EnvironmentalAssessment/AnalysisReports _____

Report E 0003

Bangladesh -Coastal EmbankmentRehabilitation Proj ectEA Category B

Environmental AssessmentJuly 1992

This report has been prepared by the Borrower or its Consultant

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Comnmission of the European Communities

Environmental Assessment of theCoastal EmbankmentRehabilitation Project:Bangladesh

July 1992

Evrnental Resources Limited106 Gloucester Place, London WlH 3DB

Telephone 071-465 7200Telex 296359 ERL C

Facsimile 071-935 8355

T .7 T;

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CONTENTS

I WRODUC7ON 1

1.1 BACKGROUND 11.2 ASSESSAIENr MFODOLOGY 21.3 ORGANISA7TON OF THE REPORr 31.4 THE PROPOSED PROJECr 3

2 BASELNE iNFORMATION ON EMMRONMENTAL AND SOCIAL ASPECTSOF 27HE PROJECT AREA 9

z1 NATURAL ENVIRONMENT 92.2 SOCIO-ECONOMIC CHARACTERISTICS 132.3 CROP PRODUCTION 1524 FISHRES 212.5 FORESMY 252.6 IDUSTRy 27Z27 INSTITUTIONAL FRAME WORK FOR ENVIRONMENTAL MANAGEMENr 272.8 SELECTD NGOs INvOLvED IN ENVIRONMENTAL AND SOCIAL ISSUES 30-9 'RELATED DONOR SUPPORT 322.1 AGRICULTURE 32.11 FISHERIES 32212 FORESTRY 34

3 POTENTIL EVVRONMENTAL IMPACTS 35

31 nE COASTAL EMBANKMENT PROfECT REVIEW OF IMPACTS 353.2 POSFTIVE ENVIRONMENTAL IMPACTS 373.3 NEGA77VE ENWVRONMENTAL IMPACrS 42

4 PROIECT IMPACT ASSESSMENT 43

4.1 IN7RODUCTJON 434.2 AGRJCULTURE 434.3 FISHERIES 5044 YDROLOGY AND SEDIMENT DYNAMICS 524.5 SoCIo-ECONOM&CS 5346 MISCELLAEOUS 55

5 ENVIRONMENAL MANAGEMENT PLAN FOR 171E PROJECT AREA 56

5.1 MRODUCrION 565.2 MA NAGEMENT OF AGRICULTURAL IWFENSIFICAT7ON 575.3 MANAGEMENr OF FIShMIES ISSUES 625.4 MANAGEMENT OF SOCIO-ECONOMIC ISSES 635.5 COASTAL AFFORESTATION 63&6 INST7IUTIONAL RESPONSIBLITIES FOR ENVIRONMETAL MANAGEMENT 645.7 PROCrE CONDIONALTES 65

6 ANALYSIS OFALTERNA77VES 66

il TnE LAISSEZ-FAIRE OPTION 66

7 MAN CONCLUSIONS 68

7.I OVERAU DIRONMENTAL IMPAcF 687.2 SCOPE FOR LMPACT Mm7GAo770i 687.3 LmPACr MONFTORING 687.4 ENviRoNMEENTFAL MANAGEmENT 69

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EXECU77VE SUARY

1IIROD1IC7ON

1.1 BACKGROUND

This report has been prepared by Environmental Resources Limited (ERL) and is anenvironmental assessment of the proposed Coastal Embankment Rehabilitation Project(CERP) in Bangladesh. The project was formerly bkown as the Cyclone ProtectionProject 11. ERL's assignment has been funded by the Commission of the EuropeanCommunities (CEC) which is co-financing the project in conjunction with the WorldBank and the Government of Bangladesh (GOB).

1.1.1 The Assignment

7he CEC has contracted ERL to provide environmental consulting services to conductan assessment of the environmental and social aspects of the CPP 11 and to participatein the World Bank's project appraisal mission in Bangladesh. During the latter. ERLconsultants will assist the mission in project appraisal and will identify opportunitiesfor CEC support within the project.

T7his report is concerned with the environmental assessment of the project which wascarried out by an ERL Senior Consultant over a three week period in Bangladeshduring June 199Z A report on the World Bank appraisal mission and opportunitiesfor CEC support is the subject of a separate report which will be produced in Augustafter the Bank's appraisal mission (scheduled for July 7992).

2 THE PROJECT

The project has the following components:

* Rehabilitation and improvements to 12 sea-facing embankments.

* Minor rehabilitation and improvements ro the non-coastal sections of polders in themid-term programme (induding re-excavation of drainage canals and repair orreplacement of drainage structures).

* Afforestation of embankment slopes and a 700-200m wide strip offoreshore to reduceembankment damage and maintenance costs

* Improved Operation and Maintenance (O&M) of all embankments and polders inthe mid term programmew with provsfns for the inolvement of displaced/landlesspeople.

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* Technical assistance jpr implementation support and training of implementingagency staff and communities participating in O&M and afforestation activities.

* Vehides and minor equipment for GOB supervision and for Non CovernmentalOrganisations (NGOs) involved in organising community participation.

* Environmental monitoring and mitigation measures.

3 KEY POTE7NIfAL PROJECT IMPACTS

The key potential project inputs are summarised in Table 3a.

4 MAiV CONCLUSIONS

4.1 OVERALL ENVIRoNMENrAL DWPACT

7he environmental appraisal confirms that the overall environmental impact of thisproject is positive The expected impacts on fisheries, agrnogre and soco-economicstatus of the apouation in the project area will be significantly positive in mostreapects.

The main source of signifiamnt negative impacts is likely to be lant aeuisition_frembanknent construction and rehabilitation. Unless compensation and resettlementprovisions are adequate, long term residual impacts (which persist after ottempts atmitigation) may arise in relation to:

- Loss of fruit trees.L oss of prime aRrltural land

* Ibtion of surface water bWes.

4.2 SCOPE FOR IMPACT MIGATION

There is adeqate scope for the mitigation of virtually all the identified adverseenvironmental and social impacts of the project. We have stressed throughout thisreport the need for those families who are affected by embankment tcm tuon-tsbLcompensated for their immediate assets and loss of produce from lost trees and cropland

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TabIc 3a Key Pote,itiail Project limipacts and AMonitoriIj/Mitigation Measures

Nature of Impad lmpact Characterization (-, e Miligaltlor/Management ActivitiesGround water pollution Sig, LT, LP, LO, Irr Promnote efficient use of agrochemcakL

Restrict agrochemkal use in areas where problemsaris.Promote integrated pest managenenL

Changes in ladder availability Insig, LT, LP, La, Rev Encourage growth of lodder pants in afforestationareas and on public land

Salinisalion of groundwater 5ig, LT. HP, La, Irr Impose sirks contrls on grmundwater abstractionPromote crops of low water demiand.

Drawduwn of surface water resources Sig LT, HP, LO, Rev Encourage cultivation of low water demand cops.Provide LLP irrigation rorn outside pokiers.Rcstrict cropping pallerns.

Decline in openwater capture fisheries Insig, LT, LP, LO, Rev Artifkial stocking of captum fisheries.Time drainage schedule to migratory patterns.

Increased aquaculture production. Sig, LT. HP, Lo, Rev NGOs to provide assistance in aquaculluredevelopment.

Increased employment opportunities Sig, LT/ST, HP, Ex, Rev NGO - coordinated ernployment training.Increased credit dependence. Insig, LT, Lo, Rev NGO advice on credit invesiment managementImproved socio-economic stalus. Sig, LT, HP, Ex, Rev and income generating activiles.Loss of 14lad to embankment conutructitn and/ar Sig LT, HIP, Ex, Ir Minimise land take on landward side.raw material acquisition. Replace/compensate for affected assets.

Ensure adequate compensation for crop lss onlong term basis.Provide advke on management of cashcompensation.

Social conflicts amongst affected groups. Insig. ST, LP, Lo, Rev NGO mediationSocial fabric of communities disruptled. Insig, ST, LP, Lo, Rev Beneficiary participation in reseltleawnt plAnning.Genetic erusion Sig, LT, Ex, Iff Colleclion and prescrvation of indigenous

varieties.Rodd daiiage and accidlenits caused by Insig, ST, LP, LA), Rev Repair damaged ra sections and property.c(nstruclican tr4ffic. Impuse kiad/spexd restrictions on coristruclion

traffic.

Nature of Impact Impact Characterization MillatlganJMaaagement Activitie

Sedimentaliin (if khidls dnI wdlercourss Inrsig, LT, Lo, Rev Re-excavater allected watercourses if necessary.NGO saistance in fisheries deelopmenwt.

Increased recruitment of shrimp I.rvje due to Sig, LT, Lo, Rev NGO advice on patterns of afforeslation andmayngrove affurestatiun. suslainabkl explilakion

Suggest ranaagemenl practies as appropriate.

Conflicts of ldnd-use amongst rice/shrimp farmers. Sig, LT, HP. In, Rev Introduce land-use zonation

Key Sig - SignificantInsig - InsignificantLT. Long TermST - Staort TermHP - High prubabilityLP - Low probMbilityLo- LocalizedEx - ExtensiveRev * Reversiblehrr. Irreversible

7the fort required to mitigate tte effects of increased water demand and reducedavailability of surface water resources will vary widely. In some areas full mitigationmay be possible by excavating dep borrow pit ponds, whilst in other areas theprovision of surface water irr.gation schemes may be required. The NMIDP couldsupport some of these requirements.

4.3 ImPAClT MONIToRoNG

The impacts of the project can be monitored effectively by drawing upon the informationcollected by other agencs and donor-supported monitoring programmes.

The consultants of the Project Implementation Unit will have to formulate and establishmechanisms for this to be achieved.

44 ENViRONMENTAL MANAGEMENT

The existing institutional framework is inadequatefor the purpose of long term holisticmanagement of coastal polders. The most appropriate way of achieving this goal is bydevelopment of an Environmental Management Cell within the Bangiadesh WaterDevelopment4 which could collaborate witlhout coordinating the actions of otheragencius involved in poWder management

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I WNRODUC77ON

11 BACKGROUND

This report has been prepared by Environmental Resources Limited (ERL) andis an environmental assessment of the proposed Coastal EmbankmentRehabilitation Project (CERP) in Bangladesh. The project was formerly knownas the Cydone Protection Project 11. ERL's assignment has been funded by theCommission of the European Communities (CEC) which is co-financing theproject in conjunction with the World Bank and the Government of Bangladesh(GOB).

1.1.1 The Assigment

The CEC has contracted ERL to provide environmental consulting services toconduct an assessment of the environmental and social aspects of the CPP 11,and to participate in the World Bank's project appraisal mission in Bangladesh.During the latter, ERL consultants will assist the mission in project appraisaland will identify within the project opportunities for CEC support.

This report is concemed with the environmental assessment of the projectwhich was carried out by an ERL Senior Consultant over a three week periodin Bangladesh during June 1992. A report on the World Bank appraisal missionand opportunities for CEC support is the subject of a separate report which willbe produced in August after the Bank's appraisal mission (scheduled for July1992).

1.1.2 Tffm of Refcwc (ToRs)

The Terms of Reference for ERL's environmental assessment of the CycloneProtection D Project are reproduced in Annex A. In summary they involve thefoilowing tasks:

* Reviewing the adverse impacts of the first Cydone Protection Project andsuggesting ways in which the proposed prQject can be modified to mitigateagainst such impacts.

* Identifying potential impacts of the project, in quantitative terms wherepossible.

* Comparing the environmental costs and benefits of project implementationagainst the laissez-faire option.

* Preparing an impact mitigation plan which includes cost estimates andimplementation arrangements.

* Describing, evaluating and making recommendations on the institutionalframework for environmental management of the project.

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* Preparing and costing an impact monitoring plan.

1.2 ASSESSMENT METHODOL OGY

This report is based upon the findings of a three week period in Bangladeshduring which field visits were undertaken and discussions held with localinhabitants and relevant agencies, primarily in Dhaka. We conducted theenvironmental assessment in accordance with the World Bank's OperationalDirective 4.00 on Environmental Assessment. Consideration was also given tothe World Bank's policy and guidelines on resettlement and compensation, andto the environmental assessment guidelines produced under the Flood ActionPlan (FAP) environmental component (A j

During the time available, it was not possible to collect detailed primary data onthe existing environmental and social characteristics of the project area. Theassessment is therefore largely based upon the data coDected for CycloneProtection Project II, other components of the Flood Action Plan and relevantprojects such as the Agricultural Support Services Project and the NationalMinor Irrigation Development Project. Information from these sources isavailable for environmental and social characteristics at the district and upazilaadministrative levels but not for individual embankment and polder areascovered by the project. This places limits on the depth to which environmentalassessment can proceed though we have attempted to take local conditions intoaccDunt as far as possible.

For many aspects of the environment, there is inadequate data to allow forquantitative analysis of environmental impacts refletiing poor data collectionactivities in the past. This has imposed constraints on impact analysis of someenvironmental aspects such as fisheries, water quality and agro-chemical basedpoilution. Similar difficulties have been noted by the Kampsax International-lead consortium.

The term 'environmental impact' is used here in its broadest sense to includesocio-economic issues unless otherwise stated.

We have characterised environmental impacts, where possible and appropriatein the following ways:

* Significance.* Duration.* Likelihood.* Extent.* Reversibility.

In devising impact monitoring and mitigation measures we have taken intoconsideration local institutional difficuties arising from inadequate resources,staffing levels and experfise, mainly bcattempting to combine the monitoringrequirements of this project with other related projects.

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Any quantitative assebsments of costs and benefits arising from project impactsare based on the Flood Plan Coordinating Organisadon (FPCO) guidelines onconversion factors.

1.3 ORGANISAT7ON OF TME REPoRT

This report consists of various sections which are supported by annexescontaining further information. Section I contains information on the proposedproject and its context within Bangladesh whilst in Section 2 we outline theenvironmental and social characteristics of the project area. Section 3 relates thepotential environmental and social impacts of the project and coastalembankments in general whilst in Section 4 the positive and negativeenvironmental impacts which we consider could occur are discussed.

In Section 5 environmental management of the project area is considered andindudes monitoring and nmtigation measures. In Section 6 a brief considerationof the laissez-faire option is presented. Finally, in Section 7 we present our mainfindings and conrlusions.

The supporting annexes contain the following information:

* Annex A: Terms of Reference.A Anner B: Fisheries.

* Anner C: Agriculture.* Annex D: Socio-economics.

A Annex E: Afforestation.- Annex F: Flora and Fauna.- Annex G: Selected Bibliography.

1.4 THE PROPOSED PRIOJECT

1.4.1 Cotext

Bangladesh has suffered from a spate of natural disasters in recent years mainlyas a result of its geomorphological and geographical position within thefloodplain of three of the world's largest rivers; the Ganges, BrahmaputraUamuna) and the Meghna which flow into the Bay of Bengal.

The country lies within the monsoon zone of the Indian Sub-continent andbeing a coastal low-lying country is subject to the full force of the monsoon.Annual rainfall totals in coastal areas rank among the highest in the world.Floods associated with the monsoon rains are a frequent phenomenon whichvary in the extent and depth of flooding according to rainfall and tidal patternsin the region. The worst floods in recent years were experienced in 1987 and1988 when much of the country was inundated.

Localised flooding of coastal low-lying areas also occurs during periods of highriver discharge and spring tides. In some areas 3m high tidal bores have sweptover the coastil zone. Flooding, particularly by saline waters, imposes major

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constraints on the agricultural and industrial development of coastalBangladesh.

An additional natural hazard experienced in the Bay of Bengal is that ofcydones. Over the last 125 years, 42 cyclones have hit the coastal area ofBangladesh; 14 of these have occurred in the last 25 years. Figure 1.4a indicatesthe trajectories of more recent cyclones. The most recent cyclone of April 1991resulted in the loss of 140,000 lives and severe damage to infrastructure and theagriculture and industry sectors of the economy.

GOB Protection Mmsures

Since the 1960s the Govemments of Pakistan (prior to independence) and morerecently, Bangladesh, have taken measures to reduce the risk of coastal floodingand afford some protection against cyclones. The Coastal Embanknent Project(CEP) was originally designed to prevent flooding by spring tides and monsoonassociated high river flows. It offered protection to approximately 14,000 km.of coastal land through the construction of embankznents along the coast.

Damage to the coastal embankments by successive cydones has beenexacerbated by coastal erosion (estimated at 2.5 m3L/rWr) and humandisturbance. After the November 1970 cyclone the GOB aided by the WorldBank and other donors, initiated a reconstruction programme which was alsoaimed at rehabilitating affected coastal areas. The benefits of this programmewere readily apparent during the May 1985 cyclone when the embankmentdissipated much of the tidal energy surge, considerably lessening the cyclonesimpact

Inadequate repair and maintenance of the coastal embankments meant thatwitfi iadeiintof ihe ApniT9cdonemuchof the coastal embankmentsystem was in a poor state and was overtopped and breached in many areas.

The GOB had been conscious of this state of affairs for some time and in 1986it had formulated a National Cyclone Protection Programme (NCPP) aimed at

* Improving the existing coastal embanknent.* Protecting newly accreted land.* Developing coastal forests.* Improving communications.* Rehabilitating local economies.* Providing cyclone protection.

This programme was to proceed in two stages:

* A mid-term programme for the strengthening of existing embankments.a A long-term programme aimed at the construction of new embankments to

extend protection to newly accreted land for example.

Following various delays, a contract was awarded to a consortium ofconsultants lead by Kampsax International ANS. The consultant's studies werein progress when the April 1991 cydone occurred and as a result the

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Figpm 1.Ua Recent Cyclone Paths aid the Area affected by the 1992 Cyclone_ __ _____ _ _ -r I I I fmq ii

BANGLADESHi

CYCLONE PATHS AND CYCLONE AFFECTED AREA

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consultants were asked to modify their outputs to produce a Priortv WVorksProgramme (PWP) for urgent embankment repair and rehabilitation work. Theprogramme involves the rehabilitation of 135 km-oLexisting embankment andthe construction of 55 km of retired embankment. This project is currentlybeing implemented an-disfina1nced by IDA.

Separate projects and programmes are addressing the need for improved roadaccess to the coastal areas, the construction of cyclone protection shelters andan effective cydone preparedness system.

Flood Action Plan

Following the disastrous floods of 1987 and 1988, the donor community and theGovernment of Bangladesh, lead by the World Bank developed a programmeof assistance which will greatly reduce the potential for natural phenomena tocreate such significant and widespread disruption to the economy of thecountry and to reduce the risks of loss of life. The Flood Action Plan (FAP)consists of over 20 components which address the risks due to flooding andcyclones. The CERP or Cyclone Protection I! Project constitutes FAP component7.

1.4.2 ProCct CoGponcts

It is intended that the coastal embankment design concepts proposed under thePriority Works Programme should be extended to other coastal areas by theproposed project which has the folowing components:

• Rehabilitation and improvements to 12 sea-facing embankments.

* Mfinor rehabilitation and improvements to the non-coastal sections of poldersin the mid-term programune (including re-xcavation of drainage canals andrepair or replacement of drainage structures).

* Afforestation of embankment slopes and a 100-200m wide strip of foreshoreto reduce embankment damage and maintenance costs.

* Improved Operation and Maintenance (O&M) of all embankments andpolders in the mid term programme, with provisions for the involvement ofdisplaced/landless people.

* Technical assistance for implementation support and training ofimplementing agency staff and communities participating in O&M and.afforestation activities.

* Vehicles and minor equipment for GOB supervision and for NonGovernmental Organisations (NGOs) involved in organising communityparticipation.

* Environmental monitoring and mitigation measures.

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Project Area

The project will target discrete coastal areas which have been identified on thebasis of economic analyses and in relation to their vulnerability and pronenessto cydones. The areas range along the coast from Teknaf in the extreme southeast to Sarankhola in Bagerhat District (Figure- 7.4b). The figure-distinguishes between those areas which are included in the PWP (shown inred) and those included in the mid term programme. Adi;;4stively, theproject ranges over 11 Districts and 32 upazilas of the country.

The coastal embankments of Bhola Island are the subject of an AsianDevelopment Bank (ADB) project (Second Bhola Irrigation Project) and aretherefore not catered for in this present project.

-1.43 Prject Benefits

The PWP and Coastal Embankment Rehabilitation Project will provide thefollowing benefits to the coastal areas affected.

* Protection to human life: approximately 140,000 people died during theprevious cydlone.

= Increased agricultural production: it is expected that flood protection willresult in increased production due to the prevention of flooding and by theincreased investment in farming inputs which will result from enhancedfarmer confidence.

e Increased production of fish and shrimp through aquaculture developments.

* Protection of property (over 5 million houses) and coastal infrastructure.

* The generation of forestry products such as fuel, building materials andfoods as a resuit of afforestation.

* improved long term employment opportunities in intensified agriculturalproduction, aquaculture development and O&M activities.

The area protected by the project is approximately 4 million ha and supports apopulation of about 30 million. Some insight into the protection afforded by theproject can be gained by considering the recorded losses of the April 1992cyclone:

* Human life; @140,000.* Livestock; 1,061,029.

D Damaged housing; 819,608.* Crops affected; 55,530 ha.e Educational establishments damaged; 3.865.* Forest destroyed; 112,316 acres.* Embankments affected; 697 miles.* Bridges and culverts affected; 496

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2 BASELMETORMAT77NONENVIROAN TALAND SOCLALASPECTS OF771E PROJECT ARE4

In general, the available data in Bangladesh is inadequate for the purpose ofenvironmental assessment. This view is echoed in many reports on the FloodAction Plan such as the Regional Plan Report for the South East region whichstates that 'views of the available regional database in a number of subject areashave raised concem over the quality of data on which good regional projectplanning can proceed. Data on climate and soils is adequate though the lengthof time series data is limited. Official data sources on basic agricultural,irrigation and yield statistics have often proved inconsistent and unreliable oncloser examination'.

In this section we provide baseline infornation on the foDowing environmentaland socio-economic aspects of the project area:

* Natural environment* Socio-economic characteristics.* Agriculture sector.* Industrial sector.0 Institutional framework for environrmental management* Related projects in Bangladesh.- NGO activities in environmental, fisi;eries and agricultural issues.

21 NNATuRAL ENVIRoNMENT

-1.1 Climate

General climatic data are available for Comnilla and Noakhali and there arerainfall stations at a number of sites along the coast According to climaticnorm data, temperature varies fro:;A 19-28.3"C, relative humidity from 66-875%,windspeed from 0.9-4.3 rn/sec, and rainfall from 6-700mnVmonth.

21.2 Physical Zonation of the Coastal Area

Much of the coastal area is low lying; a im rise in sea level would inundatemuch of the south western triangular part of the country from (and including)Khulna to the south of Noakhali.

Various studies have delineated geographical zones in Bangladesh based uponphysical and chemical characteristics. One of the most comprehensive attemptsat this has been the zonation of the country into agro-ecological zones (AEZs).These are based on climatic conditions, soil characteristics, physiography andland use capabilities. The agro-ecological zonation of the coastal zone consistsof the following-

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* Ganges Tidal Floodplain (AEZ 13) in the west* Young Meghna Estuarine Floodplain (AEZ 18) in the central area.* Chittagong Coastal Plain in the eastern part

The agro-ecological zones for embankments and polders of the project areindicated in Annex C of this report

The Master Plan Organisation also developed a countrywide zonation on thebasis of the depth and duration of flooding, which is a reflection of localhydrology and elevation.

Conscious of the fact that these geographical zones are comparatively large andthat at the individual polder level there may be considermble variations in soilfertility and crop suitability, the Kampsax consortium have categorised poldersin the project area according to soil salinity and cropping intensity Annex C

An examination of current physical processes allows one to recognise threedistinct physical areas along the coast In the south west, there is a closeanastomosing network of rivers and creeks which do not permit extensiveerosion. In this area is found the largest mangrove forest in the world, theSundarbans. In terms of sediment dynamics, this region is relatively stable.It is also less liable to flooding, experiencing on average Z floods in 10 yearscompared to 3-5 floods in 10 years further eastwards.

In the central region of coastal Bangladesh lies the confluence zone of 3 of theworld's largest rivers; the Meghna, Jamuna and Ganges. The. sedimentdynamics of this region is highly unstable with considerable simultaneouserosion and deposition. The rivers migrate laterally to a large extent, creatingnew char lands and eroding older lan,d.

In the south east, along the Chittagong and Cox's Bazaar coast is foundextensive areas of sandy beaches and a coastal belt which rises into theChittagong H1i Tracts.

Parts of the coast can be considered to be seismically active. The south east isa zone of medium risk from earthquakes.

v1.3 Soil Resources

Within the project area some 9 soil types are recognised and their polder-wiseand AEZ occurrence have been described in Appendix D of the KampsaxInternational reporL In summary they are as follows:

* Alluvium (calcareous and non-alcareous).* Floodplain soils (calcareous and non-calcareous).* Acid sulphate soils.* Peat.

In the Ganges Tidal Floodplain, the soils are mainly calcareous and non-calcareous floodplain soils with a significant proportion of acid sulphate soilswhich can be extremely acidic during the dry season. Soils of the Sundarbans

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area are alkaline in nature. In terms of fertility, the soils of this AEZ havemedium to high fertility and high organic content. The land capabilityclassification is poor to moderately good, with salinity being the mainconstraint

The Young Meghna Estuarine Floodplain has loam and silty clay floodplain soilsand alluvium. The general fertility is medium but the soils are reported to below in nitrogen and organic matter. The land capability status of soils in thisAEZ are poor to moderately good with scope for improvement folowing floodprotection measures.

The soils of the Chittagong Coastal Plains are quite variable with floodplainsoils, alluvium and acid sulphate soils being the predomninant types. Soil fertilityis classified as medium with some limiting factors. The present land capabilityclassification is poor to moderite but there is scope for improvement withadequate flood protection to moderately good/good.

Variations of salinity in coastal soils are illustrated in Annex C

Z1.4 zWatcryo

There are very little data upon which to characterise the water quality in theprojecL GeneraDly it appears that water quality is satisfactory in most areasapart from the Chittagong area where some industrial pollution occurs.

Natural Habitats

The following natural habitats can be identified along the coast of Bangladesh:

* Intertidal estuarine mudflats and sandflats.Forested regons.

* RiverOmhals and tidal creeks.* Char lands.* Arable land.

The main coastal forest area is the Sundarbans in the south west. This foresthas an area of 395,600 ha. The forest supports a varied flora and fauna and isone of the last refuges of the Bengal tiger. The forest is an important source oftimber and other products of which Sundari and Gewa constitute 80% of themarketable volume.

In addition to the Sundarbans forest, natural mangrove forest also exists alongthe Chittagong coast though this has been subject to felling by shrimp farmersin recent years and has lost much of its faunal diversity. The crab eatingmonkeys are reported to have virtually disappeared in some areas.

Since 1966, an additional 0.036 million ha of mangrove forest has been plantedalong the coast in the Noakhali, Chittagong, Patuakhali and Barisal Districts.

Mangrove forests are an important spawning and nursery area for many fishand shrimp species. Associated mudflats also support valuable shellfish.

* E,AumSONNAL RmuoKi L.AMM Co_> OuF TM Ewus C _wau

11

The char lands support little natural flora and fauna apart from a sparsepnrmary colonising community.

2.1.5 Resecves and Prtectcd Areas

Within the coastal region are three protected forest areas:

* Sundarbans Foreste Choakhalia Mangroves, south of Chittagong.* Teknaf tropical forest, near Cox's Bazaar.

2.1.6 FPa and Fauna

The coastal zone supports communities of flora and fauna which are ofeconomic importance to the fisheries and tourism sectors and are also ofconservation importance. Unfortunately the database on wildlife is consideredinadequate to allow satisfactory impact assessment by most workers. Partialinventories of the flora and fauna have been compiled by KampsaxInternational and are presented in Annex F.

.

Mammals

Noteworthy mammals of the -coastal area which are mainly found in theprotected areas are spotted deer, leopard, tiger, jungle and leopard cats, civets,Gangetic dolphin and various monkey species (Annex F).

Birds

Over 660 species of birds have been recorded in Bangladesh, about 80 of whichare found in the coastal zone. About 170 birds are associated with wetlandsand some 220 are migratory birds. Banglidesh is an important transit area for'birds overwintering, birds migrating latitudinally between India and South EastAsia, and for seasonal migrants from Burma and the Himalayan region.Amongst these species are several intemationally imnportant and endangeredspecies such as:

* Spoon-billed sandpiper.* Asian dowitcher.* Green shank.

Reptes

There are many species of terrestrial snake (such as cobra), lizard, tortoise andaquatic reptiles in the project area, including the gavial and saltwater crocodilewhich are linited to small areas of the coast and are endangered.

Fish and Shnmp

Over 70 species of fish from the coastal zone can be found in Bangladeshmarkets and the coastal zone is an important breeding zone for many manne

I _

EIvm,aaAL RmE CI c-n h ~Eiom Cmm~

1X

spedes. In addition, there are major spawning beds of the giant shrimp alongthe coast, particularly near the coast of the Sundarbans and Cox's Bazaar.

Flora

Bangladesh has over 5000 recorded plant species. However, little is known ofthe flora of the project area- apart from the mangrove forests which havereceived considerable attention. Common speces of the coastal area are listedin Annex F.

The most common species of mangrove tree found along the coast indude thefoUowing

* Keora (Sonneratio aseolans).* Baen (Avicennif offinalis).* Gewa (Excoario agailodw).* Kankra (Brugeria gymnorrhiza).* Babul (Acacia niliticz).

Keora is the most common tree species and al of the above are used inmangrove afforestation exercises. Acacia which is the main component ofplantations in drier littoral areas, is an introduced species.

2.2 SOaO-FcoMoMIc CAuCA uRISTICS

The socio-economic characteristics of human settlement vary considerably alongthe coast of Bangladesh. Some variations such as the nature and size ofsettlements can be attributed to the 'remoteness' and poorly developedcommunications network whilst other characteristics such as land use and

J socio-economic status may reflect agro-ecological differences. For example thecontribution of various economic sub-sectors such as fishing and aquacultureto the local economy vary along the coastal zone.

Rural water supply in the project area is mostly from two sources, tubewellsand ponds and shallow ditches (Annex D). A small minority of people obtaintheir water from flowing surface waters such as canals and rivers.

Western and Central Coastal Areas

In the south westem and central parts of the project area, the land mass isheavily dissected by anastomosing rivers and creeks and there are largenumbers of coastal islands and newly accreted 'char lands'. The level ofdevelopment in these areas is quite low and settlements mainly consist of smalvillages and individual homesteads scattered amongst agricultural land. Thedifficulties of surface communications imposes constraints on the level ofeconornic development and there is a general absence of 'urban' infrastructureand institutions such as banks.

One of the major constraints to economic development is likely to be access tocredit facilities; most people borrow from professional moneylenders (who

E_vmmarAL Rmamnc LED Cmm oi in EzmcwLvh Co_amu

13

charge exorbitant interest rates) or less commonly from family or friends. NCOcredit provisions are limited to those small areas in which the NGOs operate.Targets for agricultural lending by the formal credit sector have been poorlymet over a number of years (Annex D).

Markets are an important focal point in the rural communities and they providesome opportunites for families to supplement their incomes by seling excessproduce and livestock and homemade items.

The costs of transport to remote polder areas also result in higher prices forgoods and supplies which is also a constraining factor. This is likely to be lessof a problem as the rural road network improves.

The main forms of transport in these areas are boats and rickshaws; motorvehides are scarce. There appear to be no major official river navigation routesin the project area (apart from the Meghna) which could be affected. Anyunregistered routes from the coast or river delta area along smalE tidal rivershave long since been disrupted by the construction of the original coastalembankments.

Despite the absence of large hospitals, health care is reasonably well developedand in areas visited villagers report that several doctors are available localEy.

Most people are engaged in agricultural activitiess ch as crop cultivation,fishing and aquaculture (Annex D). Livestock rearing is also important butsupports tew families in its own right. In some areas it is reported that up to17% of males may be engaged in migrant labour in other parts of Bangladeshand neighbouring countries. This can create local labour deficiencies andprovides opportunities for women to gain employment. Generally, it appearshowever that female employment in the agricultural sector is comparativelyuncomnon.

There are appreciable numbers of landless people living upon the embankmentsor upon char lands (Annex D). Often tbese people have lost their own landthrough debt repayment or because of river erosion. They appear to subsistmainly by fishing, crop cultivation and labouring.

Eastern Coastal Areas

The coastal stretch from Chittagong to Teknaf is markedly different in severalways. Firstly, the area is much more sparsely populated than further north andthe land rises from a narrow low lying coastal strip into the foothills. As aresult, cropping patterns are different.

The infrastructure of the area is much more developed, being served by twoairports, good quality roads, train links and port facilities. Tourism is promotedin the vicinity of the sandy beach resort of Cox's Bazaar.

Industrial activities in the Chittagong area are quite diverse and support asignificant labour force. The fisheries sector also supports many families,especially the landless people living along the beaches who catch shrimp larvae.

FieNwWaxr RKoucTs EmIw Cowm oN am Ew a Comm_um

On some islands such as Moaskhali agricultural labour shortages have beennoted since most families are engaged in the fisheries sector.

2.3 CROP PRODUCTION

In this section we briefly review the nature of crop production practices in thecoastal area of Bangladesh in relation to the potential environmental and socialimpacts of coastal embankments. More detailed information on agriculture inthe project area can be obtained from Appendix D of the 'Draft ProjectPreparation Report for CPP 11 Feasibility and Design Studies' produced by theKampsax-lead consortium (BWDB,1992).

2.31 Farming Put ices

There are two main cropping seasons in Bangladesh (Table 23a):

* Kharif: March to%November (pre-monsoon and monsoon periods).* Rabi: November to March (dry or winter period).

Kiarnf Crpping Practices

In the pre-monsoon period, water can be in short supply and soil salinity is atits highest. During this period an 'aus' rice crop may be planted in fieldmoistened by the pre-monsoon showers. This crop is a short season crop andmatures in about 3 months. Transplanted aus rice (T.aus) is grown as seedlingsin watered beds and transplanted to the land after its preparation. It is usuallyharvested in July though the time of harvesting and crop yield depend to alarge extent on the timing of pre-monsoon and monsoon rains. Transplantedvarieties usually produce higher yields than broadcast (B.aus) rice.

The monsoon rice crop ('aman') can be grown from broadcast or transplantedseedlings. In the case of transplanted aman (T.aman), seedlings aretransplanted into prepared fields which have a water depth of about 0.3m. Thisis usually in late July/August. The crop is harvested in November or December.

In some areas B.aus and B.aman crops are sown together though they areharvested at the usual periods. This strategy is adopted in areas where floodingis unpredictable to an extent and the farmer hopes to secure at least one crop.The Baman used in this fashion is a long stalked floating variety and cansurvive prolonged extensive flooding. This practice is declining with thedevelopment of FCD schemes.

Rabi Cropping Practices

During this period the crops grown are generally of lower water demand,unless irrigation is possible using surface or ground water. Such crops arewheat, vegetables, lentils, chilies, oilseeds and pulses and these are grown forhome use and for sale.

EwwamPffAL Rmoua Umu Coaau ouiW Ehmima Coammum

11 r

Table 73. Gamemlised Cropping Pattern in the Project Area

Season Crps C Land Ptcp.rmon S owinElTrnsPiueamC lIr ng

Khalif-I B. Aus Febmry/Maveb Mid Match-Mid Apnil Mld July-Mid Augu(MarchJunc) T. Aus March Early March-Early :..jrly July-Lame July

Jute Febnaary/marh Apnil Early July-Early Augt5 Tm! Marh Eary March-Early JuneS. Vegable March April Juiy- September

MardiLApnl

I;hrir-ll T. Amen (HYV) June Early July-Lame July Laie Nuvcmbcr-Mid(July-Otober) T. Amon (L) July Late July-Late Augst Dccembcr

______________ .________________ loNwomber/Dccemnber

Rabi Born (IIV) DeCember/Jauu- LAtc Jan.-Mid Febria- Early June-Lage June

(Novenbef- Wheat am ivy Late Februar-EavlyFcbruny Oil Seels November March

Poawr November Mid Nov.-Early Dec. FebruarySpaao Novcmber December MarchW.Melon Decerber January May

ului Dccember January Apnl-MayW.Veptablc November Latc Nov.-Mid Dcc. Fcbrnary-Mareh

G. Nut November Mid Nov.-Mid Dcr January-MaelabC-PC (Fal

o Ner Deembr MarchSpucS Dceinber. January Marth-Apul

December Janmuaty March-April

Soue: BWDB (1992)

If irrigation is possible by pumping with low lft pumps from surface waters(groundwater is not available for irrigation purposes in the coastal zone), a dryseason ('Boro) rice crop can be grown. Generally HYVs are used and grownin seed beds prior to transplanting in late January/early February. The crop isharvested in May and June.

212 Faras Ad Farm Sim

Those people whose livelihoods mainly depend on the agriculture sector can becategorised as follows.

Squatters; having no land or homesteads.* Sharecroppers; who may have homesteads but cultivate anothers land.* Small farmers cum sharecroppers.* Marginal farmers.* Large farmers; these may be absentee landlords.

The proportion of each category vanies widely throughout the project area.Generally as one would expect there are a greater number of landless andhmaWlmarginal farmers (Annex C). In the south west, farms tend to be largerand many are owned by absentee landowners who lease their land.

2.33 Land Use ad Cropping Patterns

There is little irrigated agriculture in the coastal zone of Bangladesh. This isbecause the sparse freshwater aquifer bodies are conserved for potable supplies.Agriculture is therefore constrained in the drier periods of the year.

General comments on the cropping patterns and land use of the project area,which varies on an annual basis to a certain extent, are presented below. Theyare based on a categorisation of land use devqloped by the KampsaxInternational consortium.

K tha Area (Category 1)

In the south western Districts of Satkhira, Khulna and Bagherhat, the land isgeneraDy flat with little significant variation in elevation. Approximately 80%of this region is cultivated, the remainder is accounted for by ruralinfrastructure, homesteads and water bodies. The soils have moderate to highdry season salinity. This is the main limiting factor for crop cultivation and thesoils of this area support a low cropping intensity, mainly of T.aman. Onlyabout 8% of this area can support a second crop as a result.

Barisal Artr (Category II)

Approximately 65% of the Districts of Borguna and Patuakhali are cultivated.About 5,575 ha remains uncultivated. The principal crops grown in this areaof low to moderate dry season soil salinity are T.aman, and B.aman in the lowerareas which are more prone to flooding. Single cropping predominates (78%of cultivated area) though some double cropping is possible.

ENvu0MWENAL RBOI*C L&AED Ca_ O Eaumu Commm

'17

Northem Boin Area (Category 111)

In the northern part of Bhola District (which has less saline soils) and onSandwip Island, about 76% of the land is cultivated. Double cropping ispredominant (50% of cultivated area), mostly with local and high yield varieties(HYV) of T.aman and T.aus. About 15% of the cultivated area supports triplecropping consisting of rabi crops, B.aus and LYV Taman. Jute is grown in asmall portion of this area during the pre-monsoon period.

Southern Bhola and Suidharom (Category IV)

The southern part of Bhola District is characterised by high dry season soD andwater salinity and the soils generaDy support only a low cropping intensitythough 75% of the total land area (36,150 ha) is cultivated. Single cropping withBJT aman predominates (83% of cultivated area) whilst double cropping ispossible to a lesser extent (rabi(T.aman, B.aus).

NoakhalilLaximpur/Feni Areas (Category V)

In these central areas of the coastal belt about 85% of the available land (99,640ha) is cultivated, mostly by a single LYV T.aman crop. Soils are often inundatedby saline water through breaks in the embankments and this liniits dry seasonand pre-monsoon cropping. In the drier season, before the monsoon, crops oflower water demand such as chilies and lentils may be grown.

Chittago/Cox's Baaar Area (Category VI)

In this eastem region of the coast lies the second largest concentration ofinfrastructure in Bangladesh, mainly around the port of Chittagong. About 64%of the area is cultivated out of a gross area of 48,240 ha, mainly with B.aus andT.aman rice. Besides B.aus, other pre-monsoon crops are water melon, chiliesand cowpeas. In the Teknaf area, betal leaves are the main cash crop. Dryseason soil salinity can be high in this eastem part of the coast. Some triplecropping is reported in this area with rabi crops,B.aus and LYV T.aman (12%of cultivated area).

Z3.4 Agricultnl Inputs

Seed Supplies

Statistics collected on an upazila basis suggest that the use of improved seedvarieties is very limited. The rabi crops and T.aman crop are grown almostentirely from local seed varieties whilst some improved varieties are used forT.aus, boro and water melon crops. There is scope for substantial improvementof crop yields by promoting the adoption of new improved varieties of seed.

Agrodiemicals

Agrochenical usage varies widely throughout Bangladesh, particularly at thepolder leveL The use of fertblise.s is dictated largely by soil fertility and theeconomic status of the fanner. In some cases, fertiiiser use is consbtained by the

E_awmANaL Raswi Duv Cawmot ow we EiMoaF h Ca _u

18

occurrence of unpredictable adverse conditions which may damage crops;farmers will not invest heavily in agrochemicals unless they can be reasonablysure that the crop can be successfully brought to harvest.

In some areas of the country where the constraints of climate uncertainties havebeen removed; by the provision of irrigation water for example; the use offertilisers and pesticides has increased by a factor of 2 to 3 fold.

It appears from district-wise statistics on fertliser consumption (Annex C) thatferdliser consumption in the project area is quite low compared to the rest ofthe country (13-17% of the national average usage). This low usage is probablyrelated to the level of farmer uncertainty since fertiiser appears to be availablein anl areas. Financial constraints are possibly a major factor determining therates of ferdliser usage in some areas.

There is no information on the variation in pesticide use at the polder level;statistics are only available at the district level, produced by the PesticidesAssociation (Annex C).

As in other parts of Bangladesh, farmers have a poor knowledge of theappropriate application and safety issues of pesticide use and use poor qualityinefficient sprayers.

A wide range of pesticides are reported to be in use, particularly in theChittagong area where the usage appears to be the highest for project areas.Noakhali district has the second highest consumption rate followed by Barisal,Patuakhali and Khulna. In the Chittagong area herbicides are also in use.

Rural Credit

It is reported that the main forms of credit are provided through the informalsector (moneylenders, friends and relatives). Institutional lending is mainlyprovided through the Grameen Bank and the Bangladesh Rural DevelopmentBank. Short term loans are available for the purchase of farm inputs such asseed and agrochemicals. These loans are repayable after the harvest. Mediumterm loans (1-4 years) is available for the purchase of livestock and minorequipment. Longer termn loans are also available.

NGO credit is also available in some areas. Proshika, BRAC and the GrameenBank are predominant in this area.

Labour

Most small holdings are managed by household members and it is only on thelarger farm holdings that farm labour is hired. Generally the requirement forfarm labour is seasonal and local demand is affected by a number of factorssuch as the following:

* Farm size and cropping intensity.* Availability of landless and low income marginal farmerAabourers.* Crop value.

EW,UQImar.fAL RmSOUaK LaaMM Cnmm.u ou we EuRo,wj CowAuwws

* Labour costs.

Labour requirements are at their highest in June and July when the T.amancrop requires transplantation. The daily wages for labouring do not varysignificantly throughout the country; this is partly because migrant labour ischeap and suppresses any tendency for local prices to rise.

In some areas, women are also able to provide labour though they role is stillmainly confined to household activities and homestead farming.

Extension and Research Support

The Department of Agricultural Extension (DAE) has an extensive network ofextension officers (Block Supervisors) who offer extension advice to farmers oncropping practices and the control of pests. The DAE will shortly receiveinstitutional strengthening to improve its effectiveness and outreach capabilities.This is considered further in Section 2.9).

There are numerous research institutes charged with the task of improvingtropvarieties, cultivation methods and disease and pest resistance. Those relevantto the crops grown in the project area are as folows.

* Bangladesh Rice Research Institute (BRRI).* Bangladesh Agricultural Research Institute (BARI).- Bangladesh Jute Research Institute.- Fisheries Research Institute.

Bangladesh Livestock Research Institute (BLRI).* Forest Research Institute.

BARI conducts research on all crops not covered by the specialist crop researchmstitutes.

The activities of the research institutes has been evaluated in relation to theWorld Bank's Agricultural Support Services Project, a component of which is toimprove the quality of research, making it more farmer orientated. Amongstthe conclusions drawn are that the research institutes are to some extent 'outof touch' with farmer requirements and that there is some reluctance of thefarmers to adopt locally produced strains when better strains can be obtainedillegally from neighbouring countries.

Several NGOs are also actively supporting agriciltural development in theproject area. These are considered in Section 2.8.

2.35 Constraints on Agricudtural Production

Food production is generally low compared to more northerly parts, forexample, the per capita food grain production in polder 59/2 is estimated at>0.4kg/day whilst in Gumti it is estimated at 0.6 kg/day.

E_AUcNgAL RSSLY* Comama r rA Eumai Cbm,

20

The main constraints on agricultural production in the coastal area of thecountry are listed below. Not all these constraints operate within individualpolder areas though in general the list is fairly indicative of average conditions.

* Variability in the weather, mainly the timing and intensity of rainfali events.* Short winter season which limits the time available for rabi crop cultivation.* Comparatively high soi salinity and saline intrusions.* Low fertility status of soils; particularly in terms of individual macro- and

micro-nutrient concentrations.* Inadequate supplies of irrigation water during the dry season which limits

boro and rabi crop cultivation.* Unavailability of improved crop varieties.* Highly variable soil conditions which dictate different cropping patterns and

irrigation schedules and detract from the value of general extensionmessages.

* Perennial waterlogging in some areas arises due to inadequate O&M ofdrainage structures.Land use conflicts with shrimp farmers who often breach embankmnents andintroduce saline waters to the detriment of crop production.

* Inadequate agricultural extension activities.* Poor communication networks which mitigate against effective provision of

farm inputs.- Unequitable distribution of cultivable land, often concentrated amongst a few

large landowners, which discourages land improvements by tenant farmers.* Inadequate fodder provision may also be a limiting factor for the use of

draught animals in some areas.

There is considerable scope for these constraints to be addressed throughvarious means of assistance. The pre-requisite to success is an initialimprovement in flood prevention, drainage and cydone protection.

e4 FISHEES

The fisheries sector contributes approximately 35% of Bangladesh's CDP (WorldBank,1991) and accounts foar_0%-of the national protein intake. The sectorearns about 12% of the nation's eiport earrngs; mainly from shrimp export.The sector employs about 1.2 million commercial fishermen and the numbersof occasional or subsistence fishermen is likely to be considerably higher. TheRegio-nal Plan Report for the South East Region (FAP 5) remarks that 'there isa dearth of data on the actual numbers of full time and subsistence fishermen'but reports that rapid rural appraisal suggests that 2% of the population arefull-time fishermen whilst 5% fish on a subsistence basis.

Over 62% of the area under surface water in Bangladesh is located in theproject area and thus these waters contribute a considerable proportion of thenation's protein supply. We can conveniently subdivide the activities in thefisheries sector into the folowing categories which are considered further in thissection.

E_NNOAMAL REWMcS LOAM Co asn< o; Ewopuivi Co_mwu

'1

* Freshwater capture fisheries.* Freshwater aquaculture.* Brackish water aquaculture.* Marine fisheries.

* 2.41 Freswauter Capture Fishies

It is estimated that the total annual fish catch from open surface waters in theproject area is 166,681 mt, mainly from rivers and estuanies. The contributionsof the various water body types in the project area to this total is indicated inTable 24a. It is estimated that in the average 150 days when floodplain spillingoccurs, I ha of land produces over 100 kg/ha of fish. The World Bank (1992)recognises that this could be infcreaseWd k 150 with appopriatemanagement

Fishing in major govemment water bodies requires a licence; this is a far moreequitable arrangement for the poor than the previous system where waterbodies were leased to (comparatively wealthy) individuals who then sub-leasedor sold fishing rights to others.

Many of the important food fish species such as hilsa and carp are migratoryand there is circumstantial evidence in many areas that the abundance offreshwater fish is declining due to the construction of flood control, drainageand irrigation structures which have prevented the migrations necessary tocomplete the life cycle, and which also prevent fish from dispersing across floodplains during the monsoon season. These issues are clouded by the fact thatindigenous fish biology is not weU understood. The 1992 Regional Plan Reportfor the South East region (FAP 5) comments that 'there is not any weildocumented study of fish migration in the river systems of Bangladesh andmisgration patterns of the majority of fish...are very poorly understood'.

There are reported to be 4 species of freshwater crab and 20 freshwater shrinmpspecies which are captured, of these, the freshwater giant prawn (Macrobradhiumrosenbergii) is an important additional fishery resource. It also is migratory,returning to the sea in order to breed in identified breeding grounds. FCDIstructures are reported to adversely affect this species.

Z4.2 Frskwater Aquaculturc

A recent survey by the Bangladesh Fisheries Resource System (Annex B)estimates that there are about 1%,000 ponds in the project area of which themajority support fish cuture (54%) whilst 32% are 'culturable'. The remaining14% are stated to be 'derelict' which means that due to poor maintenance theycould not support fish life. These ponds account for about 8% of the projectarea (31,024 ha). Many of these ponds are multi-purpose, supplying domesticwater requirements, laundry and bathing facilities.

Fish production from pond aquiculture in the project area is about 53,861 mtThe Kampsax International report estimates the yield from these ponds to be

E,AvMo,P_L Rmasuc lai Comwio oF n Euma Cmas_

".1

Tabk Z4a Distsibution of Fish Catch by Inulad Open Water Bodies in Project Districts,1987-88

_________________ _______________ ___________ in mn )

District Riwuis & esauan= Sundem BHeels Floodlnds Rnw toal

Onilagong 270019 -191 12519 39726

NoakhIli 1651 I 1 9722 26291

Banral 41300 n7 11391 59718

Khulna EE B066 125 87 21972

Patuakhali 15 . 3222 18974

PrJt Tool 112437 1066 251 45877 16681

Bangladcsh Total 133817 8066 45610 182037 419530

Projc shae as % 61.2 10.0 0.3 25. 39.7of Bangi

oc BEWDE (9

Table 2.4b Princp modes of bnakish uwteaqnaclturm deelopmet in Bangkdesh

Si. Mode Major Physica Componcn«sNcL

1. Shnmp/rish only (pesent Minor embankmcnt. eanhworl; wOoden inliLs. pOst larvacpracce) and traps-

2. Shnmp and nce (presen Mmnor cmbankmcnt. carthwork. wooden inlets, post larvac._____ practic) taps and additional inputs for nec cultivation

3. Shrimp and salt (present Minor embanukment. eanhworLk wooden inleuts post-lame.practie) traps and additional embankment for salt

4. Shnmp only - Major embankment. canhworL &enilizcr, ltnc. sccncdtrei4i..intensire) minlt and oullenL concretc replaors and pstl4aivac

S. Shnrmp only Major cmbankmnct earthworl, screened inlets and oulcts(Intensie) concte mgulaiots past-lamc, fetiizcr, lime and Iced

6 Shnmp only and ncc Shnmp Major cmbankment, carh worL screcned concrctc(impmved) inlets and outlets, lare and fertslizcr. Rwc: Requircd

inputs for riee cultivation

7 Shnrnp only and salt Shrmp: Major embankmenL carthwork, screened concr,te(imped and outlet pon lam and fcrilizer. Salt Additil

S c BWahwo19

soumv BWDB (19,)

281 kg/ha, This is comparatively low and there is considerable scope to increasethis yield to 3000 kg/ha without substantial inputs. Yields as high as 9000kg/has are possibleiwith intensive culture methods, including pond aeration.

A small number of hatcheries are located in the project area; at Raipur, inLakshmipur and at Chhagainaiya near the Muhuri river. The former wasestablished in 1979 to mitigate against the adverse effects of FCDI schemes inthe area.

Pond species recorded in the Noakhali and ComiDa districts include thefolowing.

* Rohu (Labco rohita); 34% of catches.* Catla (Catla catla); 28-31%.* Mrigal (Cirrhina mrigala); 19%.* Silver carp (Hypophtlwlmichthys molitrix).* riapia (0. Niloticus, mossambicus).* Boal (Wallago atts).* Shol (Channa sp.).* Shing (?Chrnna batranc*s).

Puti (Puntius sp.).

Prices quoted (April 1991) for these species vary in different areas of thecountry, for example, catla vanes from 35-90 Tklkg and carp vanes from 30-60

24.3 Brackish Water Aquaultuve

Coastal brackdsh water aquaculture is mainly concemed with shrimp farming.bie v4b. sumnmarises the prindpal modes of brackdsh water aquaculture in

Bangladesh. This activity has increased rapidly in recent years, primarily dueto the high export value of the commodity. Exports of shrimp in 1989/90 eamedabout 84 million ecu in foreign exchange.

The species Peneus monodoa is farmed in the Satkhiia, Khulna and Cox's Bazaarareas.

During shrimp culture, post-larvae are netted in coastal waters and introducedinto brackish water ponds where they are allowed to grow and mature beforeharvesting. A more traditional method simply involves flooding ponds withbrackish water which introduces the larvae. Both approaches tend to givevariable yields since predatory fish larvae may also be introduced and these canconsume much of the potential shrimp yield.

Shrimp culture was a long practised activity along the coast of the Khulnaregion which was interrupted, temporarily by the construction of coastalembankmnents. The rise in market values has caused a resurgence of shrimpculture in the Khulna and Cox's Bazaar areas.

Generaily farmers stock up to 20,000 post larvae per hectare-in ponds of up to40 hectares in size. The ponds are often fertilised and may incorporate sluice

E&-.MrAL _ RoSmcES Cobau o WE EuoW.4 Caa.u

24

gates and fry screens. Average production is reported to be about 100-175 kglhathough up to 700 kg/ha is possible without supplementary feeding; even thisis considered low by intemational standards.

Rottional Skrimp/Rice Farming

In some areas, such as Khulna, 'double cropping' in agricultural fields withshrimp and aman rice occurs. The shrimp are grown from January to late Julyand rice is grown from August to December. It. has been reported in someareas that shrimp farming in this manner has adversely affected adjacent cropproduction due to salinisation of the soil. It has also been reported that ricefarmers are being forced to allow shrimp cultivation on their land after theaman crop.

In the Cox's Bazaar area shrimp farming is carried out in rotation with saltproduction.

24.4 Constrints in Coastal Aquaclture

The following constraints on coastal aquaculture have been identified fromexisting reports and discussions.

* -High tidal amplitude causes soil erosion and the subsequent loss of valuablenutrients.

* Cyclones and tidal bores tend to discourage capital investment.* Crabs often seriously damage shrimp farm embankments, allowing shrimp

to escape.* Variable quality of collected wild seed.* Conversion of mangrove forest to ponds leads to loss of spawning and

nursery areas.Inadequate draiage provisions and O&M which results in poor watercirculation and control of water supply by shrimp farmers.

2.5 FORESMr

Natural forest in the project area is almost entirely restricted to the coastalmangrove; the Sundarbans, Choakhalia and Teknaf forests. It is estimated thatthere are about 587,380 ha of natural mangrove forest. Very little natural forestexists further inland in southem Bangladesh though there is a considerableamount of social forest, particularly around homesteads.

The Forestry Department has been involved in coastal afforestation since themid 1960s and has planted an estimated 1.08 million hectares along the coastusing species from the Sundarbans. The initial plantations of the CoastalAfforestation Project were in Chittagong, Noakhali, Barisal and PatuakhaliDistricts (Figure 2.5a). Initial afforestation rates in the 1970s were about 4000ha/yr but this slowed down to about 1000 ha/yr in the early 1980s.

Etwahn. ROOM= Lam Ccminu oruE Ewi m

75

Khtdna ~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~NoakhaII

-4-I

MNIA 0 htaog)

,,,°I~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~ Se.i-ii. NOAI'C~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~00HALI -4 ~~ CA DIV. ICHITTAGONG

C/A Div.

PATUAKHALI 0 S °ARISALC/A Div. C/A Div.

B A Y OF 8 E N G A L NCoas Baz ar

"BURMA

Figure 2.5a Planltations of the Coastal Afforestation Project

_ 30 * Sl .0 Ic0

Attempts at afforestadon have yielded nixed results. The Regional Plan reportfor the South East (FAP 5) notes that 'attempts at afforestation to stabilise thecoast have had mixed results for a number of ecological, social andadministrative reasons. The coastline is generaUy too active to supportextensive areas of mangrove'. Some of the ecological factors are physical factorssuch as soil salinity and other physico-chemical characteristics, the nature offlooding and the degree of maintenance. Some species establish themselvesbetter in certain regions. For example, Avicennia officinalis is now mostlyconfined to the Chittagong area whilst Excoecaria agullocha is linited to areaswithin Noakhali Division. Attempts at afforestation with Bruguiera gymnorrhizaare reportedly not very successful whilst Acacia is reported to grow mostsuccessfully on higher drier ground.

v 6 INDUSTRY

Industry along the coast is predominantly concentrated within the Patenga areaof Chittagong area (polder 62). This area supports a variety of industrial plantwhich include the following:

* Fertiliser manufacturing plant (TSP).* Chittagong steel mills.* General Electrical Manufacturing.* Chittagong Cement Clinker Factory.

Eastern Cable.* Eastern Refinery.

Another concentration in this industrial area is the Bangladesh ExportProcessing Zone which was established in 1983. Industry continues to beattracted to the area and it is reported that when all recently approveddevelopments are established, the total value of investment will reach 473million US dollars.

*Z61 Salt Production

It is reported that 14,600 ha of land are used for salt production, mainly in theChittagong area Table 26a. Approximately 29,000 farmers were estimated to beinvolved in this activity recently (Kampsax 1992). Production estimates suggestthat 50 tonnes of unrefined salt can be produced from I hectare of land.

Z7 INSTITUTIONAL FRAMEWORK FOR ENVIRONMENTAL MANAGEMENT

In this section we briefly describe the activities, organisational structure andenvironmental management capabilities of selected agencies and describe anyinstitutional strengthening activities which are in progress or forthcoming.

Z7.1 Depabnent of Ervimnment

The DoE, formerly known as the Department of Pollution Control has recentlybecome the focus of attention by the Government in terms of its functions in

E_rN.L RuEmxI L1_ Cbm cr n, Egmw C _muwm

27

Table 26 Main Areas of Salt Production

Pdlder No. Upazila Salt-Ccntrc Area Undcr P.C.Salt Malking

l __________ _____________________ (in ha.)

P 71 1.Kutubdia 1.LCmSILhali 1473.09 10.08

P 69 2.Maheskhali ' U[iara Nalbila 2024.28 13.86P 70 3.Gorokghata 1274.38 .72

4.Maiarbari 1809.80 19

Sub-Td2al 5108.46 34.97

P 66/3 3.Cox's Bazar 5.Gomatoli 1341.96 9.196.Cloufaldandi 842.17 5.767.Dulhazari 49.78 0.348.Fulchari 1320.52 9.04

l________ .Sub-Total 3554.43 24.33

P 64/2B 4.Chokoria 9.Darbcshata 328M88 22.47

P 64/IA 5Banskhali 10.Purbo Boroghona 800.48 5.4811Sarol 299.07 2.05

i_________ ________________ Sub-ToLal 1099.55 753P 68 6.Tcknaf 12. Tcknaf 91.06 0.62

Total 14609.47 100.00

Soure: BWDB (1992)

potlution control and the development planning process. This is mainly due toincreasing global (and donor) awareness of environmental issues. The DoE hasbeen involved in the sporadic monitoring of river polution for several years,mainly at well known polluted environments such as the Kharnafuli River.

The central office is based in Dhaka and there are regional offices in Khulnaand Chittagong. The DoE is inadequately staffed, particularly at the middle andhigher management levels. This is not due to inadequate financial resourcesbut is a reflection of the inadequacies of the education system which fails todeliver sufficient expertise for the DoE's needs. Expertise in environmentalissues is mainly concentrated in the private sector where the remunerativerewards are higher.

The DoE has received substantial donor support in recent years, particularlyfrom the Asian Development Bank's institutional strengthening programmes.Pollution monitoring capabilities and EIA expertise have been strengthenedthough the management of natural resource issues has not been specificallyaddressed. The regional offices are deficient in skilled technical manpower andare poorly equipped. This may be addressed by further donor support;principally the World Bank.

Given the existing state of affairs and the emphasis on the management ofindustrial pollution and EIA, it is unlikely that the DoE will be able tosubstantially contribute to the management of natural resource issues in thenear future apart from giving general advice and guidance.

27.2 Fowst Department (IFD)

The FD of the Ministry of Ernvironment and Forests is the main agencyconcerned with -the management of forest resources. Field operations aremanaged on a regional basis, with each of 6 regional offices headed by aConservator of Forests. Each regional cirde is sub-divided into several divisionspatrolled by Divisional Forest Officers.

At the end of 1991, the FD had a staff of about 10,000 which includes 4850technical and professional staff. There is also an additional manual labour forceof 0.5 million.

The SAR for the World Bank's Forest Resources Management Project makes thefollowing points about the operational capabilities of the DF.

* Performance of the field organisation varied widely due to inadequatemonitoring of quality and effectiveness.

* The structure relies too heavily on the Chief Conservator of Forests forcontrol and decision-making.

* The organisation is not sufficiently developed on functional lines.

* The headquarters is weak in project planning, programming, monitoring,and evaluating and has poor environmental management capabilities.

E,4vm_waFErAL RlCES~XUCWS L~UmI comN lwe Ei ar C_aiww

* There is a shortage of technical staff at the .iddle and upper managementlevels.

The SAR also comments that the FD has been slow to introduce 'people-orientated forestry'.

There has been on-going donor support for mangrove afforestation for severalyears assisting not only in the area of plantations but also in training, remotesensing and colorisation research.

The proposed Forest Resources Management Project will also finance thestrengthening of environmental management capabilities. This would involvethe FD establishing an Environmental Management Wing which would beconcerned with:

* Planning and implementation of nature conservation activities.* Establishing environmental standards and criteria for forest management.* Collecting environmental data.

Monitoring environmental effects of forestry operations.U

The staff salaries of the Environmental Management Wing woultd alsro befinanced by the project, in addition to the short term inputs of a mangroveafforestation research scientist and an entomologist

These developments should substantially enhance the capabilities forenvironmental management of forestry issues under the CPP H.

.7.3 Bangladesh Water Development Board

The BWDB is the responsible agency for all aspects of FCDI development,operation and management within the Ministry of Irrigation. It has been inexistence since 1972. Its operations are administered on a regional anddivisional basis and there is a total of 18,000 staff in the organisation. TheWorld Bank's draft Final Executive Project Summary notes several problemswithin the BWDB which include financial constraints, management systemdeficiencies and poor staff motivation. It further notes that benefits of pastprojects have not been fuly realised due to weaknesses in the O&M system.

At present the BWDB does not have environmental management capabilitiesthough environmental issues related to water quality and supply can beadequately addressed by existing technical staff resources.

ZZ4 Departmnt of Agricultural Extension

The DAE is the executing agency within the Ministry of Agriculture that isconcerned with providing knowledge support to the farming community. Thereare urrently some 12,000 officers (Block Supervisors) who interface with thefarming community. Technically, they come under the administration of theUpazila Pauishad (village council) though their extension activities are directedby the Ministry through higher levels in the DAE. The block supervisors are

&m"awwAL Rawcu Lum Camm oP 76 EAman C auwuhs

,n

involved in the collection of basic aricultural data on cropping pattems, yieldsand use of agrochemicals amongst other things.

Deficiencies in the efficiency and adequacy of the DAE's extension work withthe farming community is being addressed through the World Bark'sAgricultural Support Services Project which amongst other things improves thetraining and outreach capabilities of the field staff.

2.8 SELEcTED NGOs INVOLVED IN ENiRONMENAL AND SOCIAL ISSUES

Of the several thousand NGOs operating in Bangladesh, the following are themain ones operating in the areas relevant to the project. It is likely that manysmaller ones operate at the village level.

2.8.1 NGO Involvement in Embankment Leasing

The concept of leasing stretches of embankment to the landless is not new tothe BWDB. One NCO which has been involved in such activities is BithahinShamabaya Society which is an organisadon geared to catering for landless,destitute or widowed women.

2.8.2 iVNGOs mwolved ix Agrwcultre, Fisheries and Forcstry Activities

Bangladesh RumOL Aduancament Committer (BRAC)

Founded in 1972, this is the largest national NGO with over 3000 staff workingin health, agriculture, education and income-generating programmes for therual poor. BRAC activitie., are not uniformnly distributed around the country;they are presently concentrated in the districts of Manikganj, Sherpur, Ramgpurand Pabna Districts. Recently some agricultural development activties havebegun on Kutubdia.

In terms of social forestry, BRAC's main area of involvement has been inroadside planting and homestead gardening. Fodder. cultivation has also beena main area of farmer encouragement. Experience of coastal afforestation islimited.

Proshik&aManobik Unnayan Kendra

Proshika branched off from BRAC in 1976 and has become involved with ruralgroups in the areas of group formation, training and income and employmentgeneration. It has organised approximately 20,000 groups of farmersthroughout the country (72 upazilas) and- conducts training and groupformation activities through over 35 Area Development Centres. Like BRAC,it has a rural credit scheme which operates on a revolving basis.

Proshika's objectives in the forestry sector are to develop environmentalawareness and provide training and credit for self development of the poor.The organisation has considerable experience of roadside afforestation,homestead agroforestry, nursery developmer.t and protection of natunrl forests.

Eua_OMamA RamUac LaM C

Following submission of a proposal for participatory forestry in the sal forestsof central Bangladesh, Proshika is now collaborating with the ForestryDepartment in forest protecdon and agroforestry activities.

Apart from activities in the Comilla area, Proshika is not well represented in thecoastal areas of the project.

Suanirbhar

This movement, which began in 1975, promotes self-help amongst the ruralpoor, the target population being mainly landless women and marginal farmers.The NGO's main area of activity in the forestry sector is in homestead agro-forestry. Substantial numbers of its staff have received training fr-m theForestry department in this area.

Banchte Shekha

This NGO, established in 1976, works with widows, divorcees, abandoned orlandless women mainly in the Jessore region where there are over 400 BSgroups. It is mainly involved in social forestry, tree planting and homesteadnursery development. It has been promoting tree planting on char lands,particularly fruit trees whose produce can be sold.

Gono Unnayan Prochesta (GUP)

GUP was established in 1973 and works with the poor in Madaripur andPatuakhali Districts. It is involved in social forestry and agricultural andhomestead crop production.

CARE International

CARE began worldng in Bangladesh in the 1950s and now has over 1300 staffinvolved in a range of projects concerned with agricultural development,women's development, agroforestry.and farmer training.

Mennonite Central Committee

The Mennonites are involved in agricultural development, tree-planting andnursery developrBenL Districts where the NGO is particularly active are Feniand Noakhali.

Cantos

Caritas is the relief and development agency of the catholic church. It is wellestablished in Bangladesh, having regional offices in Barisal, Chittagong andKhulna amongst other places. The organisation has been involved in socialforestry issues for about 20 years, the main thrust being in fruit treedevelopments on homesteads.

EWNVCWAL Ruosacmm C OFu ELOmN ComaU"=

32

2.9 RELATD DONOR SUPPORr

210 ACRICULT7URE

National Minor Imgation Deelopment Project

This project will be executed over a period of 7 years and will be co-financed bythe Overseas Development Administration (ODA)-and the Commission of theEuropean Communities. It has the following components:

* Installation of new and rehabilitation of existing old deep tubewells.

* Provision of pnimary water supplies to about 100.000 ha of coastal land byimprovements in drainage infrastructure to allow tidal freshwater irrigation.

* Provision of primary water supples to 30,000 ha by river abstraction usingpontoon-mounted low lift pumps.

* Demonstration of command area distribution systems on 10,000 ha of low liftpump schemes.

* Environmental monitoring and consultancy advice.

Agriculture Support Services Project

This project which will be co-financed by the ODA and the World Bank will beimplemented over a 10 year period. Its main aim is to improve the efficiencyand effectiveness of the extension system which will hopefuDy be reflected inincreased crop production, crop diversification and more efficient use of farmirputs. Some of the projects cr.iponents address the foDlowing:

- Improving seed availability to farmers.Promotion of crop diversification and horticultural export activities.

* Promotion of integrated pest management and more appropriate use of farminputs, including water and agrochemicals.

There will be an environmental monitoring component which will addressissues such as soil physical and chemical characteristics and agrochemical usage.

v.11 FIsHERIES

Second Aquaculture Development Programme

The on-going ADB financed SADP project focuses on carp and shrimp culturein various parts of the country and floodplain stocking in eastem Bangladesh.The project also provides credit facilities through internediate financialinstitutions for shrimp and fish farmers to upgrade ponds and for theconstruction of new ponds, hatcheries and nurseries.

E,ma6AL REMoWB LAar CAu e w Eawmnh C_.msw

33

Shrimp Culture Project

This IDA financed project ended December 1991. It was concerned withimproving shrimp culture in the eastern Cox's Bazaar area. Paddy/shrimpcultivation is also part of the project. The project has supported hatcherydevelopment, extension services, credit and technical assistance. NCOs havebeen involved in organising farmers into groups. Yields have reportedlyincreased from 75 to 135 kg1ia in pilot study areas .

Institutionl Strengthening of the Department of Fisheries

The UNDP and FAO are co-financing a 4 year project aimed at improving themanagement capabilities of the DOF. It also involves support for pond andfreshwater shrimp culture through the use of demonstration farms and stafftraining.

Integrated Fisheries Development Project

The GOB has solely financed this project which began in 1988. It involved theestablishment of mnini hatcheries in upazilas throughout the country as well asfloodplain stocking and surveying of all public water bodies in the country.

Third Fisheries Project

This project aims to improve the fisheries sector in the western half of thecountry through the foDowing

Major stocking of up to 100,000 ha of floodplain fisheries over a six yearperiod (not in the project area however).

* Improvements in infrastructure for draipage and irrigation on 13,000 ha ofexisting polder-based shrimp cultivation.

* Financing packages at the upazila and district level to support pondaquaculture developments, and women's involvement in fisheries amongstother components.

Production of freshwater prawns is also supported.

Noakhali Integrated Rural Development Project

This project which has entered its second phase is concemed with thepromotion of rural development from several angles. Extension work toimprove agricultural yields and social development in the area is a majoractivity. Cooperatives have been forned , consisting of local farmers, landlessand destitute groups. Ponds have been leased to cooperatives for fishcultivation which has proved successful. The groups are for the time beingprovided with free fingerlings and fry and technical advice.

Em_mopWiAL ROIAKU Lamm Cogmaui oe wE Euinom C _maua,

34

X.12 FoRErm

Forest Resources Manogemnmt Project

This World Bank project is concemed with establishing a forest managementsystem 'responsive to the economic, environmental and social goals of thecountry' and increasing the productivity of the forestry sector.

The project has the foflowing components:

* Forest Resources Management; this involves improving the capabilities tomake forest management plans and involving local communities in forestdevelopment and protection.

* Expansion of forest resources; rehabilitation of degraded forest and plantingof 60,000 ha of new mangrove forest.

* Nature conservation; preparation of management plans for all national parksand wildlife sanctuaries.

* Institutional support; reorganisation of the FD headquarters, training anddevelopment of an environmental wing.

Upazila Afforestation and Nxrsery Development Projedt

This UNDP/ADB-funded project supports tree planting on public non-forestland, homesteads and along transport corridors and river and coastalembankments.

Integrated Resource Development of Sundarbans Reserve Forest Project

The UNDP and FAO are financing this project which is concemed with thedevelopment of a multi-use management plan for the Sundarbans.

EAmrWL RocUK LANf CGa oW hw EmmuLw C_wdu

35

3 POEV14L ENVRONAMENTAL IMPAC7S

In this chapter, we briefly list and describe the environmental impacts whichcould arise from or be exacerbated by the project. The impacts identified arebased primarily on an environmental review of the existing literature on flood.control, drainage and irrigation (FCDI) projects in Bangladesh, and also on ourexperience of the country.

It should be emphasised that the CERP does not involve the construction ofentirely new embankments. Apart from a few areas where existingembankment sections will be retired, construction works will involve elevating,repairing and strengthening existing embankments. To our knowledge thealignment of the embankment will not be substantially altered and no newwater courses will be either regulated or obstructed by the project. In mostcases the impacts of coastal embankment construction have been extant for aconsiderable period of time and will continue to exist with or without theproposed project, unless actions have or will be taken to address them.

We preface our discussion of potential positive and negative impacts of theproject by first reviewing the impacts of the original Coastal EmbankmentProject (CEP).

31 THE COASrAL EMUANKMENT PROJECJ: REVIEW OF IMPACZS

3.1.1 Backgmund

Coastal embankments have been constructed in Bangladesh for many years, at-sast since the creation of the East Pakistan Water and Power DevelopmentAuthority (EPWAPDA) in 1939. Prior to this period low lying embankments ofthe Zamindar System were in existence. In 1961 the Coastal EmbankmentProject (CEP) was conceived and implemented over a 10 year period, its mainaim being to afford flood protection to the coastal area.

An evaluation of the CEP was carried out for EWAPDA in 1969 by Leedshill DeLeuw Engineers and the report makes several general comments andobservations on the project's impacts Table 3.1a.

The report does not elaborate on the nature of the impacts or the extent towhich rural communities were affected. Neither is there an indication ofproject-instigated or individual-inspired mitigation measures which address theimpacts. An exception to this relates to the negative impacts on polder drainageand flooding due to siltation and land accretion where civil workswere carried out We were unable to locate any information which documentshow affected people adapted to adverse impacts such as the decline in openwater fisheries or the obstruction of navigation channels. Discussions that weheld suggest that people engaged in such activities were forced to change theiroccupations.

_gv..u~fALROMui Law COMm_ O im ELaw.v Cmmw

The main benefits envisaged of the project; increased production of crops, salt,fish and shrimp; have occurred to a large extent. However the relationshipover time between polder construction and increased production has beenconfused by natural disasters in subsequent years.

We are able to draw some lessons from this project for the planning of the CPPI1. These are listed briefly below and considered further in Section S which dealswith impact mitigation.

* Borro