Basic Propagation Principles of Radio Waves and Basic RF Knowledge

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HUAWEI Confidential

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Basic Principles of Radio Propagation and Basic RF

Knowledge

Internal use only

HUAWEI TECHNOLOGIES CO., LTD. HUAWEI Confidential Page 2

Objectives

Get familiar with the propagation principles of

radio waves and make theoretical preparation

for subsequent events such as link budget.

Understand the related knowledge about

antennas and the meanings of common

counters.

Understand the basic RF knowledge, devices

and instruments that are often used in the

wireless network planning and optimization.

Upon completion of this course, you will be able

to:

HUAWEI TECHNOLOGIES CO., LTD. HUAWEI Confidential

Contents

Training.huawei.com

Chapter 1 Radio Wave Knowledge

Chapter 2 Introduction to Antennas

Chapter 3 Basic RF Knowledge

Page 3


Chapter 1 Radio Wave KnowledgeChapter 1 Radio Wave Knowledge

Section 1 Basic PrinciplesSection 1 Basic Principles

Section 2 Propagation Features

Section 3 Propagation Models

Section 4 Propagation Model

Calibration

Page 4


Basic Principles — Wireless SpectrumBasic Principles — Wireless Spectrum

Frequencies in different bands have different propagation features.

Page 5


Electric field Electric fieldElectric field

Dip

ole

Propagation direction of waves

Magnetic field Magnetic field

Basic Principles — Propagation of Radio Waves

When radio waves are propagated in the space, the direction of the electric field changes

regularly. This phenomenon is called the polarization of radio waves. The field direction

of radio waves is called the polarization direction.

If the direction of the electric field is vertical to the ground, the waves are called

vertically-polarized waves.

If the direction of the electric field is horizontal to the ground, the waves are called

horizontally-polarized waves.

Page 6


Basic Principles — Propagation PathBasic Principles — Propagation Path

Direct waves and ground-reflected waves(most common propagation path)

Troposphere-reflected waves(great randomness in propagation)

Mountain-diffraction waves (signal source of the shadow region)

Ionosphere-reflected waves (trans-horizon communication path)

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1. Building-reflected waves1. Building-reflected waves2. Diffraction waves2. Diffraction waves3. Direct waves3. Direct waves4. Ground-reflected waves4. Ground-reflected waves

Basic Principles — Propagation PathBasic Principles — Propagation Path

Page 8



Section 1 Basic Principles

Section 2 Propagation FeaturesSection 2 Propagation Features



Calibration

Page 9


Radio Propagation Environment

The propagation of radio waves is affected by the terrain structures and

man-made environment. The radio propagation environment directly

determines the selection of the propagation models. The main factors

affecting the radio propagation environment are:

Natural terrain (mountains, hills, plains and water areas)

Number, distribution and material features of architectures

Vegetation features in this region

Weather conditions

Conditions of natural and manual electromagnetic noises

Page 10


Quasi-smooth terrain

A quasi-smooth terrain refers to a terrain that has

gently rolling surface and the rolling height is less

than or equal to 20 m.

Irregular terrain

According to the status, other terrains except the

quasi-smooth terrain can be classified into: hilly

terrain, isolated mountains, sloping terrain, mixed

terrain of water and land.

R

T

T

R

Terrain ClassificationTerrain Classification

Page 11


Signal FadingSignal Fading

Distance (m)

Receive Power (dBm)

10 20 30

–20

–40

–60

Slow fading

Fast fading

Page 12


Methods Against Fast Fading — Diversity

Signal Diversity

Time Diversity

Symbol interleaving, error detection, error correcting codes and RAKE receiver

technology

Space Diversity

Adopt the main and diversity antenna to receive signals. The receive signals of

the main and diversity antenna do not have the feature of fading at the same

time. The capability provided by the receiver of the BTS for balancing signals

of different delays within a certain period is also a form of space diversity.

Frequency Diversity

The GSM network adopts the frequency hopping.

The CDMA network adopts the frequency spread technology.

Page 13


Solution Balance and RAKE TechnologiesBalance and RAKE Technologies

Extension of Radio Waves Delay It is originated in the reflection and mainly refers to the shared-frequency

interference caused by the difference between the main signals of the receiver

and other multi-path signals in terms of the transmission time in space.

Transmitting signals come from an object that is far from the receiver antenna.

Page 14


T

R

Diffraction Loss

Electromagnetic waves spread around the diffracted point.

Diffracted waves cover all directions except obstacles.

The diffraction loss is the most serious type of loss.

The calculation formula is complicated and changes with the constants.

Page 15


¦ È

¦ È¦ Å0¦ Ì 0 ¦ Å¦ Ì ¦ Å0¦ Ì 0

d

Dw1 w2

E1

E2

X dBmW dBm

Penetration loss = X – W = B dBPenetration loss = X – W = B dB Reflection and refraction of electromagnetic waves penetrating the wall

Penetration Loss (1)

Indoor signals depend on the penetration loss of the building.

The penetration loss of signals near the window is greatly

different from the penetration loss of signals in the center of the

building.

Materials of the building affect the penetration loss.

The incidence angle of electromagnetic waves affects the

penetration loss.

Page 16


T

R

Penetration Loss (2)

The obstacle diffraction loss or penetration loss is:

Loss caused by the obstacle of a partition: 5–20 dB

Loss caused by the obstacle of a floor: > 20 dB

Indoor loss (which is a function of the floor height, –1.9 dB/floor)

Loss caused by furniture and other barriers: 2–15 dB

Loss caused by thick glass: 6–10 dB

Penetration loss caused by a railway compartment: 15–30 dB

Penetration loss caused by an elevator: about 30 dB

Penetration loss caused by thick leaves: 10 dB

Page 17





Section 3 Propagation ModelsSection 3 Propagation Models


Calibration

Page 18


Common Propagation Models

Propagation model in the free space

Okumura/Hata model

COST231-Hata model

COST231 Walfish-Ikegami model

Keenan-Motley model

Computer-aided calculation model

Page 19


Lo = 91.48 + 20lgd, for f = 900 MHz

Lo = 97.98 + 20lgd, for f = 1900 MHz

Lo = 99 + 20lgd, for f = 2100 MHz

Propagation Model in the Free Space

The propagation model in the free space applies to the radio

environment that has isotropic propagation medium (such as vacuum). It

is a theoretical model. This environment does not exist in reality, but the

air medium is similar to the isotropic medium.

Page 20


Application scope:

Frequency range f: 150 MHz to1500 MHz

Height of BTS antenna Hb: 30 m to 200 m

Height of mobile station Hm: 1 m to 10 m

Distance d: 1 km to 20 km

Okumura-Hata Model

Applicable to the macro cell model

Applicable to the scenario when the height of

BTS is higher than the surrounding buildings

Not applicable to prediction within 1 km

Not applicable to cases that the frequency is

higher than 1500 MHz

Page 21


Application scope:

Frequency range f: 1500 MHz to 2000 MHz

Height of BTS antenna Hb: 30 m to 200 m

Height of mobile station Hm: 1 m to10 m

Distance d: 1 km to 20 km

Applicable to the Macro cell model

Height of BTS antenna is higher than surrounding buildings

Not applicable to forecast within 1 km

Not applicable if the frequency is higher than 2000 MHz or

lower than 1500 MHz

COST 231-Hata Model

Page 22


Application scope:Frequency range f: 800 MHz to 2000 MHzHeight of BTS antenna Hbase: 4 m to 50 mHeight of mobile station Hmobile: 1 m to 3 mDistance d: 0.02–5 km

Height of buildings Hroof (m)Width of roads w (m)Spacing between buildings b

Street direction relative to the direction of direct waves a (º)

COST 231 Walfish-Ikegami Model

Applicable to the environment in the city, macro

cell or micro cell

Not applicable to the suburb or country

environment

Page 23


Ploss = K1 + K2lgd + K3 (Hms) + K4lg (Hms) + K5lg (Heff)+ K6lg (Heff) lg(d) + K7 + Kclutter

Path loss: path loss (dB)K1: constant related to the frequencyK2: constant of distance fadingK3, K4: calibration coefficient of the height of mobile station K5, K6: calibration coefficient of the height of BTS antennaK7: calibration coefficient of diffraction Kclutter: calibration coefficient of featuresd: distance between the BTS and the mobile station (km)Hms, Heff: effective height of the mobile station and BTS antenna (m)

Model of ASSET Planning Software

K Parameter Reference Value

K1 152/1800 M Urban

K2 44.90

K3 –2.55

K4 0.00

K5 –13.82

K6 –6.55

K7 –0.80

Radio Propagation Model

Page 24


Radio Propagation Model

Path loss: path loss (dB)K1: offset constantK2: constant of distance fadingK3: calibration coefficient of the height of BTS antennaK4: multiplier of diffraction calculation (must be a positive number)K5: multiplier of log (HTxeff) log(d)K6: calibration coefficient of the height of mobile stationKclutter: calibration coefficient of featuresK(hill, los): calibration factor of mountain area (Nlos = 0)d: distance between the BTS and the mobile station (m)Hmeffs, Heff: valid height of the mobile station and BTS antenna (m)

Model of U-net Planning Software

K Parameter Reference Value

K1 –52.92

K2 68.6

K3 5.83

K4 1

K5 –6.55

K6 0

Ploss = K1 + K2logd + K3log (Heff) + K4Diffraction + K5log (d)log (Heff) + K6 (Hmeff) + Kclutterf (clutter) + K (hill, los)

Page 25






Section 4 Propagation Model Section 4 Propagation Model

CalibrationCalibration

Page 26


Model Calibration

The meaning of model calibration is as follows:

The propagation model is a basis for the cell

planning of a mobile network. Whether the cell

planning is proper and whether the carriers can

meet user requirements with economical and

reasonable investment all depend on the

accuracy of the propagation model. Therefore,

the propagation model calibration is required to

obtain the radio propagation model that fits the

practical environment in this region, improve the

predicted coverage accuracy and lay a good

foundation for the network planning.

Page 27


Target propagation environment Propagation model selection

CW data collection

Measurement of propagation path loss

Parameter configuration

Comparison

Does the error meet the

demand?

End

Basic Principles and Process of Model Calibration

Forecast of propagation

Path loss

Page 28


5m

Location Selection of the BTS The rules for selecting the location of the BTS are as follows:

a. The antenna is higher than 20 m.

b. The antenna is at least 5 m higher than the nearest obstacles.

c. The obstacle here refers to the highest building on the roof where the

antenna is located. The building selected as the location of the BTS is

required to be higher than the average height of the surrounding buildings.

Page 29


The transmitting subsystem includes the transmitting antenna, feeder,

high-frequency signal source, and antenna support.

The receiving subsystem includes the test receiver, GPS receiver, test

software, and portable computer.

Test Platform

Page 30

Signal source

Power amplifier

Power supply

Transmitting antenna

Receiving antenna Receiving

antennaPortable computer

RF cable 1

RF cable 2

High frequencysignal source


Test Path

Principle of Selecting the Test Path

Terrain: The test path must cover all major terrains in the region.

Height: If great differences of terrains exist in this region, the test path must cover terrains in

different height.

Distance: The test path must take positions in different distance from the BTS into account.

Direction: Test points in vertical and horizontal paths must keep consistent.

Length: The total length of a CW test must be longer than 60 km.

Point: The test points are the more the better. (Requirement: > 10000 points, > 4 hours)

Overlap: Test paths of different BTSs can be overlapped to strengthen the reliability.

Obstacle: When antenna signals are blocked by one side of the floor, the test path cannot

pass the shadow region.

Page 31


Drive Test

Samples are compliant with the Lee's Criteria: 40

wavelengths and 50 samples.

The maximum speed is: Vmax = 0.8λ/Tsample

In abnormal cases, test results must be removed from

the sampling data.

Samples with too high fading (over 30 dB)

In the tunnel

Under the viaduct

…

If the directional antenna is taken the CW test, the test

path is selected from regions covered by the major lobe.

Page 32


Test Data Processing

Test data can be identified by the planning software only after

being processed. The processing procedure is as follows:

Data filtering

Data discrete

Geographic binning

Format conversion

Page 33


Preparations

Install the network planning software.

U-net is powerful planning and optimization software. Model

calibration is only one of the function modules.

The items are created.

In the U-net, all tasks, such as planning, optimization and model

calibration are performed on the basis of items.

The antenna patterns are exported.

The antenna pattern varies with specific manufacturer. Export the

correct one.

Build the model and import the data.

Page 34


Filtering Configuration

Model Calibration

Distance Filter:

Recommendation: The data is filtered in the range of r < 150 m or r > 3 km

Signal Strength Filter:

Recommendation: The data is filtered in the range of Signal > –40 dBm or Signal < –

121 dBm

Clutter Filter:

Recommendation: The clutters are filtered where the number of test points are

smaller than 300.

Page 35


Parameter Calibration

Model Calibration

Page 36


Model Calibration

Analysis of Calibration Results

The accuracy of the obtained model must be analyzed after the calibration.

The accuracy of the model refers to the fitness between the resulted models and

the practical test environment. Normally it is assessed by the value of RMS Error.

In the best cases, the RMS Error is less than 8, indicating that the resulting

models fit the practical environment. In practical model calibration, it is

recommended to make RMS Error close to this goal.

Page 37


Questions

Which band of the radio waves does the mobile

telecommunication system use?

What are the propagation methods of radio waves?

Which are the two forms of the signal fading in the

propagation environment of radio waves? What are the

features and causes reasons of the two forms?

What are the major forms of signal propagation loss in

the propagation environment of radio waves?

What are the common propagation models? What are

their application environments?

Page 38


Summary

This chapter describes related knowledge of radio waves, including:

Propagation paths of radio waves

Losses and dispersion features of radio waves and main compensation scheme

Common models of radio waves and involved parameters

Calibration methods of propagation models of radio waves

Page 39


Contents Contents

Training.huawei.com


Chapter 2 Introduction to the Antenna


Page 40



Section 1 Working PrincipleSection 1 Working Principle

Section 2 Classification

Section 3 Electrical Specifications

Section 4 Mechanical Specifications

Section 5 New Technologies

Page 41


Position and Function

8. Lighting protector

Master feeder (7/8)

5. Feeder fixing clip6. Cable tray

4. Grounding device

3. Sealing connectorInsulation sealing tape, PVC insulation tape

1. Modulation support of antenna

GSM/CDMApanel antenna

Holding pole (50–114 mm)

2. Outdoor feeder

9. Super-flexible feeder

7. Feeder through window Main device of BTS

Antenna Feeder System of BTS

Page 42

user14

数字50前面缺少了一个符号（批注里不能显示出来），请后续补充，谢谢啦


Working Principle

When a wire carries the alternating current, electromagnetic radiation is formed. The ability of radiation is related to the length and shape of the wire.

If two wires are closely located, and the electromotive forces generated by the wires are offset, the radiation is weak.

If the two wires are opened, the current of these two wires is on the same direction. The electromotive forces generated are in the same direction. Therefore, the radiation is strong.

When the length of the wire is much shorter than the wavelength, current of the wire is low and the radiation is weak.

When the length of the wire can be increased to the wavelength, current of the wire is greatly enhanced. Therefore a stronger radiation is formed.

Normally the straight wire that can generate remarkable radiation is called dipole.

The dipole where the length of both supporting poles is 1/4 wavelength is called half-wave dipole.

Page 43


Working Principle of Mobile AntennaWorking Principle of Mobile Antenna

Page 44

Unit dipole

Feed network

Feed network

Wireless connector

Wireless connector

Unit dipole

Feed network

Directional antenna Omni-directional antenna


The antennas can be divided into the following types according to the radiation direction.

Directional antenna Omni-directional antenna

Classification of Antennas (1)

Page 45


The antennas can be divided into the following types according to different appearances:

Panel antenna Cap antenna

Whip antennaParaboloidal antenna


Page 46


The antennas can be divided into the following types according to the polarization directions.


Page 47

Omni-directional antenna

Single-polarized directional antenna

Dual-polarized directional antenna


Major Electrical Specifications of AntennaMajor Electrical Specifications of Antenna

Page 48


Pattern of Symmetric Half-Wave Dipole Top view Side view

Directional Antenna Pattern

Omni-directional Antenna Pattern

Antenna Pattern

Page 49


dBi and dBd

2.15 dB

Antenna Gain

Page 50


Beamwidth, front-to-back suppression ratio, null filling, and

upper side lobe suppression

Other Major Electrical Specifications of Antenna

Page 51


Mechanical Tilt and Electrical TiltMechanical Tilt and Electrical Tilt

Mechanical tilt

Electrical tilt

Page 52


Antenna SWR

9.5 W80 ohms50 ohms

Forward: 10 W

Back: 0.5 W

Major Electrical Specifications of Antenna

Page 53


f1 f2 f3 f4 f2–f1 f3–f2 f4–f3 f3–f1 f4–f2 f4–f1

Judging methods of the third order intermodulation


Reasons for Passive Intermodulation

Magnetic materials exist.

The joint is not connected tightly.

The metals of different materials are

contacted.

The contact surfaces of same type of

materials are not smooth.

Page 54


Major Mechanical Specifications of Antenna

Input port of antenna

Antenna weight

Wind load

Operating temperature

Humidity requirement

Lightening protection

Tri-proof capability

Page 55


Coaxial Distributed Antenna System

Page 56

Tx/Rx

3

3

3

3

3

3

3

3

33

3

3

33

3

Tx/Rx

1.36

0.5 10

100.5

Equal power assignment

Unequal power assignment

Bi-directional amplifier

Figure 3.1: Coaxial cable distributed system

Pow

er

split

ter

Cou

pler

Pow

er

split

ter

Pow

er

split

ter

Pow

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split

ter

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split

ter

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er

split

ter

Pow

er

split

ter


Cou

pler

Pow

er

split

ter

Pow

er

split

ter

Cou

pler

Pow

er

split

ter

Pow

er

split

ter



It applies to the scenario with large coverage and long

transmission distance.

Fiber Feeding Distributed Antenna System

Page 57

TRx

Figure 3.3: Fiber distributed system

Opt

ica

l ma

in u

nit

Opt

ica

l re

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nit

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spl

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spl

itte

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Intelligent Antenna System

Page 58


Two algorithms

Switched beams Adaptive beams

Intelligent Antenna System

Page 59


Questions

What are the antenna categories based on the signal radiation

direction and appearance?

What are the major electrical specifications of the antennas?

What are the major mechanical specifications of the antennas?

What are the categories of distributed antenna systems (DASs)?

Page 60


Summary

This chapter describes the following points:

Principle of Antenna


Major Mechanical Specifications of Antenna

New Technologies of Antenna

Page 61


Training.huawei.com




Contents

Page 62


Expression of dB Indicating the Absolute Power

The absolute power of RF signals is indicated by using dBm or dBW. The

conversion relationship between dBm/dBW and mW/W is as follows:

For example, the signal power is x W and the value indicated by using dBm

is:

For example: 1 W = 30 dBm = 0 dBw

pdBm10 logloglogX1000mW

1mW

pdBW 10 logloglogXW1W

Expression of dB Indicating the Relative Power

It is the logarithmic form of the ratio between any two power values. dBc is the

logarithmic form of the ratio between the frequency output power and the carrier

output power.

Introduction to the Unit of Power

Page 63


Related Concepts of Noise

Noise

Noises refer to the interference signals that cannot be predicted during

signal processing and cannot be predicted precisely. (Frequency

interference does not belong to the noise.)

Noise factor

The noise coefficient is used to measure the capability of an RF

component to process low signals. The noise coefficient is defined as:

unit input SNR/output SNR, as shown in the following figure.

Linear system

Page 64

NF

Si

Ni

So

No

NF PnoG Pni


Related Concepts of Noise

Noise Factor Formula of Cascaded Network:

Page 65

G1, NF1 G2, NF2 Gn, NFn

NF NF1

NF2 1

G1

...NFn 1

G1 G2 ... Gn 1total


Digital Modulation

Amplitude keying

Shift-frequency keying

Phase shift keying

Data

Page 66


Application of Modulation Technologies

Page 67


Spurious Radiation

Spurious Radiation

Spurious radiation refers to the signals that are sent by

the transmitter beyond the spectrum stated in the

transmitting template. The spurious radiation includes

harmonic components, parasitic radiations, cross-

modulation products, intermodulation products of

transmitters. The spurious radiation interferes with the

wireless communication system. This specification aims

to improve the system electromagnetic compatibility so

that the system can co-exist with other systems (such as

WCDMA) and ensures the normal operation of the

system itself.

Page 68


RF Specifications of the Downlink ChannelRF Specifications of the Downlink Channel

Adjacent Channel Leakage Ratio (ACLR)

ACLR is used to measure the out-band radiation feature of transmitters. It

is the ratio between the power of an adjacent and the power of the main

channel, expressed in dBc, as shown in the following figure.

Page 69

Main channel Adjacent channel

Protection band


Receiving Sensitivity

Receiving Sensitivity

Expressed using the power, Smin = 10log (KTB) + Ft + (S/N). The unit is:

dBm.

K is the Boltzmann constant and the unit is: J/K (Joule/K).

T indicates the absolute temperature and the unit is: ºK.

B indicates the signal bandwidth and the unit is: Hz.

Ft indicates the noise factor of the system and the unit is: dB.

(S/N) indicates the SNR required in the modulation and the unit is: dB.

If B = 1 Hz, 10log (KTB) = –174 dBm/Hz

K 1.38066 10 19J/K

Page 70


Blocking Index of the Receiver

Blocking

The blocking index is used to assess the anti-

interference ability of the receiver. It describes the

situation in which the individual tone or modulating

signal interference exists outside the receiving

channel, but the interference signals are not in the

adjacent channel or the spurious response

frequency. The specific index depends on different

systems. The blocking index requires that the

receiver must have high third order cut-off

frequency (large linear dynamic range) at its front

end and the intermediate frequency filter has good

selectivity.

Page 71


Filter

Page 72

Filter

A

Ffc

Passband Stopband

F

A

F

fc

A

f1 f2

Bandstop filter

Low pass filter

A

Passband Stopband

f1f2

Transtive band

F

Transtive band Stopband Passband Transtive band

High pass filter

Stopband Transtive band

Passband Transtive band

Bandpass filter

Stopband Passband Transtive band


Combiner

Functions of the Combining and Dividing Unit

Make transmitting signals and receiving signals share the

antenna and reduce the number of antenna feeders.

Complete the duplex mode of transmitting and receiving

signals, combining and filtering of the transmitting signals.

Complete the filtering, low noise amplification and dividing of

the receive signals.

Provide the function of TMA feeder: including three modules,

namely CDU, SCU and EDU.

Page 73


Combining Distribution Unit (CDU)

Page 74

Tx1

Tx2

Tx_CombTx_Dup

Combiner Duplex

Power splitter

Power splitter

Amplified division

Filter

Rx1Rx2Rx3 Rx4

Rx5Rx6Rx7Rx8

HL_out

HL_in

RxD_outRxD

Tx/Rx_ANT


Simple Combining Unit (SCU)

Page 75

TX1

TX2

TX3

TX4

TX- Comb

TX1

TX2

TX3

TX4

TX- Comb

Com

bine

rC

ombi

ner C

ombi

ner


Enhance Duplexer Unit (EDU)

Page 76

Tx1 Duplex

Power splitter Amplified

division

Rx1

Rx2

Tx/Rx_ANT1

Power splitter Amplified

division

Rx1

Rx2

Duplex Tx/Rx_ANT2Tx2


Loss Comparison Among All Combining and Dividing Units

Page 77

Combination methods

Typical value of the transmitting

insertion loss (dB)

Price comparison (per carrier)

CDUTwo in one Level 1 3

dB bridge4.5 Medium

SCUFour in one Level 2 3

dB bridge 6.8

SCU+CDU Four in one Level 2 3 dB bridge

8

EDUFailure

Dual duplexer method1

Dual-CDU (not passing the combiner)

Failure

Dual-CDU method1 High

Dual-CDU (passing the combiner)

Combination

Dual-CDU method4.5

Medium

Medium

Low

Low


Common RF Components

Power splitter Coupler Line amplifier

Combiner Power amplifier Attenuator

Page 78


Common RF Devices

Frequency meter Test cell phone Integrated tester

Field strength meter SWR tester Portable spectrum analyzer

Signal source Power meter Spectrum analyzer

Page 79


Questions

What are the common forms to express the units of the

absolute power? What is the conversion relationship?

What is the definition of the noise factors? Can you write the

formula of the cascaded noise factors?

What is the spurious emission? What is the adjacent

leakage?

Can you write the formula of sensitivity?

Can you list several modulation methods? Which one does

GSM use?

Page 80


Summary

This chapter describes the common and basic concepts of RF,

including:

Concepts of power

Concepts of noise

Concepts and categories of modulation

Divergence channel specifications such as the spurious

emission and adjacent leakage

Sensitivity index of the receiving channel

Common RF components

Page 81


Summary of the Course

After completing this course, you should be able to learn:

Propagation principles, environment, features, models, and model

calibration of radio waves

Working principle, classification, electrical and mechanical features of

antenna

Basic concepts of RF and common RF components

Page 82

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Documents

Basic Propagation Principles of Radio Waves and Basic RF Knowledge