Basic Anthropometric Data and Ergonomic DataAnthropometry is the scientific study and measurement of the human body.Anthropometry(fromGreekanthropos, "man" and metron, "measure") refers to the measurement of the human individual. An early tool of physical, it has been used for identification, for the purposes of understanding human physical variation, inpale anthropologyand in various attempts to correlate physical with racial and psychological traits.Today, anthropometry plays an important role inindustrial design,clothingdesign,ergonomicsand architecture where statistical data about the distribution of body dimensions in the population are used to optimize products. Changes in lifestyles, nutrition, and ethnic composition of populations lead to changes in the distribution of body dimensions (e.g. theobesity epidemic), and require regular updating of anthropometric data collections.

The history of anthropometry includes and spans various concepts, bothscientificandpseudoscientific, such as craniometrist,pale anthropology,biological anthropology,phrenology,physiognomy,forensics,criminology,phylogeography,human origins, and cardio-facial description, as well as correlations between various anthropometrics andpersonal identity,mental typology,personality,cranial vaultandbrain size, and other factors.At various times in history, applications of anthropometry have ranged vastlyfrom accuratescientific descriptionandepidemiological analysisto rationales for eugenicsand overtlyracistsocial movementsand its points of concern have been numerous, diverse, and sometimes highly unexpected.

Ergonomics is the science of the relationship between man and machinery and the equipment human beings use, and the working environment. Having something that is called ergonomic means that the item has been designed to maximize productivity by minimizing effort and discomfort.The diagrams on the following page describe the basicand average sizes (based on 90 percentile) of human beings performingvarious functions and movements.These are here as a tool for interiordesigners to aid working out how high or how far an average maleor female may reach in relative comfort.These are factors that need to be considered when designing joinery or cabinetry, furniture, planning circulation spaces, work spaces, accessible spaces and to generally make the user comfortable in their interior environment.Please note that all these measurements are in millimeters and arebased on the authors experience and common industry standards.Officialconfirmation if required should be obtained from your Ministry of Health or similar governing body of your country.

Diagram 1 depicts the average heights and widths of variousparts of the body face on. Use this in relation to joinery and spaceplanning.

Diagram 2 depicts the average maximum distance of outstretchedarms. This may be used when planning a small bathroom and the distanceneed for drying ones self.

Diagram 3 depicts the various heights and lengths of partsof the body with the legs bent as for sitting or climbing. Relate thisto chairs and tables.

Diagram 4 depicts the reach of forward outstretched arms.Reference to this is important with cupboards and shelves over benchesand to windows behind furniture.

Diagram 5 depicts the maximum reach (flat footed) straightup. This can be referred to for the maximum height of close shelves orcupboards while also considering the angle.

Diagram 6 depicts the height of the forearm when standingand bent at right angles. This is useful for determining the heightsof work surfaces.

Diagram 7 depicts the height of a person when kneelingor crouching down. You can determine minimum heights of shelving or basicreach.

Diagram 8 depicts the height of a medium use workbench.It also shows space allocated for the front of the foot to fit underthe bench.

Diagram 9 depicts a person sitting at a table. The heightof the chair and table are shown in relation to the body.

Diagrams 10 and 11 depict heights and widths of shelvesshowing the reach required and also the eye line.

Diagram 12 depicts a person in sitting position showing the base of the bent forearm to the seat height for armrests, the thickness of the thigh and the height from the base of the thigh to the floor for clearance under tables.

Diagram 13 shows where the eyes height in relation tothe floor. Use this to determine placing of items such as switching orsignage.

Diagram 14 depicts the length of the legs and body combinedwhen sitting on the floor or bed. Use this to help determine leg room.Lets hope you find thisanthropometric datauseful, it can make or break the comfort level in a design. So it is a very handy design tool.

Human factors and ergonomics

Human factors and ergonomics(HF&E), aka comfort design, functional design, and user-friendly systems, is a multidisciplinary field incorporating contributions frompsychology,engineering,biomechanics,mechanobiology,industrial design,physiologyandanthropometry. In essence it is the study of designing equipment and devices that fit the human body and itscognitiveabilities. The two terms "human factors" and "ergonomics" are essentially synonymous. The International Ergonomics Association defines ergonomics or human factors as follows: Ergonomics (or human factors) is the scientific discipline concerned with the understanding of interactions among humans and other elements of a system, and the profession that applies theory, principles, data and methods to design in order to optimize human well-being and overall system performance.

Human Factors & Ergonomics is employed to fulfill the goals ofoccupational health and safetyandproductivity. It is relevant in the design of such things as safe furniture and easy-to-use interfaces to machines and equipment. Proper ergonomic design is necessary to preventrepetitive strain injuriesand othermusculoskeletal disorders, which can develop over time and can lead to long-term disability.Human factors and ergonomics are concerned with the "fit" between the user, equipment and their environments. It takes account of the user's capabilities and limitations in seeking to ensure that tasks, functions, information and the environment suit each user.To assess the fit between a person and the used technology, human factors specialists or ergonomists consider the job (activity) being done and the demands on the user; the equipment used (its size, shape, and how appropriate it is for the task), and the information used (how it is presented, accessed, and changed). Ergonomics draws on many disciplines in its study of humans and their environments, includinganthropometry,biomechanics,mechanical engineering,industrial engineering,industrial design,information design,kinesiology,physiology,cognitive psychologyand industrial.

Etymology

The termergonomics,fromGreek, meaning "work", and, meaning "natural laws" first entered the modern lexicon when Polish scientistWojciech Jastrzbowskiused the word in his 1857 articleRys ergonomji czyli nauki o pracy, opartej na prawdach poczerpnitych z Nauki Przyrody(The Outline of Ergonomics; i.e. Science of Work, Based on the Truths Taken from the Natural Science).[6]The introduction of the term to the English lexicon is widely attributed to British psychologist Hywel Murrell, at the 1949 meeting at the UK'sAdmiralty, which led to the foundation ofThe Ergonomics Society. He used it to encompass the studies in which he had been engaged during and after World War II.[7]The expressionhuman factorsis a North American term which has been adopted to emphasise the application of the same methods to non work-related situations. A "human factor" is a physical orcognitiveproperty of an individual or socialbehaviorspecific to humans that may influence the functioning of technological systems. The terms "human factors" and "ergonomics" are essentially synonymous.[2]Domains of specialization[edit]Ergonomics comprise three main fields of research: Physical, cognitive and organisational ergonomics.There are many specializations within these broad categories. Specialisations in the field of physical ergonomics may include visual ergonomics. Specialisations within the field of cognitive ergonomics may include usability,humancomputer interaction, and user experience engineering.Some specialisations may cut across these domains:Environmental ergonomicsis concerned with human interaction with the environment as characterized by climate, temperature, pressure, vibration, light.[8]The emerging field ofhuman factors in highway safetyuses human factor principles to understand the actions and capabilities of road users - car and truck drivers, pedestrians, bicyclists, etc. - and use this knowledge to design roads and streets to reducetraffic collisions. Driver error is listed as a contributing factor in 44% of fatal collisions in the United States, so a topic of particular interest is how road users gather and process information about the road and its environment, and how to assist them to make the appropriate decision.[9]New terms are being generated all the time. For instance, user trial engineer may refer to a human factors professional who specialises in user trials.[citation needed]Although the names change, human factors professionals apply an understanding of human factors to the design of equipment, systems and working methods in order to improve comfort, health, safety, and productivity.According to theInternational Ergonomics Associationwithin the discipline of ergonomics there exist domains of specialization:Physical ergonomics[edit]

Physical ergonomics: the science of designing user interaction with equipment and workplaces to fit the user.

Keyboard heatmapMain article:Physical ergonomicsPhysical ergonomicsis concerned with human anatomy, and some of the anthropometric, physiological and bio mechanical characteristics as they relate to physical activity.[5]Physical ergonomic principles have been widely used in thedesignof both consumer and industrial products. Past examples includescrewdriverhandles made with serrations to improve finger grip, and use of softthermoplastic elastomersto increasefrictionbetween the skin of the hand and the handle surface.[citation needed]Physical ergonomics is important in the medical field, particularly to those diagnosed with physiological ailments or disorders such asarthritis(both chronic and temporary) orcarpal tunnel syndrome. Pressure that is insignificant or imperceptible to those unaffected by these disorders may be very painful, or render a device unusable, for those who are. Many ergonomically designed products are also used or recommended to treat or prevent such disorders, and to treat pressure-relatedchronic pain.[citation needed]One of the most prevalent types of work-related injuries are musculoskeletal disorders. Work-related musculoskeletal disorders (WRMDs) result in persistent pain, loss of functional capacity and work disability, but their initial diagnosis is difficult because they are mainly based on complaints of pain and other symptoms.[10]Every year 1.8million U.S. workers experience WRMDs and nearly 600,000 of the injuries are serious enough to cause workers to miss work.[11]Certain jobs or work conditions cause a higher rate worker complaints of undue strain, localized fatigue, discomfort, or pain that does not go away after overnight rest. These types of jobs are often those involving activities such as repetitive and forceful exertions; frequent, heavy, or overhead lifts; awkward work positions; or use of vibrating equipment.[12]The Occupational Safety and Health Administration (OSHA) has found substantial evidence that ergonomics programs can cut workers' compensation costs, increase productivity and decrease employee turnover.[13]Therefore, it is important to gather data to identify jobs or work conditions that are most problematic, using sources such as injury and illness logs, medical records, and job analyses.[12]Cognitive ergonomics[edit]Main article:Cognitive ergonomicsCognitive ergonomicsis concerned with mental processes, such as perception, memory, reasoning, and motor response, as they affect interactions among humans and other elements of a system.[5](Relevant topics include mental workload, decision-making, skilled performance, human-computer interaction, human reliability, work stress and training as these may relate to human-system andHuman-Computer Interactiondesign.)Organizational ergonomics[edit]Organizational ergonomicsis concerned with the optimization of socio-technical systems, including their organizational structures, policies, and processes.[5](Relevant topics include communication, crew resource management, work design,work systems, design of working times, teamwork,participatory design, community ergonomics, cooperative work, new work programs, virtual organizations, telework, and quality management.)History of the field[edit]In ancient societies[edit]The foundations of the science of ergonomics appear to have been laid within the context of the culture ofAncient Greece. A good deal of evidence indicates that Greek civilization in the 5th century BC used ergonomic principles in the design of their tools, jobs, and workplaces. One outstanding example of this can be found in the descriptionHippocratesgave of how a surgeon's workplace should be designed and how the tools he uses should be arranged.[14]Thearchaeological recordalso shows that the early Egyptian dynasties made tools and household equipment that illustrated ergonomic principles.In industrial societies[edit]In the 19th century,Frederick Winslow Taylorpioneered the "scientific management" method, which proposed a way to find the optimum method of carrying out a given task. Taylor found that he could, for example, triple the amount of coal that workers were shoveling by incrementally reducing the size and weight of coal shovels until the fastest shoveling rate was reached.[15]FrankandLillian Gilbrethexpanded Taylor's methods in the early 1900s to develop the "time and motion study". They aimed to improve efficiency by eliminating unnecessary steps and actions. By applying this approach, the Gilbreths reduced the number of motions inbricklayingfrom 18 to 4.5, allowing bricklayers to increase their productivity from 120 to 350 bricks per hour.[15]However this approach was rejected byRussianresearchers who focused on the well being of the worker. At theFirst Conference on Scientific Organization of Labour(1921)Vladimir BekhterevandVladimir Nikolayevich Myasishchevcriticised Taylorism. Bekhterev argued that "The ultimate ideal of the labour problem is not in it [Taylorism], but is in such organisation of the labour process that would yield a maximum of efficiency coupled with a minimum of health hazards, absence of fatigue and a guarantee of the sound health and all round personal development of the working people."[16]Myasishchev rejected Frederick Taylor's proposal to turn man into a machine. Dull monotonous work was a temporary necessity until a corresponding machine can be developed. He also went on to suggest a new discipline of "ergology" to study work as an integral part of the re-organisation of work. The concept was taken up by Myasishchev's mentor, Bekhterev, in his final report on the conference, merely changing the name to "ergonology"[16]In aviation[edit]Prior toWorld WarIthe focus of aviation psychology was on the aviator himself, but the war shifted the focus onto the aircraft, in particular, the design of controls and displays, the effects of altitude and environmental factors on the pilot. The war saw the emergence of aeromedical research and the need for testing and measurement methods. Studies on driver behaviour started gaining momentum during this period, asHenry Fordstarted providing millions of Americans with automobiles. Another major development during this period was the performance of aeromedical research. By the end of World WarI, two aeronautical labs were established, one atBrooks Air Force Base, Texas and the other atWright-Patterson Air Force Baseoutside ofDayton, Ohio. Many tests were conducted to determine which characteristic differentiated the successful pilots from the unsuccessful ones. During the early 1930s,Edwin Linkdeveloped the first flight simulator. The trend continued and more sophisticated simulators and test equipment were developed. Another significant development was in the civilian sector, where the effects of illumination on worker productivity were examined. This led to the identification of theHawthorne Effect, which suggested that motivational factors could significantly influence human performance.[15]World WarIImarked the development of new and complex machines and weaponry, and these made new demands on operators'cognition. It was no longer possible to adopt the Tayloristic principle of matching individuals to preexisting jobs. Now the design of equipment had to take into account human limitations and take advantage of human capabilities. The decision-making, attention, situational awareness and hand-eye coordination of the machine's operator became key in the success or failure of a task. There was a lot of research conducted to determine the human capabilities and limitations that had to be accomplished. A lot of this research took off where the aeromedical research between the wars had left off. An example of this is the study done by Fitts and Jones (1947), who studied the most effective configuration of control knobs to be used in aircraft cockpits.A lot of this research transcended into other equipment with the aim of making the controls and displays easier for the operators to use. The entry of the terms "human factors" and "ergonomics" into the modern lexicon date from this period. It was observed that fully functional aircraft flown by the best-trained pilots, still crashed. In 1943Alphonse Chapanis, a lieutenant in the U.S. Army, showed that this so-called "pilot error" could be greatly reduced when more logical and differentiable controls replaced confusing designs in airplane cockpits. After the war, the Army Air Force published 19 volumes summarizing what had been established from research during the war.[15]In the decades since World WarII, HF&E has continued to flourish and diversify. Work byElias Porterand others within theRAND Corporationafter WWII extended the conception of HF&E. "As the thinking progressed, a new concept developedthat it was possible to view an organization such as an air-defense, man-machine system as a single organism and that it was possible to study the behavior of such an organism. It was the climate for a breakthrough."[17]In the initial 20years after the World WarII, most activities were done by the "founding fathers":Alphonse Chapanis,Paul Fitts, and Small.[citation needed]During the Cold War[edit]The beginning of theCold Warled to a major expansion of Defense supported research laboratories. Also, many labs established during WWII started expanding. Most of the research following the war was military-sponsored. Large sums of money were granted to universities to conduct research. The scope of the research also broadened from small equipments to entire workstations and systems. Concurrently, a lot of opportunities started opening up in the civilian industry. The focus shifted from research to participation through advice to engineers in the design of equipment. After 1965, the period saw a maturation of the discipline. The field has expanded with the development of the computer and computer applications.[15]TheSpace Agecreated new human factors issues such as weightlessness and extremeg-forces. Tolerance of the harsh environment of space and its effects on the mind and body were widely studied[citation needed]Information age[edit]The dawn of theInformation Agehas resulted in the related field ofhumancomputer interaction(HCI). Likewise, the growing demand for and competition amongconsumer goodsandelectronicshas resulted in more companies and industries including human factors in their product design. Using advanced technologies inhuman kinetics, body-mapping, movement patterns and heat zones, companies are able to manufacture purpose-specific garments, including full body suits, jerseys, shorts, shoes, and even underwear.[18][19]HF&E organizations[edit]Formed in 1946 in theUK, the oldest professional body for human factors specialists and ergonomists isThe Institute of Ergonomics and Human Factors, formally known asThe Ergonomics Society.TheHuman Factors and Ergonomics Society(HFES) was founded in 1957. The Society's mission is to promote the discovery and exchange of knowledge concerning the characteristics of human beings that are applicable to the design of systems and devices of all kinds.TheInternational Ergonomics Association(IEA) is a federation of ergonomics and human factors societies from around the world. The mission of the IEA is to elaborate and advance ergonomics science and practice, and to improve the quality of life by expanding its scope of application and contribution to society. As of September 2008, the International Ergonomics Association has 46 federated societies and 2 affiliated societies.Related organizations[edit]TheInstitute of Occupational Medicine(IOM) was founded by the coal industry in 1969, from the outset the IOM employed ergonomics staff to apply ergonomics principles to the design of mining machinery and environments. To this day, the IOM continues ergonomics activities, especially in the fields ofmusculoskeletal disorders; heat stress and the ergonomics ofpersonal protective equipment(PPE). Like many in occupational ergonomics, the demands and requirements of an ageing UK workforce are a growing concern and interest to IOM ergonomists.The InternationalSociety of Automotive Engineers(SAE) is a professional organization for mobility engineering professionals in the aerospace, automotive, and commercial vehicle industries. The Society is a standards development organization for the engineering of powered vehicles of all kinds, including cars, trucks, boats, aircraft, and others. The Society of Automotive Engineers has established a number of standards used in the automotive industry and elsewhere. It encourages the design of vehicles in accordance with established Human Factors principles. It is one of the most influential organizations with respect to Ergonomics work inAutomotive design. This society regularly holds conferences which address topics spanning all aspects of Human Factors/Ergonomics.[citation needed]Practitioners[edit]Human factors practitioners come from a variety of backgrounds, though predominantly they are psychologists (from the various subfields ofindustrial and organizational psychology,engineering psychology,cognitive psychology,perceptual psychology,applied psychology, andexperimental psychology) and physiologists. Designers (industrial, interaction, and graphic), anthropologists, technical communication scholars and computer scientists also contribute. Typically, an ergonomist will have anundergraduate degreein psychology, engineering, design orhealth sciences, and usually amasters degreeordoctoral degreein a related discipline. Though some practitioners enter the field of human factors from other disciplines, both M.S. and PhD degrees in Human Factors Engineering are available from several universities worldwide. The Human Factors Research Group (HFRG) at theUniversity of Nottinghamprovides human factors courses at both at MSc and PhD level including a distance learning course in Applied Ergonomics.[20]Other Universities to offer postgraduate courses in human factors in the UK includeLoughborough University,Cranfield Universityand theUniversity of Oxford.[citation needed]Methods[edit]Until recently, methods used to evaluate human factors and ergonomics ranged from simple questionnaires to more complex and expensiveusabilitylabs.[21]Some of the more common HF&E methods are listed below:Ethnographic analysis:Using methods derived fromethnography, this process focuses on observing the uses of technology in a practical environment. It is a qualitative and observational method that focuses on "real-world" experience and pressures, and the usage of technology or environments in the workplace. The process is best used early in the design process.[22]Focus Groupsare another form of qualitative research in which one individual will facilitate discussion and elicit opinions about the technology or process under investigation. This can be on a one to one interview basis, or in a group session. Can be used to gain a large quantity of deep qualitative data,[23]though due to the small sample size, can be subject to a higher degree of individual bias.[24]Can be used at any point in the design process, as it is largely dependent on the exact questions to be pursued, and the structure of the group. Can be extremely costly.Iterative design:Also known as prototyping, the iterative design process seeks to involve users at several stages of design, in order to correct problems as they emerge. As prototypes emerge from the design process, these are subjected to other forms of analysis as outlined in this article, and the results are then taken and incorporated into the new design. Trends amongst users are analyzed, and products redesigned. This can become a costly process, and needs to be done as soon as possible in the design process before designs become too concrete.[22]Meta-analysis:A supplementary technique used to examine a wide body of already existing data or literature in order to derive trends or form hypotheses in order to aid design decisions. As part of a literature survey, a meta-analysis can be performed in order to discern a collective trend from individual variables.[24]Subjects-in-tandem:Two subjects are asked to work concurrently on a series of tasks while vocalizing their analytical observations. The technique is also known as "Co-Discovery" as participants tend to feed off of each other's comments to generate a richer set of observations than is often possible with the participants separately. This is observed by the researcher, and can be used to discover usability difficulties. This process is usually recorded.[citation needed]Surveys and Questionnaires:A commonly used technique outside of Human Factors as well, surveys and questionnaires have an advantage in that they can be administered to a large group of people for relatively low cost, enabling the researcher to gain a large amount of data. The validity of the data obtained is, however, always in question, as the questions must be written and interpreted correctly, and are, by definition, subjective. Those who actually respond are in effect self-selecting as well, widening the gap between the sample and the population further.[24]Task analysis:A process with roots inactivity theory, task analysis is a way of systematically describing human interaction with a system or process to understand how to match the demands of the system or process to human capabilities. The complexity of this process is generally proportional to the complexity of the task being analyzed, and so can vary in cost and time involvement. It is a qualitative and observational process. Best used early in the design process.[24]Think aloud protocol:Also known as "concurrent verbal protocol", this is the process of asking a user to execute a series of tasks or use technology, while continuously verbalizing their thoughts so that a researcher can gain insights as to the users' analytical process. Can be useful for finding design flaws that do not affect task performance, but may have a negative cognitive affect on the user. Also useful for utilizing experts in order to better understand procedural knowledge of the task in question. Less expensive than focus groups, but tends to be more specific and subjective.[25]User analysis:This process is based around designing for the attributes of the intended user or operator, establishing the characteristics that define them, creating apersonafor the user. Best done at the outset of the design process, a user analysis will attempt to predict the most common users, and the characteristics that they would be assumed to have in common. This can be problematic if the design concept does not match the actual user, or if the identified are too vague to make clear design decisions from. This process is, however, usually quite inexpensive, and commonly used.[24]"Wizard of Oz":This is a comparatively uncommon technique but has seen some use in mobile devices. Based upon theWizard of Oz experiment, this technique involves an operator who remotely controls the operation of a device in order to imitate the response of an actual computer program. It has the advantage of producing a highly changeable set of reactions, but can be quite costly and difficult to undertake.Methods Analysisis the process of studying the tasks a worker completes using a step-by-step investigation. Each task in broken down into smaller steps until each motion the worker performs is described. Doing so enables you to see exactly where repetitive or straining tasks occur.Time studiesdetermine the time required for a worker to complete each task. Time studies are often used to analyze cyclical jobs. They are considered event based studies because time measurements are triggered by the occurrence of predetermined events.[26]Work samplingis a method in which the job is sampled at random intervals to determine the proportion of total time spent on a particular task.[26]It provides insight into how often workers are performing tasks which might cause strain on their bodies.Predetermined time systemsare methods for analyzing the time spent by workers on a particular task. One of the most widely used predetermined time system is called Methods-Time-Measurement (MTM). Other common work measurement systems include MODAPTS and MOST. Industry specific applications based on PTS areSeweasyand GSD.[citation needed]Cognitive Walkthrough:This method is ausability inspectionmethod in which the evaluators can apply user perspective to task scenarios to identify design problems. As applied to macroergonomics, evaluators are able to analyze the usability of work system designs to identify how well a work system is organized and how well the workflow is integrated.[27]Kansei Method:This is a method that transforms consumers responses to new products into design specifications. As applied to macroergonomics, this method can translate employees responses to changes to a work system into design specifications.[27]High Integration of Technology, Organization, and People (HITOP):This is a manual procedure done step-by-step to apply technological change to the workplace. It allows managers to be more aware of the human and organizational aspects of their technology plans, allowing them to efficiently integrate technology in these contexts.[27]Top Modeler:This model helps manufacturing companies identify the organizational changes needed when new technologies are being considered for their process.[27]Computer-integrated Manufacturing, Organization, and People System Design (CIMOP):This model allows for evaluating computer-integrated manufacturing, organization, and people system design based on knowledge of the system.[27]Anthropotechnology:This method considers analysis and design modification of systems for the efficient transfer of technology from one culture to another.[27]Systems AnalysisTool (SAT):This is a method to conduct systematic trade-off evaluations of work-system intervention alternatives.[27]Macroergonomic Analysis of Structure (MAS):This method analyzes the structure of work systems according to their compatibility with unique sociotechnical aspects.[27]Macroergonomic Analysis and Design (MEAD):This method assesses work-system processes by using a ten-step process.[27]Virtual Manufacturing and Response Surface Methodology (VMRSM):This method uses computerized tools and statistical analysis for workstation design.[28]Weaknesses of HF&E methods[edit]Problems related to usability measures are employed include the fact that measures of learning and retention of how to use an interface are rarely employed during methods and some studies treat measures of how users interact with interfaces as synonymous with quality-in-use, despite an unclear relation.[29]Although field methods can be extremely useful because they are conducted in the users natural environment, they have some major limitations to consider. The limitations include:Usually take more time and resources than other methodsVery high effort in planning, recruiting, and executing than other methodsMuch longer study periods and therefore requires much goodwill among the participantsStudies are longitudinal in nature, therefore, attrition can become a problem.[30]

Anthropometry(fromGreekanthropos, "man" and metron, "measure") refers to the measurement of the human individual. An early tool ofphysical anthropology, it has been used for identification, for the purposes of understanding human physical variation, inpaleoanthropologyand in various attempts to correlate physical with racial and psychological traits.Today, anthropometry plays an important role inindustrial design,clothingdesign,ergonomicsand architecture where statistical data about the distribution of body dimensions in the population are used to optimize products. Changes in lifestyles, nutrition, and ethnic composition of populations lead to changes in the distribution of body dimensions (e.g. theobesity epidemic), and require regular updating of anthropometric data collections.History[edit]

ABertillon recordforFrancis Galton, from a visit toBertillon's laboratory in 1893.Main article:History of anthropometryThe history of anthropometry includes and spans various concepts, bothscientificandpseudoscientific, such as craniometry,paleoanthropology,biological anthropology,phrenology,physiognomy,forensics,criminology,phylogeography,human origins, and cranio-facial description, as well as correlations between various anthropometrics andpersonal identity,mental typology,personality,cranial vaultandbrain size, and other factors.At various times in history, applications of anthropometry have ranged vastlyfrom accuratescientific descriptionandempidemiological analysisto rationales foreugenicsand overtlyracistsocial movementsand its points of concern have been numerous, diverse, and sometimes highly unexpected.

Height[edit]Main article:Human heightHuman heightvaries greatly between individuals and across populations for a variety of complex biological, genetic, and environmental factors, among others. Due to methodological and practical problems, its measurement is also subject to considerable error instatistical sampling.The average height in genetically and environmentallyhomogeneouspopulationsis often proportional across a large number of individuals. Exceptional height variation (around 20% deviation from a population's average) within such a population is sometimes due togigantismordwarfism, which are caused by specificgenesorendocrineabnormalities.[1]In the most extreme population comparisons, for example, the averagefemaleheight inBoliviais 1.422 m (4ft 8 in) while the averagemaleheight in theDinaric Alpsis 1.856 m (6ft 1 in), an average difference of 43.4cm (17 inches). Similarly, theshortestandtallestof individuals,Chandra Bahadur DangiandRobert Wadlow, have ranged from 1ft 9in (0.53m) to 8ft 11.1in (2.72m), respectively.[2][3]Weight[edit]Main article:Human weightHuman weightvaries extensively both individually and across populations, with the most extreme documented examples of adults beingLucia Zaratewho weighed 4.7 pounds (2.1kg), andJon Brower Minnochwho weighed 1,400 pounds (640kg), and with population extremes ranging from 109.3 pounds (49.6kg) inBangladeshto 192.7 pounds (87.4kg) inMicronesia.[4][5]Organs[edit]Adultbrain sizevaries from 974.9cm3(59.49cuin) to 1,498.1cm3(91.42cuin) in females and 1,052.9cm3(64.25cuin) to 1,498.5cm3(91.44cuin) in males, with the average being 1,130cm3(69cuin) and 1,260cm3(77cuin), respectively.[6][7]The rightcerebral hemisphereis typically larger than the left, whereas thecerebellar hemispheresare typically of more similar size.Size of the humanstomachvaries significantly in adults, with one study showing areas ranging from 520cm3(32cuin) to 1,536cm3(93.7cuin) and weights ranging from 77 grams (2.7oz) to 453 grams (16.0oz).[8]Maleandfemale genitaliaexhibit considerable individual variation, withpenis sizediffering substantially andvaginal sizediffering significantly in healthy adults.[9][10][11]Aesthetic[edit]Main articles:Human physical appearanceandphysical attractivenessHuman beautyandphysical attractivenesshave been preoccupations throughout history which often intersect with anthropometric standards.Cosmetology,facial symmetry, andwaisthip ratioare three such examples where measurements are commonly thought to be fundamental.Evolutionary science[edit]Anthropometric studies today are conducted to investigate the evolutionary significance of differences in body proportion between populations whose ancestors lived in different environments. Human populations exhibit climatic variation patterns similar to those of other large-bodied mammals, followingBergmann's rule, which states that individuals in cold climates will tend to be larger than ones in warm climates, andAllen's rule, which states that individuals in cold climates will tend to have shorter, stubbier limbs than those in warm climates.On a micro evolutionary level anthropologists use anthropometric variation to reconstruct small-scale population history. For instance John Relethford's studies of early 20th-century anthropometric data from Ireland show that the geographical patterning of body proportions still exhibits traces of the invasions by the English and Norse centuries ago.Measuring instruments[edit]3D body scanners[edit]Today anthropometry can be performed with three-dimensional scanners. A global collaborative study to examine the uses of three-dimensional scanners for health care was launched in March 2007. TheBody Benchmark Studywill investigate the use of three-dimensional scanners to calculate volumes and segmental volumes of an individual body scan. The aim is to establish whether theBody Volume Indexhas the potential to be used as a long-term computer-based anthropometric measurement for health care. In 2001 the UK conducted the largest sizing survey to date using scanners. Since then several national surveys have followed in the UK's pioneering steps, notably SizeUSA, SizeMexico, and SizeThailand, the latter still ongoing. SizeUK showed that the nation had become taller and heavier but not as much as expected. Since 1951, when the last women's survey had taken place, the average weight for women had gone up from 62 to 65kg.Baropodographic[edit]Main article:Baropodography

Example insole (in-shoe) foot pressure measurement device.Baropodographic devices fall into two main categories: (i)floor-based, and (ii)in-shoe. The underlying technology is diverse, ranging frompiezoelectric sensorarrays tolight refraction,[12][13][14][15][16]but the ultimate form of the data generated by all modern technologies is either a 2D image or a 2D imagetime seriesof the pressures acting under the plantar surface of the foot. From these data other variables may be calculated (seedata analysis.)The spatial and temporal resolutions of the images generated by commercial pedobarographic systems range from approximately 3 to 10mm and 25 to 500Hz, respectively. Finer resolution is limited by sensor technology. Such resolutions yield acontact areaof approximately 500 sensors (for a typical adult human foot with surface area of approximately 100cm2).[17]For a stance phase duration of approximately 0.6 seconds during normal walking,[18]approximately 150,000 pressure values, depending on the hardware specifications, are recorded for each step.Neuroimaging[edit]See also:NeuroimagingDirect measurements involve examinations of brains from corpses, or more recently, imaging techniques such asMRI, which can be used on living persons. Such measurements is used research onneuroscience and intelligence. Brain volume data and other craniometric data is used in mainstream science to compare modern-day animal species, and to analyze the evolution of the human species in archeology. With the discovery that manyblood proteinsvary consistently among populations, followed by the discovery of the DNA code, the invention of thepolymerase chain reactionthat amplifies trace amounts of DNA, and the decoding of thehuman genome, phylogeographers largely switched away from craniofacial anthropometry whenever DNA is available.[citation needed]Epidemiology and medical anthropology[edit]Anthropometric measurements also have uses inepidemiologyandmedical anthropology, for example in helping to determine the relationship between various body measurements (height, weight, percentage body fat, etc.) and medical outcomes. Anthropometric measurements are frequently used to diagnosemalnutritionin resource-poor clinical settings.Forensics and criminology[edit]

An early set offinger- and handprintsbySir William Herschel, 2nd Baronet(18331917)Further information:Forensic anthropologyandanthropological criminologyForensic anthropologists study the human skeleton in a legal setting. A forensic anthropologist can assist in the identification of a decedent through various skeletal analyses that produce a biological profile. Forensic anthropologists utilize theFordiscprogram to help in the interpretation of craniofacial measurements in regards to ancestry/race determination.One part of a biological profile is a person's racial/ancestral affinity. People with considerable European ancestry generally have relatively noprognathism; a relatively small face; a narrow, tear-shaped nasal cavity; a "silled" nasal aperture; tower-shaped nasal bones; a triangular-shaped palate; and an angular and sloping eye orbit shape. People with considerable African ancestry typically have a broad and round nasal cavity; no dam or nasal sill; Quonset hut-shaped nasal bones; notable facial projection in the jaw and mouth area (prognathism); a rectangular-shaped palate; and a square or rectangular eye orbit shape. People with considerable East Asian ancestry are often characterized by a relatively small prognathism; no nasal sill or dam; an oval-shaped nasal cavity; tent-shaped nasal bones; a horseshoe-shaped palate; and a rounded and non-sloping eye orbit shape.[19]Many of these characteristics are only a matter of frequency among particular races: their presence or absence of one or more does not automatically classify an individual into a racial group.Ergonomics[edit]Main article:Human factors and ergonomicsToday, ergonomics professionals apply an understanding of human factors to the design of equipment, systems and working methods in order to improve comfort, health, safety, and productivity. This includesphysical ergonomicsin relation to human anatomy, physiological and bio mechanical characteristics;cognitive ergonomicsin relation to perception, memory, reasoning, motor response includinghumancomputer interaction, mental workloads, decision making, skilled performance, human reliability, work stress, training, and user experiences; organizational ergonomics in relation to metrics of communication, crew resource management, work design, schedules, teamwork,participation, community, cooperative work, new work programs, virtual organizations, and telework; environmental ergonomics in relation to human metrics affected by climate, temperature, pressure, vibration, and light; visual ergonomics; and others.[20][21]Biometrics[edit]

Iris recognitionsystem based on pattern matching

2009 photo showing a man having aretinal scantaken by a U.S. Army soldier.Main article:BiometricsBiometrics refers to the identification of humans by their characteristics or traits. Biometrics is used in computer science as a form of identification andaccess control.[22]It is also used to identify individuals in groups that are undersurveillance. Biometric identifiers are the distinctive, measurable characteristics used to label and describe individuals.[23]Biometric identifiers are often categorized as physiological versus behavioral characteristics.[24]Example applications includedermatoglyphicsandsoft biometrics.United States military research[edit]The US Military has conducted over 40 anthropometric surveys of U.S. Military personnel between 1945 and 1988, including the 1988 Army Anthropometric Survey (ANSUR) of men and women with its 240 measures. Statistical data from these surveys encompasses over 75,000 individuals.[25]Fashion design[edit]Scientists working for private companies and government agencies conduct anthropometric studies to determine a range of sizes for clothing and other items. Measurements of the foot are used in the manufacture and sale offootwear: measurement devices may be used either to determine a retail shoe size directly (e.g. theBrannock Device) or to determine the detailed dimensions of the foot for custom manufacture (e.g.ALINEr).[26]Popular culture[edit]In artYves Kleintermedanthropometrieshis performance paintings where he covered nude women with paint, and used their bodies as paintbrushes.