Basic Processes of Development

Maturation Biological process of systematic physical

growth Experience plays a role in specific contexts McGraw’s study of toilet training twins

Children change dramatically from birth to adulthood

Developmental Psychology

200 300

Age in days

500 600 700 800

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40

60

80

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HiltonHugh

Importance of maturational readiness in McGraw’s study of toilet training twin

boys

Early Experiences and Critical Periods Imprinting (Lorenz)

Inborn tendency or instinct Sensitive period – critical period

Early social deprivation Harlow’s monkeys, social isolation, and

continuing detrimental effects Controversy over effects on children

Some abnormal effects may be irreversible

Developmental Psychology

Variations in Development

Normal for children to be variable in their development Discontinuities in development are the rule Parents make important decisions about raising

children that impacts on development Raising deaf child Impact of technology and medicine

Developmental Psychology

Jean Piaget and Cognitive Development: Schemas

An infant’s mind works hard to make sense of our experiences in the world.

An early tool to organize those experiences is a schema, a mental container we build to hold our experiences.

Schemas can take the form of images, models, and/or concepts.This child has formed a schema called “COW” which he uses

to think about animals of a certain shape and size.

“Cow!” “Cow!”

5

Piaget’s Stages of Cognitive Development

A child’s capacity to understand certain concepts is based on the child’s developmental stage

Piaget’s Four Stages

Believed that all children develop according to four stages based on how they see the world. He thought the age may vary some, but that we all

go through the stages in the same order.

1. Sensori-motor (birth –2 years)

2. Preoperational (~2-7)

3. Concrete operational (~7-11)

4. Formal operations (~12-15)

Sensorimotor Stage Birth to about 2 years, rapid change is

seen throughout The child will:

Explore the world through senses & motor activity

Early on, baby can’t tell difference between themselves & the environment

If they can’t see something then it doesn’t exist Begin to understand cause & effect Can later follow something with their eyes

Preoperational Stage About 2 to about 7

Better speech communication Can imagine the future & reflect on the past Develop basic numerical abilities Still pretty egocentric, but learning to be able to

delay gratification Can’t understand conservation of matter Has difficulty distinguishing fantasy from reality

(ex: cartoon characters are real people).

…more preoperational Conservation of matter – understanding

that something doesn’t change even though it looks different, shape is not related to quantity

Ex: Are ten coins set in a long line more than ten coins in a pile?

Ex: Is there less water if it is poured into a bigger container?

Yes. Jim.

Egocentrism:“I am the World.”

Do you have a

brother?

What mistake is the boy making?

How does this relate to our definition of egocentrism?

Does Jim have a

brother?No.

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Maturing beyond Egocentrism: Developing a “Theory of Mind”

Theory of mind refers to the ability to understand that others

have their own thoughts and perspective.

With a theory of mind, you can picture that Sally will have the wrong idea about where the ball is. 12

Examples of Operations that Preoperational Children Cannot Do…Yet

Conservation refers to the ability to understand that a quantity is conserved (does not change) even when it is arranged in a different shape.

Which row has more

mice? 13

Piaget’s Piaget’s PrePre--

Operational Operational StageStage

Inability to understand conservation of matter.

Concrete Operational Stage

From about 7 to about 11 Abstract reasoning ability & ability to

generalize from the concrete increases Understands conservation of matter

Formal Operations From about 12 to about 15

Be able to think about hypothetical situations Form & test hypotheses Organize information Reason scientifically

Formal Operational Stage (Age 11 +)

Concrete operations include analogies such as “My brain is like a

computer.”

Formal operations includes allegorical

thinking such as “People who live in

glass houses shouldn’t throw stones”

(understanding that this is a comment on

hypocrisy).

Includes arithmetic transformations:

if 4 + 8 = 12, 12 – 4 = ?

Includes algebra: if x = 3y and x – 2y = 4,

what is x?

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Developmental Psychology

Birth to 2 yrs

Sensorimotor Uses senses and motor skills, items known by use; Object permanence

2 - 7 yrs Pre-operational Symbolic thinking, language used; egocentric thinking, imagination/ experience grow, child de-centers

7 - 11 yrs Concrete operational

Logic applied, objective/rational interpretations; conservation, numbers, ideas, classifications

11 yrs on Formal operational

Thinks abstractly, hypothetical ideas; ethics, politics, social/moral issues explored

Piaget’s cognitive development theory summary

… Piaget’s Development Development happens from one stage to

another through interaction with the environment.

Changes from stage to stage may occur abruptly and kids will differ in how long they are in each stage.

Cognitive development can only happen after genetically controlled biological growth occurs.

Piaget & Education

Piaget did not think it was possible to hurry along or skip stages through education

Regardless, many American schools will try to teach to the stages in an attempt to accelerate development

Problems with Piaget’s Theory Children often grasp ideas earlier than

what Piaget found

Cognitive development across domains is inconsistent (e.g. better at reading than math)

Studies have shown that development can to some degree be accelerated

Lev Vygotsky: Alternative to Jean Piaget Lev Vygotsky (1896-

1934) studied kids too, but focused on how they learn in the context of social communication.

Principle: children learn thinking skills by internalizing language from others and developing inner speech: “Put the big blocks on the bottom, not the top…”

Vygotsky saw development as building on a scaffold of mentoring, language, and cognitive support from parents and others.

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Social Development: Attachment

Attachment refers to an emotional tie to another person. In children, attachment can appear as a desire for physical closeness to a caregiver.

Origins of AttachmentExperiments with monkeys suggest that attachment is based on physical affection and comfortable body contact, and not based on being rewarded with food.

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Attachment Variation: Styles of Dealing with SeparationThe degree and style of parent-child attachment has been tested by Mary Ainsworth in the “strange situations” test. In this test, a child is observed as:1.a mother and infant child are alone in an unfamiliar (“strange”) room; the child explores the room as the mother just sits.2.a stranger enters the room, talks to the mother, and approaches the child; the mother leaves the room.3.After a few moments, the mother returns.

Reactions to Separation and Reunion

Secure attachment: most children (60 percent) feel distress when mother leaves, and seek contact with her when she returns

Insecure attachment (anxious style): clinging to mother, less likely to explore environment, and may get loudly upset with mother’s departure and remain upset when she returns

Insecure attachment (avoidant style): seeming indifferent to mother’s departure and return 24

Deprivation of Attachment If children live without

safe, nurturing, affectionate caretaking, they may still be resilient, that is bounce back, attach, and succeed.

However, if the child experiences severe, prolonged deprivation or abuse, he or she may: have difficulty forming

attachments. have increased anxiety

and depression. have lowered intelligence. show increased

aggression. 25

Childhood: Hypothetical Parenting Styles

Style Response to Child’s Behavior

Authoritarian“Too Hard”

Parents impose rules “because I said so” and expect obedience.

Permissive“Too Soft”

Parents submit to kids’ desires, not enforcing limits or standards for child behavior.

Authoritative“Just Right”

Parents enforce rules, limits, and standards but also explain, discuss, listen, and express

respect for child’s ideas and wishes.

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Outcomes with Parenting Styles Authoritative

parenting, more than the other two styles, seems to be associated with: high self-reliance. high social

competence. high self-esteem. low aggression.

But are these a result of parenting style, or are parents responding to a child’s temperament? Or are both a function of culture ? Or genes?

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Baumrind: Three Parenting Styles

Style Authoritarian Permissive Authoritative

Warmth low high high

Discipline strict rare moderateExpected Maturity high low moderateCommunication: parent-child

high low high

Communication: child-parent

low high high

Slavin, 2003

Theories of Moral Development Kohlberg

Slavin, 2003

Kohlberg’s Stages of Moral Reasoning

He identified three levels that are made up of six stages; The levels are

Preconventional Conventional Postconventional

Slavin, 2003

Preconventional Level

Stage 1: Punishment and obedience orientation. Physical consequences of action determine its goodness or badness.

Stage 2: Instrumental relativist orientation. What is right is what satisfies your own needs and occasionally the needs of others, e.g., the expectations of the family group or nation can be seen as valuable in own right.

Slavin, 2003

Conventional Level

Stage 3: “Good boy – good girl” orientation – good behavior is what pleases or helps others and is approved by them

Stage 4: Law and order orientation – right is doing one’s duty, showing respect for authority, and maintaining social order for its own sake

Slavin, 2003

Postconventional Level

Stage 5: Social contract orientation – what is right is a function of individual rights and agreed upon standards.

Stage 6: Universal ethical principle orientation – what is right is determined decision of conscience according to self-chosen ethical principles (these principles are abstract and ethical not specific moral prescriptions)

Level I: Preconventional moral reasoning

Stage 1 “might makes right”

Punishment/obedience orientation: self-interest

Stage 2 “look out for number one”

Instrumental/relativist orientation: quid pro quo

Level II: Conventional moral reasoning

Stage 3 “good girl, nice boy”

Proper behavior for the social approval

Stage 4 “law and order”

Proper behavior of the dutiful citizen, obey laws

Level III: Postconventional moral reasoning

Stage 5 “social contract”

Mutual benefit to all, obey society’s rules

Stage 6 “universal ethical principles”

Defend right/wrong, not just majority, all life is sacred (reflective)

Kohlberg’s theory of moral development summary

http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=5czp9S4u26M – Check out Heinz Dilemma and see what stage of moral development you are on

Slavin, 2003

Criticisms

Kohlberg’s population for his research was primarily male.

Some research on girls’ moral reasoning finds patterns that are somewhat different from those proposed by Kohlberg.

Whereas boys’ moral reasoning revolves primarily around issues of justice, girls are more concerned about issues of caring and responsibility for others. (Slavin, 2003, pp. 58-59)

Slavin, 2003

Criticisms (continued)

Young children often reason about moral situations in more sophisticated ways than the stage theories of Piaget and Kohlberg would suggest. Children as young as 3 or 4 years old use intentions to judge the behavior of others (Slavin, 2003).

Slavin, 2003

Criticisms (continued)

Moral reasoning does not directly translate into behavior. Behavior may be affected by many other factors other than reasoning, e.g.,

“Go along to get along”

Example:looting after a natural disaster

Which level of moral reasoning is involved?Looting is a problem; if everyone did it, there would be escalating chaos and greater damage to the economy.Looting is generally wrong, yet morally right when your family’s survival seems to depend on it.Looting is wrong because you might get punished, but if no one is punished, that’s a sign that it’s okay.

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Moral Intuition

Jonathan Haidt believed moral decisions are often driven by moral intuition, that is, quick, gut-feeling decisions.

This intuition is not just based in moral reasoning but also in emotions such as: disgust. We may turn

away from choosing an action because it feels awful.

elevated feelings. We may get a rewarding delight from some moral behavior such as donating to charity.

An Example of Moral Intuition:Given a hypothetical choice to save five people from an oncoming trolley by killing one person, many people’s choice is determined not just by reasoning, but by disgust.Many people would flip a switch to make this choice, but not as many would push a person on the tracks to save five others.

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Erik Erikson: The Life-Span Approach

Psychosocial Stages of Personality Development 8 successive stages over the lifespan Addresses bio, social, situational, personal

influences Crisis: must adaptively or maladaptively cope

with task in each developmental stage Respond adaptively: acquire strengths needed for

next developmental stage Respond maladaptively: less likely to be able to adapt

to later problems Basic strengths: Motivating characteristics and

beliefs that derive from successful resolution of crisis in each stage

Stage 1: Basic Trust vs. Mistrust

Birth to age 1 Totally dependent on others Caregiver meets needs: child develops trust Caregiver does not meet needs: child

develops mistrust Basic strength: Hope

Belief our desires will be satisfied Feeling of confidence

Stage 2: Autonomy vs. Shame and Doubt

Ages 1-3 Child able to exercise some degree of choice Child’s independence is thwarted: child

develops feelings of self-doubt, shame in dealing with others

Basic Strength: Will Determination to exercise freedom of choice in

face of society’s demands

Stage 3: Initiative vs. Guilt

Ages 3-5 Child expresses desire to take initiative in

activities Parents punish child for initiative: child

develops feelings of guilt that will affect self-directed activity throughout life

Basic strength: Purpose Courage to envision and pursue goals

Stage 4: Industriousness vs. Inferiority

Ages 6-11 Child develops cognitive abilities to enable in

task completion (school work, play) Parents/teachers do not support child’s

efforts: child develops feelings of inferiority and inadequacy

Basci strength: Competence Exertion of skill and intelligence in pursuing and

completing tasks

Stages 1-4 Largely determined by others (parents, teachers)

Stages 5-8 Individual has more control over environment Individual responsibility for crisis resolution in

each stage

Stage 5: Identity vs. Role Confusion

Ages 12-18 Form ego identity: self-image Strong sense of identity: face adulthood with

certainty and confidence Identity crisis: confusion of ego identity Basic strength: Fidelity

Emerges from cohesive ego identity Sincerity, genuineness, sense of duty in

relationships with others

Stage 6: Intimacy vs. Isolation

Ages 18-35 (approximately) Undertake productive work and establish

intimate relationships Inability to establish intimacy leads to social

isolation Basic strength: Love

Mutual devotion in a shared identity Fusing of oneself with another person

Stage 7: Generativity vs. Stagnation

Ages 35-55 (approximately) Generativity: Active involvement in

teaching/guiding the next generation Stagnation involves not seeking outlets for

generativity Basic strength: Care

Broad concern for others Need to teach others

Stage 8: Ego Integrity vs. Despair

Ages 55+ Evaluation of entire life Integrity: Look back with satisfaction Despair: Review with anger, frustration Basic strength: Wisdom

Detached concern with the whole of life

Assessment in Erikson’s Theory

Psychohistorical Analysis Application of lifespan theory to lives of historical

figures Psychological Tests:

Instruments based on crises in stages

Research in Erikson’s Theory

Trust Early strong bonds with mother later were more

curious, sociable and popular Identity

Strong identity associated with greater cognitive and emotional functioning in college students

Crisis may begin later than age 12 Continuing process over the lifespan

Research in Erikson’s Theory

Generativity Evokes need to feel closer to others Correlated with extraversion, openness to new

experiences Likely to be involved in community, social

relationships

Research in Erikson’s Theory

Maturity High ego integrity: spent much time reviewing

their lives Ethnic Identity

Ethnic minorities: ethnic identity significant factor in determining sense of self

Contributions of Erikson

Personality develops throughout the lifetime Identity crisis in adolescence Impact of social, cultural, personal and

situational forces in forming personality

Criticisms of Erikson

Ambiguous terms and concepts Lack of precision

Some terms are not easily measured empirically Experiences in stage may only apply to

males Identity crisis may only apply to those affluent

enough to explore identities

Adolescent Development

Physical development Puberty becomes production of sex hormones Primary sex characteristics appear

Females – menarche: menstruation, ovulation Secondary sex characteristics appear

Females – breasts, pubic hair, wider hips Males – testes and penis growth, facial and pubic

hair, broadened shoulders

Developmental Psychology

Adolescence

Cognitive development Formal operations stage entered

Ability to use abstract concepts Shift to stage varies among individuals; some never

reach this stage, others reach it in early adulthood Piaget’s classic experiment with weights

Developmental Psychology

Adolescence Adolescent egocentrism

Imaginary audience – everyone is watching Personal fable – belief that s/he is unique Hypocrisy – okay for one to do it but not

another Pseudostupidity – use of oversimplified logic

Social development Time of drifting or breaking away from family

Developmental Psychology

Adolescence

Emotional development G. Stanley Hall – time of storm and stress Most adolescents are happy, well-adjusted Areas of problems

Parent-child conflicts Mood changes - self-conscious, awkward, lonely,

ignored Risky behavior - aggression, unprotected sex,

suicide, use of substances or alcohol

Developmental Psychology

Social Development: Erik Erikson (1902-1994) Erik Erikson’s model of lifelong

psychosocial development sees adolescence as a struggle to form an identity, a sense of self, out of the social roles adolescents are asked to play.

Adolescents may try out different “selves” with peers, with parents, and with teachers. For Erikson, the challenge in adolescence was to test and integrate the roles in order to prevent role confusion (which of those selves, or what combination, is really me?).

Some teens solve this problem simply by adopting one role, defined by parents or peers.

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Erik Erikson: Stages of Psychosocial Development

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Other Eriksonian stages on the minds of adolescents

While currently in the identity vs. role confusion stage,adolescents have ideally just finished working through the tension of competence vs. inferiority.They are ready after adolescence to take on the challenge of intimacy vs. isolation.

63

Adolescence, the sequel… Emerging Adulthood

In some countries, added years of education and later marriage has delayed full adult independence beyond traditional adolescence. This seems to have created a new phase which can be called emerging adulthood, ages 18-25.

64

AdulthoodIs the rest of the developmental story just one long plateau of work and possibly raising kids? Physical Development

physical decline lifespan and death sensory changes

Cognitive Development memory

Social Development commitments

65

Adult Physical Development

In our mid-20’s, we reach a peak in the natural physical abilities which come with biological maturation: muscular strength cardiac output reaction time sensory sensitivity

To what extent can training overcome the decline that follows?

66

Physical Changes: Middle Adulthood

The end the reproductive years There is a gradual

decline in sexual activity in adulthood, although sexuality can continue throughout life.

Around age 50, women enter menopause (the end of being able to get pregnant).

According to evolutionary psychologists, why might it make sense for women’s fertility to end?

Between ages 40 and 60, physical vitality (such as endurance and strength) may still be more of a function of lifestyle than of biological decline.

Some changes are still driven by genetic maturation, especially the end of our reproductive years.

67

The Aging Body Potential lifespan for the

human body is estimated to be about 122 years.

Life expectancy refers to the average expected life span.

The worldwide average has increased from 49 in 1950 to 69 in 2010. In 2012:South Africa—49Cameroon—55Pakistan—66Thailand--74United States--75 Ireland--80Australia—82Japan--84

More Aged Women The rise in life expectancy,

combined with declining birth rates, means a higher percentage of the world’s population is old.

More elderly people are women because more men die than women at every age. By age 100, women outnumber men by a ratio of 5 to 1.

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Why don’t we live forever? Possible biological answers… Nurture/Environment

An accumulation of stress, damage, and disease wears us down until one of these factors kills us.

GenesSome people have genes that protect against some kinds of damage.

Even with great genes and environment, telomeres (the tips at the end of chromosomes) wear down with every generation of cell duplication and we stop healing well.

69

Physical Changes with Age

The following abilities decline as we age:visual acuity, both sharpness and brightnesshearing, especially sensing higher pitchreaction time and general motor abilitiesneural processing speed, especially for complex and novel tasks

70

Health/Immunity Changes with AgeThe bad

news

The good news

The immune system declines with age, and can have difficulty fighting off major illnesses.

The immune system has a lifetime’s accumulation of antibodies, and does well fighting off minor illnesses.

71

Exercise Can Slow the Aging Process

Exercise can:build muscles and bones.stimulate neurogenesis (in the hippocampus) and new neural connections.maintain telomeres.improve cognition.reduce the risk of dementia.

72

Changes in the Brain with Age Myelin-enhanced

neural processing speed peaks in the teen years, and declines thereafter.

Regions of the brain related to memory begin to shrink with age, making it harder to form new memories.

The frontal lobes atrophy, leading eventually to decreased inhibition and self-control.

By age 80, a healthy brain is 5 percent lighter than a brain in middle adulthood.

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Coping with Death and DyingIndividual responses to death may vary.Grief is more intense when death occurs unexpectedly (especially if also too early on the social clock). There is NO standard pattern or length of the grieving process. It seems to help to have the support of friends or groups, and to face the reality of death and grief while affirming the value of life.

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The Final Issue in Development: Stability and Change

Are we essentially the same person over long periods? In general, temperament seems stable.Traits can vary, especially attitudes, coping

strategies, work habits, and styles of socializing.

Personality seems to stabilize with age.Stability helps us form identity, while the potential for change gives us control over our lives.

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