

of

to

th

lYe

~Il

y

u

~e

he






15 Chapter Outline




outline









improvement

6

CHAPTER 2

LITERA TURE REVIEW

21 General













standards







(Ahmad 2011)



7

Chapter 3

24

25

26

27

28

29

210

211

212

213

214

215


Moisture Content

Shrinkage

Grain

Basic Density

Static Bending Test



Hardness

Impact Bending Test




Properties

METHODOLOGY

31 General

32 Desk Study


331 Problems Faced




343 Problems Faced

v

10

11

11

12

12

15

16

16

16

16

17

17

18

18

18

21

22

22

22

23

27

]





















41 General 48


vi









44 Discussion 54


Tigilarium


Tigilarium






Tigillarium





vii


51 General 70

52 Conclusions 70



Study

REFERENCES 73

APPENDIX 77

viii

LIST OF TABLES












Condition














Borneo

ix

LIST OF FIGURES

Description ~age~



12 Deforestation 3













36 Measuring 24

37 Cutting 25







314 Forklift 30





x

II










0

~ 4












Culms


Culms 0



Culms ~

xi

I 1


Culms













xii

ASTM

BS

FRIM

SFC

FSP

MOE

MOR

MC



British Standard





Modulus of rupture

Moisture content

xiii

CHAPTER 1

INTRODUCTION

11 General








1

of

~s

~e l

~d

ot


























2008)






2



Mother Nature


















3

middotn

to

tire

lity

the

lis

the

urn

the

ee

ith

ow

ged


















4







Objective







14 Scope of Work









No Laboratory Test

Static bending test

2 Compression test



5 Hardness test

5

is

of

to

th

lYe

~Il

y

u

~e

he






15 Chapter Outline




outline









improvement

6

CHAPTER 2

LITERA TURE REVIEW

21 General













standards







(Ahmad 2011)



7





















41 General 48


vi









44 Discussion 54


Tigilarium


Tigilarium






Tigillarium





vii


51 General 70

52 Conclusions 70



Study

REFERENCES 73

APPENDIX 77

viii

LIST OF TABLES












Condition














Borneo

ix

LIST OF FIGURES

Description ~age~



12 Deforestation 3













36 Measuring 24

37 Cutting 25







314 Forklift 30





x

II










0

~ 4












Culms


Culms 0



Culms ~

xi

I 1


Culms













xii

ASTM

BS

FRIM

SFC

FSP

MOE

MOR

MC



British Standard





Modulus of rupture

Moisture content

xiii

CHAPTER 1

INTRODUCTION

11 General








1

of

~s

~e l

~d

ot


























2008)






2



Mother Nature


















3

middotn

to

tire

lity

the

lis

the

urn

the

ee

ith

ow

ged


















4







Objective







14 Scope of Work









No Laboratory Test

Static bending test

2 Compression test



5 Hardness test

5

is

of

to

th

lYe

~Il

y

u

~e

he






15 Chapter Outline




outline









improvement

6

CHAPTER 2

LITERA TURE REVIEW

21 General













standards







(Ahmad 2011)



7









44 Discussion 54


Tigilarium


Tigilarium






Tigillarium





vii


51 General 70

52 Conclusions 70



Study

REFERENCES 73

APPENDIX 77

viii

LIST OF TABLES












Condition














Borneo

ix

LIST OF FIGURES

Description ~age~



12 Deforestation 3













36 Measuring 24

37 Cutting 25







314 Forklift 30





x

II










0

~ 4












Culms


Culms 0



Culms ~

xi

I 1


Culms













xii

ASTM

BS

FRIM

SFC

FSP

MOE

MOR

MC



British Standard





Modulus of rupture

Moisture content

xiii

CHAPTER 1

INTRODUCTION

11 General








1

of

~s

~e l

~d

ot


























2008)






2



Mother Nature


















3

middotn

to

tire

lity

the

lis

the

urn

the

ee

ith

ow

ged


















4







Objective







14 Scope of Work









No Laboratory Test

Static bending test

2 Compression test



5 Hardness test

5

is

of

to

th

lYe

~Il

y

u

~e

he






15 Chapter Outline




outline









improvement

6

CHAPTER 2

LITERA TURE REVIEW

21 General













standards







(Ahmad 2011)



7


51 General 70

52 Conclusions 70



Study

REFERENCES 73

APPENDIX 77

viii

LIST OF TABLES












Condition














Borneo

ix

LIST OF FIGURES

Description ~age~



12 Deforestation 3













36 Measuring 24

37 Cutting 25







314 Forklift 30





x

II










0

~ 4












Culms


Culms 0



Culms ~

xi

I 1


Culms













xii

ASTM

BS

FRIM

SFC

FSP

MOE

MOR

MC



British Standard





Modulus of rupture

Moisture content

xiii

CHAPTER 1

INTRODUCTION

11 General








1

of

~s

~e l

~d

ot


























2008)






2



Mother Nature


















3

middotn

to

tire

lity

the

lis

the

urn

the

ee

ith

ow

ged


















4







Objective







14 Scope of Work









No Laboratory Test

Static bending test

2 Compression test



5 Hardness test

5

is

of

to

th

lYe

~Il

y

u

~e

he






15 Chapter Outline




outline









improvement

6

CHAPTER 2

LITERA TURE REVIEW

21 General













standards







(Ahmad 2011)



7

LIST OF TABLES












Condition














Borneo

ix

LIST OF FIGURES

Description ~age~



12 Deforestation 3













36 Measuring 24

37 Cutting 25







314 Forklift 30





x

II










0

~ 4












Culms


Culms 0



Culms ~

xi

I 1


Culms













xii

ASTM

BS

FRIM

SFC

FSP

MOE

MOR

MC



British Standard





Modulus of rupture

Moisture content

xiii

CHAPTER 1

INTRODUCTION

11 General








1

of

~s

~e l

~d

ot


























2008)






2



Mother Nature


















3

middotn

to

tire

lity

the

lis

the

urn

the

ee

ith

ow

ged


















4







Objective







14 Scope of Work









No Laboratory Test

Static bending test

2 Compression test



5 Hardness test

5

is

of

to

th

lYe

~Il

y

u

~e

he






15 Chapter Outline




outline









improvement

6

CHAPTER 2

LITERA TURE REVIEW

21 General













standards







(Ahmad 2011)



7

LIST OF FIGURES

Description ~age~



12 Deforestation 3













36 Measuring 24

37 Cutting 25







314 Forklift 30





x

II










0

~ 4












Culms


Culms 0



Culms ~

xi

I 1


Culms













xii

ASTM

BS

FRIM

SFC

FSP

MOE

MOR

MC



British Standard





Modulus of rupture

Moisture content

xiii

CHAPTER 1

INTRODUCTION

11 General








1

of

~s

~e l

~d

ot


























2008)






2



Mother Nature


















3

middotn

to

tire

lity

the

lis

the

urn

the

ee

ith

ow

ged


















4







Objective







14 Scope of Work









No Laboratory Test

Static bending test

2 Compression test



5 Hardness test

5

is

of

to

th

lYe

~Il

y

u

~e

he






15 Chapter Outline




outline









improvement

6

CHAPTER 2

LITERA TURE REVIEW

21 General













standards







(Ahmad 2011)



7

II










0

~ 4












Culms


Culms 0



Culms ~

xi

I 1


Culms













xii

ASTM

BS

FRIM

SFC

FSP

MOE

MOR

MC



British Standard





Modulus of rupture

Moisture content

xiii

CHAPTER 1

INTRODUCTION

11 General








1

of

~s

~e l

~d

ot


























2008)






2



Mother Nature


















3

middotn

to

tire

lity

the

lis

the

urn

the

ee

ith

ow

ged


















4







Objective







14 Scope of Work









No Laboratory Test

Static bending test

2 Compression test



5 Hardness test

5

is

of

to

th

lYe

~Il

y

u

~e

he






15 Chapter Outline




outline









improvement

6

CHAPTER 2

LITERA TURE REVIEW

21 General













standards







(Ahmad 2011)



7


Culms













xii

ASTM

BS

FRIM

SFC

FSP

MOE

MOR

MC



British Standard





Modulus of rupture

Moisture content

xiii

CHAPTER 1

INTRODUCTION

11 General








1

of

~s

~e l

~d

ot


























2008)






2



Mother Nature


















3

middotn

to

tire

lity

the

lis

the

urn

the

ee

ith

ow

ged


















4







Objective







14 Scope of Work









No Laboratory Test

Static bending test

2 Compression test



5 Hardness test

5

is

of

to

th

lYe

~Il

y

u

~e

he






15 Chapter Outline




outline









improvement

6

CHAPTER 2

LITERA TURE REVIEW

21 General













standards







(Ahmad 2011)



7

ASTM

BS

FRIM

SFC

FSP

MOE

MOR

MC



British Standard





Modulus of rupture

Moisture content

xiii

CHAPTER 1

INTRODUCTION

11 General








1

of

~s

~e l

~d

ot


























2008)






2



Mother Nature


















3

middotn

to

tire

lity

the

lis

the

urn

the

ee

ith

ow

ged


















4







Objective







14 Scope of Work









No Laboratory Test

Static bending test

2 Compression test



5 Hardness test

5

is

of

to

th

lYe

~Il

y

u

~e

he






15 Chapter Outline




outline









improvement

6

CHAPTER 2

LITERA TURE REVIEW

21 General













standards







(Ahmad 2011)



7

CHAPTER 1

INTRODUCTION

11 General








1

of

~s

~e l

~d

ot


























2008)






2



Mother Nature


















3

middotn

to

tire

lity

the

lis

the

urn

the

ee

ith

ow

ged


















4







Objective







14 Scope of Work









No Laboratory Test

Static bending test

2 Compression test



5 Hardness test

5

is

of

to

th

lYe

~Il

y

u

~e

he






15 Chapter Outline




outline









improvement

6

CHAPTER 2

LITERA TURE REVIEW

21 General













standards







(Ahmad 2011)



7

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No Laboratory Test

Static bending test

2 Compression test



5 Hardness test

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15 Chapter Outline




outline









improvement

6

CHAPTER 2

LITERA TURE REVIEW

21 General













standards







(Ahmad 2011)



7



Mother Nature


















3

middotn

to

tire

lity

the

lis

the

urn

the

ee

ith

ow

ged


















4







Objective







14 Scope of Work









No Laboratory Test

Static bending test

2 Compression test



5 Hardness test

5

is

of

to

th

lYe

~Il

y

u

~e

he






15 Chapter Outline




outline









improvement

6

CHAPTER 2

LITERA TURE REVIEW

21 General













standards







(Ahmad 2011)



7

middotn

to

tire

lity

the

lis

the

urn

the

ee

ith

ow

ged


















4







Objective







14 Scope of Work









No Laboratory Test

Static bending test

2 Compression test



5 Hardness test

5

is

of

to

th

lYe

~Il

y

u

~e

he






15 Chapter Outline




outline









improvement

6

CHAPTER 2

LITERA TURE REVIEW

21 General













standards







(Ahmad 2011)



7







Objective







14 Scope of Work









No Laboratory Test

Static bending test

2 Compression test



5 Hardness test

5

is

of

to

th

lYe

~Il

y

u

~e

he






15 Chapter Outline




outline









improvement

6

CHAPTER 2

LITERA TURE REVIEW

21 General













standards







(Ahmad 2011)



7

is

of

to

th

lYe

~Il

y

u

~e

he






15 Chapter Outline




outline









improvement

6

CHAPTER 2

LITERA TURE REVIEW

21 General













standards







(Ahmad 2011)



7

CHAPTER 2

LITERA TURE REVIEW

21 General













standards







(Ahmad 2011)



7

Documents

BASIC STRENGTH PROPERTIES OF ONCOSPERMA TIGILLARIUM … strength properties of oncosperma... · itu, satu siri ujian telah dijalankan ke atas specimen dalam keaadaan 'air-dry' Oncosperma