AREAS AND ASPECTS OF FITNESS

Fitness is the ability to meet the demands of the activity and the environment in which you are participating. To say that someone is fit is too general for our purposes. When we look at fitness for effective performance in activities we see it is much more specific and covers a wide range of different aspects. In order to perform effectively in any activity there are 3 areas of fitness

PHYSICAL SKILL RELATED

MENTAL

If any one fitness side is lacking then your performance will not be fully effective

Each of the 3 areas of fitness physical, skill related and mental can be further sub-divided into specific aspects of fitness.

PHYSICAL ASPECTS OF FITNESS

Stamina: This is the body’s ability to keep working for long periods of time it can also be referred to as endurance. Specifically it is made up from cardio-respiratory and muscular endurance.

Cardio-respiratory endurance: This is the ability of your heart lungs and the blood vessels to supply oxygen and nutrients to the working muscles over long periods of exercise. It is also sometimes called cardio-vascular endurance and is sometimes referred to as aerobic endurance.

Muscular endurance: This is the ability of a muscle or group of muscles to maintain repeated contractions over long periods of exercise. It is also sometimes called Local muscular endurance.

Strength This is the maximal force that a muscle can exert as it contracts. Strength can be further divided into static or isometric (the muscles contract and hold one position), dynamic or isometric (the muscles move contracting and extending) and explosive strength or power (the muscle contraction happens at high speed)

Flexibility: This is the range of movement of a specific joint or muscle group. It is also sometimes called suppleness or mobility.

Speed: This is the rate of movement of the whole body or a single part of the body, the time it takes to move over a given distance.

Speed endurance: This is the ability to continually make repeated fast runs over a long period of time and is some times referred to as anaerobic endurance

Power: This is the combination of strength and speed and is sometimes called explosive strength.

1

FITNESS

SKILL-RELATED ASPECTS OF FITNESS

Agility: This is the ability to quickly change direction or body position.

Balance: This is the ability to maintain a controlled and stable body position with the centre of gravity over the base of support. Balance can be static such as holding a handstand or dynamic on the move such as in skiing.

Coordination: This is the ability to move your body parts in a controlled and synchronised manner in response to what your senses tell you.

Reaction-time: This is the time it takes you to react to a stimulus. For example the time it takes you to begin running in response to hearing a starting pistol in a sprint.

Timing: This is the ability to judge when to and apply an action at the right moment. For example timing a slide tackle at the right moment in a game of football.

Movement anticipation: This is the ability to read a situation and effectively select the correct response.

MENTAL ASPECTS OF FITNESS

Motivation: This is your will your desire, your drive to succeed and achieve your goals

Level of Arousal: This is the level of your excitement, anticipation, stress, aggression, apprehension and nervousness. It refers to the state of mental preparedness for participation in the activity.

Concentration: This refers to your ability to remain focused on a task.

Stress: This is the level of anxiety felt as a result of physical mental and emotional pressures.

Relaxation: This is the ability to control our stress and lower our levels of anxiety when we feel pressure.

*See page 47 onwards for more detail on mental aspects of fitness

Every activity in which you participate requires a combination of the various aspects of the 3 areas of fitness for a successful performance. Though different activities require different combinations and place different degrees of importance on the separate aspects of fitness

2

ASPECTS OF FITNESS TASK

Complete the table below by listing the following aspects of fitness under the appropriate aspect of fitness

coordination anxiety control timing agility speed flexibility concentration balance cardio respiratory endurance reaction time power level of arousal motivation muscular endurance managing emotions speed endurance relaxation mental rehearsal concentration strength movement anticipation

ASPECTS OF FITNESS

PHYSICAL SKILL-RELATED MENTAL

Now read p40-45 of the Thorburn H/Int2 workbook and make additional notes

ICT TASK – In pairs your task is to design and present a PowerPoint presentation on the Areas and Aspects of Fitness.

3

So far we have looked at all the various aspects of fitness in isolation however you must be able to apply these to your performance in specific activities. For the purposes of the course we will look at the concepts and fitness performance requirements in football and swimming to enable us to answer the internal and external analysis of performance assessments. However there is nothing to stop you applying these concepts within an activity of your choice that you participate in and feel that you could write about in a more informed manner.

PERFORMANCE FITNESS REQUIREMENTS FOR FOOTBALL

Football is a fast fluctuating game that involves bouts of fast high intensity sprinting interspersed with periods of lower intensity jogging and walking. This is continual throughout the 90 minute period of the game therefore this implies that all types of endurance are going to be vital to maintain your performance throughout the game.

PHYSICAL ASPECTS OF FITNESS

Cardio respiratory endurance (CRE) is required to last the full 90 minutes of the game. During the game you will do a lot of work both on and off the ball. You will make repeated runs to support attacks, get into space to receive the ball, make runs with the ball, chase back to defend etc. The energy required to do this is supplied aerobically (this will be explained in detail on p24), which requires your heart, lungs and blood system to supply O2 to the working muscles throughout the game. Therefore a high level of CRE delays the onset of fatigue. This means that your work rate stays high you can fulfil your role in the team and you will be able to maintain a high skill level (as fatigue can also effect your control, touch and concentration)

Speed and speed endurance. Speed is required when trying to beat an opponent to a 50/50 ball, to lose defender, to get in to space, to support an attack, to dribble round an opponent or to chase back and close down an attack. If you lack speed then you will be unable to maintain possession of the ball or win it back or take on your opposite player effectively. This happens continually throughout the game as you repeatedly sprint over varied distances. Therefore speed endurance is more important because if it is poor you will be unable to maintain sprinting throughout the duration of the game. The energy required to do this is supplied anaerobically (this will be explained in detail on p24) as the aerobic system is to slow to meet the energy demands. These results in lactic acid build up and it is this, which leads to muscle fatigue. Therefore with improved speed endurance (anaerobic endurance) the body can delay the production of lactic acid and tolerate higher concentrations of it thus delaying fatigue.

Muscular endurance as stated earlier there is a lot of running in football this requires repeated contractions of our thighs (quadriceps), hamstrings, gluteals (buttocks) and calves. Therefore muscular endurance is vital to delay the onset of fatigue, which prevents our muscles from working to full capacity thus affecting our ability to run and execute skills effectively. Having effective muscular endurance also delays the production of lactic acid

Strength is required in football to be able to make strong effective challenges for the ball and win tackles to prevent yourself being eased of the ball, it is important to be able to hold off defenders when trying to hold the ball up in attack or to stand up to and maintain possession from the strong challenges of the opposition as you take them on and try to beat them. Without a good level of both upper body and leg strength you will lose possession of the ball and will be less likely to win it back in tackle situations.

Power or explosive strength. Leg power is required to jump high in the air to compete for defensive and attacking headers if you lack power you will be out jumped and unable to clear the ball from the danger area nor will you be able to convert crosses and corners into scoring opportunities. Leg power is also required when shooting in open play or at a set piece to produce a powerful shot that may beat the keeper or force a weak save that another player could capitalise on. Arm power is also important for long distance throw ins or for a goal keeper when throwing the ball out.

Flexibility this allows player to reach and stretch to make tackles or shots at goal such as overhead kicks or stretching for a volley. It allows a wider range of movement and will help to prevent injury.

4

SKILL-RELATED ASPECTS OF FITNESS

Agility is required to enable players to quickly change direction, for example, when making runs into the penalty box, turning to close down an attack, quickly adjusting to closely mark a player who is trying to loose you or adjusting their upper body to reach a corner kick and head the ball towards the goal. Attackers need to use agility to lose defenders and create space, leading to better scoring opportunities.

Balance. In football dynamic balance is very important. Players need this because they are moving and adjusting body position constantly when looking for scoring opportunities in the penalty box or trying to mark an opponent closely. Good balance will help players to keep their shots on target, and to reach and play difficult volley strikes with accuracy it will also help to maintain possession when a defender tries to push you of the ball.

Co-ordination. Players require this to control the ball and dribble in tight situations the need to coordinate the movement of many different body movements and touch skills. Hand - eye co-ordination is another example. If a goalkeeper had poor hand -eye co-ordination it would cause a number of problems. For example, the goalkeeper would not be able to coordinate the run out from goal, time the jump up to reach the crossed ball, and make a secure 2 handed catch. A keeper with poor co-ordination would probably fumble or completely miss the ball and as a result the opposition would have more chances to score goals.

Reaction time it is important to have a fast reaction speed to move out to close down attacks, to block shots off the line when covering the near post at a corner kick, to pounce on fumbled saves etc. Having a slow reaction time means that you will give the initiative to your opponent and it may be the difference between getting to a ball and winning it or not.

Timing Players have to time passes so they reach team mates, time runs into the box to meet crosses or beat the offside trap and time tackles so as not to commit fouls

MENTAL ASPECTS OF FITNESS

Level of arousal it is important to be in the right frame of mind when playing. If you are not “up for the game” then you will not perform to the best of your ability and lack enthusiasm. However, if you are too psyched up or anxious you will also not perform to your best for example you may be overly aggressive and make rash challenges.

Control of emotions it is important to be aggressive so that you don’t back out off tackles but it is important to control your emotions so that you don’t get too wound up put in dangerous tackles or retaliate too strong challenges or argue with the refs decisions and get booked for dissent. It is also important to remain positive and not be too hard on yourself if you make a mistake, as this can get you down and lead to a drop in performance

Motivation it is important that you are motivated to do your best if not you will lack the desire to try hard and will give up too easily when the going starts to get tough.

Concentration this is important so that you remain focussed on your role and carry out your specific duties. For example you may have to man mark a specific player but if you fail to stay focussed on this task they could get free from you and open up the defence leading to a shot or even a goal.

It is also important to remember that there are a number of different playing positions in a football team and whilst they all require similar basic fitness requirements they are needed in different degrees. This is due to the differing physical, skill related and mental demands of the specific role they have to perform in the game. See next page

5

ROLE SPECIFIC FITNESS

Goalkeepers require flexibility to reach balls placed high into the corners; strength to catch and hold onto or block powerful shots or hold off challenges from the opposition; speed to move quickly off the line to narrow angles or meet a cross; agility to quickly change direction to react to deflections for example; reaction time to quickly initiate a dive, jump or move off the line etc in reaction to the ball or opposition; coordination to run out and jump to collect a cross; balance to get body weight behind ball and not get caught flat footed; concentration to remain focused on game especially after a period of having little to do and determination to prevent a goal being scored.

Defenders require CRE to cope with the demands of the game for the duration of 90 mins; speed endurance to continually make repeated sprints over varied distances for the duration of the game; strength to put in and win strong challenges and to hold players off when in possession; power to jump high in the air to make clearing headers or hit long passes up to the attack; timing to time tackles to win the ball and not give away a foul or penalty; reaction time to get of the mark quickly to close down and limit attacks; aggression/determination (but controlled) to win tackles and not to let your opponent beat you but without putting in rash and illegal challenges and concentration to remain focussed on your marking task and not let your opponent get away

Midfielders require CRE to cope with the demands of the game for the duration of 90 mins; speed endurance to continually make repeated sprints over varied distances for the duration of the game; strength to put in and win strong challenges and to hold players off when in possession; power to jump high in the air to make clearing or attacking headers, to hit long passes up to the attack or to take powerful shots at goal; timing to time tackles to win the ball and not give away a foul and timing runs to support attacks or create scoring chances; reaction time to get of the mark quickly to close down and limit attacks or pounce on goal keepers mistakes; aggression/determination (but controlled) to win tackles and not to let your opponent beat you but without putting in rash and illegal challenges and concentration to remain focussed on your marking task and not let your opponent get away or not to stray offside when attacking

Strikers require CRE to cope with the demands of the game for the duration of 90 mins; speed endurance to continually make repeated sprints over varied distances for the duration of the game to lose defenders and create scoring chances; strength to put in and win strong challenges and to hold players off when in possession to hold up the ball; power to jump high in the air to make headers at goal or to take powerful shots at goal; agility to create gaps and move into scoring positions, to turn and lose defenders and keep tight ball control timing runs to support attacks or into the box to create scoring chances or beat the offside trap; reaction time to get of the mark quickly to pounce on goal keepers mistakes; aggression/determination (but controlled) to take on and beat you opponent without over-reacting to strong challenges and concentration not to stray offside when attacking

6

PERFORMANCE FITNESS REQUIREMENTS FOR SWIMMING

Depending on the distance that you swim and the stroke being used during a race the fitness emphasis will shift. Longer distances require more endurance, whilst shorter distances require more speed and strength. However all of the following are important to some degree.

PHYSICAL ASPECTS OF FITNESS

Cardio respiratory endurance is more important in longer distance swims. During these swims your body is working at a steady pace over a long period of time. The energy required to do this is supplied aerobically (this will be explained in detail later), which requires your heart, lungs and blood system to supply O2 to the working muscles throughout the swim. Therefore a high level of CRE delays the onset of fatigue. This means that your stroke rate doesn’t drop allowing you to complete a race in a quicker time. You will also be able to maintain a high level of stroke production (as fatigue can also effect your control, concentration and coordination).

Muscular endurance Swimming requires repeated contractions of our arm muscles (biceps and triceps), shoulder muscles (deltoids), back muscles (trapezius and lats) and our leg muscles thighs (quadriceps), hamstrings, gluteals (buttocks) and calves. Therefore muscular endurance is vital to delay the onset of fatigue, which prevents our muscles from working to full capacity thus affecting our ability to swim and execute the stroke effectively. Having effective muscular endurance also delays the production of lactic acid and you can tolerate higher concentrations of it thus delaying fatigue.

Flexibility is extremely important especially of the shoulder and ankle joints. This allows a wider range of movement and also allows you to place the limb or limb segment in the most mechanically advantageous position. This will increase the stroke efficiency; allow optimum pull through the water and aid stream lining all of which can decrease the time taken to complete the swim.

Strength is required in the shoulders (deltoids) arms (biceps and triceps) and back (trapezius and lats) to pull the body through the water.

Power or explosive strength is required for starts to give the swimmer the maximal force to propel them forward at speed to gain an advantage at the beginning of a race.

Speed is important in shorter distance races where you are working at your maximal pace to cover the distance as quickly as you can it can also be important in a longer distance race to produce a sprint finish at the end of the race.

SKILL RELATED ASPECTS OF FITNESS

Coordination the swimmer is required to use arms and legs in a specific order and move the head to facilitate breathing. Therefore coordination of the se movements is vital for the flow and efficiency of the stroke.

Timing of the arm action, leg action and breathing are vital for the stroke to flow and remain efficient.

Reaction time is important at the start of the race when you want to get off the starting block as quickly as possible.

Agility is important when turning as you nee to change your body position and direction of travel very quickly

MENTAL ASPECTS OF FITNESS

Motivation it is important that you are motivated to do your best if not you will lack the desire to try hard and will give up too easily when the going starts to get tough.

Concentration it is important to remain focused on your goal at the start and during the race. It is also important to concentrate on your stroke production throughout the race.

Level of arousal it is important to be in the right frame of mind to perform. If you are not “up for the race” then you will not perform to the best of your ability and lack enthusiasm. However, if you are too psyched up or anxious you will also not perform to your best, for example false starting or increased muscle tension leading to poor stroke production.

7

FITNESS ASSESSMENT AND GATHERING DATA

Why do we need to assess our fitness levels? It is important to gather information on your level of fitness for the activity that you participate in order to identify your strengths and weaknesses this will allow you to develop your performance. Fitness assessment in relation to performance development has the following key purposes:

Provides objective, accurate and reliable information about the performer in relation to the specific performance demands of the activity

Identifies areas of individual strengths and weaknesses Provides a clear focus for planning a programme to improve performance related fitness Provides a baseline or start point Allows a process of monitoring and recording fitness development through comparison of the results

of subsequent tests

The process of fitness assessment allows the individual to progress by maximising strengths and addressing and therefore minimising weaknesses.

There are 2 main ways of assessing fitness the first is assessing fitness directly within the activity and the second is out with the activity through standardised fitness tests. Whichever methods are used there are a few general principles, which should guide the process. The following should be considered before you begin to collect and record data about your fitness.

What information is needed? What methods will be used to collect data? What will the data actually measure? How will the data be recorded? How will the data be used?

In order for the data collected to be useful it must be

Accurate; a true reflection of the performers ability Relevant; to the performer and the activity Valid; it actually measures what it sets out to Reliable; the assessment can be repeated consistently (test-retest method) Objective; it is non biased Contributes to informed decision making, and leads to action capable of improving performance Enables comparison, by measuring initial baseline data with subsequent assessment

There are 2 types of data that can be collected quantitative which is data that can be specifically measured e.g. objective data like the number of press ups in 30 seconds and qualitative which is data gathered form personal judgements, opinions and reflections e.g. subjective data like a coaches opinion of your performance.

8

FITNESS TESTING AND DATA GATHERING METHODS

GATHERING DATA WITHIN THE ACTIVITY

This involves the fitness level of a performer being assessed while they participate within the activity. Thus the methods that are used have to be carried out as the activity takes place without influencing or intruding on the actual activity. If the method did it would effect the validity of the data and may change the outcome of the activity. It would be ridiculous to stop a game of hockey and carry out a speed test, as this would interfere with the game and we would not be gathering the data within the context of the activity. Gathering data within the activity provides a lot of general information, which then leads to the identification of specific fitness weaknesses, which can then be assessed in greater depth out with the activity through standardised fitness tests

METHODS OF GATHERING DATA AND WHY THEY ARE APPROPRIATE

Thoughts and feelings The simplest method of gathering data within the activity is through the performers thoughts, feelings and reflections. This is useful as a starting point and can indicate where weaknesses may lie. It is particularly useful for assessing the mental aspects. However it is not totally reliable as it could be biased and is an opinion of the performer not necessarily an actual fact. To gather quality data more scientific procedures need to be adopted.Coach’s opinions This tends to be more accurate as the coach has an expert opinion, which tends to be objective. The coach is comparing your performance to his/her criteria of a good performance drawn from their own experience. Yet again this is an opinion and not a fact and it is governed by the coaches level of experience but can be a good starting point from which to gather more in depth data.

Video this is a particularly good method of gathering data in any activity but is especially good for team games or fast moving games where something could be missed. Video is particularly useful in these situations as it can be paused or played in slow motion or rewound and replayed as often as the viewer requires. This allows a very accurate and detailed observation to be carried out. Video provides the performer with visual evidence of their performance. Video is also a permanent record that can be compared to a later video to see if there are any changes to the performance after a fitness training programme of improvement has been carried out. However video assessment is only as effective as the criteria that are used to assess it, simply filming your performance and watching it will be of limited value. The most common and easiest way is to analyse the video in relation to criteria on an observation schedule or comparing to a video of a model performance.

Observation Schedule. This is a sheet, which is made up before participation in the activity. It can take various formats from a simple tally sheet e.g. recording how many breaths that a swimmer takes per length to a complex grid that requires judgements on the effectiveness of a specific aspect of fitness at a specific time in a game. An observation schedule can be tailored to meet the requirements of the activity and the data to be collected. It can gather a lot of general data or much more focussed specific data depending on the criteria used. In order for an observation schedule to be effective there needs to be some time spent considering its design and research to ensure that the criteria it contains are relevant and actually measure what it is intended to. The Schedule is only as effective as the person who completes it. This means that to complete a schedule the observer requires an understanding of the activity. The more complex and detailed the data required the more expertise the observer should have. For simple observation schedules it would be appropriate to use a classmate but for more in depth analysis a teacher or coach would be better. The observation schedule can be completed whilst watching the activity or afterwards from a video of the activity. An observation schedule is an appropriate method as it provides a permanent record, it can identify strengths and weaknesses, it has specific criteria to compare your performance to, it can be made specific to your needs, it is simple to use, can allow a before and after training comparison to check for improvements.

Mapping sheet. This is another type of observation schedule. A plan of the playing area is drawn out and the movements of the player are drawn onto the plan. For example mapping the movements of a specific player in a football team to analyse their work rate.

Heart rate monitor. Wearing a heart rate monitor whilst participating in the activity can allow you to measure your heart rate a set times in the game. This can indicate how hard you are working and how your body is coping with the demands of the activity. More detailed analysis can be carried out by interfacing with a computer this can allow you to identify the number of short explosive bursts or longer extended runs, recovery rate and work rate. This is an appropriate method as it can gather very specific and accurate information. The computer data can provide a permanent record and can be used for before and after comparison and you can set training heart rates and monitor these using the watch. However it does not indicate the effectiveness of the work so it is probably best used in conjunction with an observation schedule or video.

9

DATA GATHERING TASKS

The following 2 tasks are examples of how we can gather data during the activity. The first will be during football and the second during swimming. These tasks are important to give you practical experience of data gathering and they will also be used to allow you to complete the first 2 learning outcomes of your internal assessment. This is also similar to the process you will have to undertake to complete your investigation.

FOOTBALL TASK

Your teacher will set up a class game. The game will last for 40 minutes (2 x 20 min halves), which will be videoed by the teacher. The videoing will be carried out from an elevated position to get a better overall perspective of the game and each player’s performance. Every 10 minutes as the game progresses you will be required to note how you feel both physically and mentally. Once the videoing has been completed you will be required to analyse your own performance with the help of the teacher(expert opinion) by completing the following 2 observation schedules.

To complete the first observation schedule you have to analyse your movement noting the type of movement you make and how effective it was and when it occurred during the game. An effective movement gets a in the appropriate box for example if you make an effective short sprint into space to receive a pass in the 0-5 min period of the first half you would tick that box. An ineffective movement would get X for example if you were walking back to defend when you should have been running in the 16-20 min period of the second half you would put a cross in that box

TIMEMINUTES

WALKING JOGGING HALF PACERUNNING

SHORT SPRINT(10M ORLESS)

LONGSPRINT(OVER 10M)

LONG RUNS

ADDITIONAL COMMENTS

1ST

HALF0-5 mins

6-10 mins

11- 15mins

16-20mins

2ND

HALF21-25 mins

26-30mins

31-35mins

36-40mins

10

SKILLS SHEET The second observation schedule is similar to the first but this time you are assessing the effectiveness of your skill level as the game progresses. In the same way as before place a tick or cross in the appropriate box to indicate if the skill was effective or not.

TIMEMINUTES

SHORT PASSING

LONG PASSING

CONTROL OF THE BALL

DRIBBLING TACKLING HEADING SHOOTING

DEF ATT PLACED VOLLEY DRIVEN

1ST

HALF0-5 mins

6-10 mins

11- 15mins

16-20mins

2ND

HALF21-25 mins

26-30mins

31-35mins

36-40mins

11

GATHERING DATA TASK

Write up a summary of your thoughts and feelings as the game progressed under the time intervals below. Include how you felt physically e.g. level of fatigue, boy temp, breathing etc. and mentally level of motivation, concentration etc

TIME PHYSICAL MENTALSTART

10 MINS

20 MINS

30 MINS

40 MINS

This process has allowed us to gather a lot of general data about our performance related fitness in football. This will allow us to identify our strengths and weaknesses. When we have identified our weaknesses we can gather specific or focused data on a particular weakness. This can be done in the activity with a more specific observation schedule (the swimming task is an example of this) or out with the activity through standardised fitness tests ( these will be explained later)

12

SWIMMING TASK

The following task is an example of how you can gather focused data. After carrying out the initial general data gathering on your performance fitness in all the strokes your cardio respiratory (aerobic) endurance has been identified as a weakness in your front crawl. Therefore we are going to gather some specific data on this weakness through the T5 swim test. This is a test to measure your aerobic capacity. This is the amount of work you can produce using aerobic energy systems. The object of this test is to swim front crawl as far as possible in 5 minutes at an even pace. To conduct the test accurately, recorders note the exact distance covered in the 5 minutes. The recorders also take 25m split times to confirm that the swim is even paced. On completion of the test, the total distance covered is divided by the time taken. This produces a swimming speed that indicates your anaerobic threshold. Having calculated this swimming speed, it can then be converted into a base speed that shows your maximum swimming speed using aerobic energy production.

DISTANCE M SPLIT TIME No OF STROKES

COMMENTS

20

40

60

80

100

120

140

160

180

200

220

240

260

280

300

320

340

360

380

400

420

440

460

480

The test is a valid measurement of your aerobic capacity due to your current level of specific swimming conditioning. Therefore the duration of the test i.e. 5 minutes is suitable to collect data on your aerobic capacity.

13

Recording an even pace for 5 minutes monitors the accuracy of the test. The even pace confirms that it is the aerobic energy producing systems that are being tested. Due to the accuracy of the test, you are able to base distance covered which gives you a reliable measurement to compare subsequent test results to.

On completion of the test, the total distance covered is divided by the time taken. This gives a swimming speed that is equal to your anaerobic threshold. By training to improve this swimming speed, your body will then be conditioned to swim faster while still using aerobic energy sources. This means you will be able to swim faster for longer without accumulating lactic acid that slows you down.

Your anaerobic threshold swimming speed

Distance =

Time taken = 300 secs

Anaerobic threshold swim speed = m/sec

12 Minute swim test

This test requires you to swim as far as you can in 12 minutes, using whichever stroke you prefer and resting as necessary but trying to your maximum. As you swim a helper will record the number of full lengths plus any part of a length you complete in the time. The pool in Banchory measures 20m therefore by recording the number of lengths completed you can work out how far you have gone. This distance can be compared to the norms to work out your level of CVE swim fitness.

FITNESS RATING GENDER LENGHTS DISTANCE (M)VERY POOR MALE 22 440

FEMALE 18 360POOR MALE 22-27 440-539

FEMALE 18-22 360-439FAIR MALE 27-31 540-619

FEMALE 22-27 440-539GOOD MALE 31-36 620-719

FEMALE 27-31 540-619EXCELLENT MALE >36 >720

FEMALE >31 >620

Number of lengths

Distance

Rating

GATHERING DATA OUT WITH THE ACTIVITY

14

We can also gather data on our fitness outside the activity through standardised fitness tests. This is specific or focused data. There is a large range of tests that cover the majority of the aspects of fitness. These tests are used around the world having been developed by coaches and scientists therefore they are known to be valid and reliable. A wide range of fitness tests enables performers to assess their fitness and obtain clear and accurate analysis of specific aspects of their performance.

The Advantages of Using Standard Fitness Tests

A wide range of tests is available, relevant to varied aspect of fitness Tests provide established norms/or ratings Individual and group comparisons can be made Enables specific aspect of fitness to be investigated Provides a clear focus for the performer which is often motivational Provides standardised tools with set guidelines to measure and monitor personal fitness and progress Excellent for setting personal fitness targets

Aspects of fitness are, however, integrated in a very complex manner. It is therefore advisable to avoid over reliance on one test. For example, a central defender may need to be more effective in making headed clearances yet the Vertical Explosive Power Test suggests the player is above average. This defender may have to look at his/her agility or upper body strength to identify a weakness.

EXAMPLES OF STANDARDISED TESTS

You will carry out the tests described below and record your scores in the profile on page 19.

Cardio respiratory endurance can be measured using number of different test methods such as the Harvard step test (see PE IN ACTION pages 13 & 14 for test procedures and norms); the 12 minute Cooper run (see H/Int2 PE work book page 28 for test procedures and norms; and the Leger multi stage shuttle run test (explained below)To complete this test you require a flat 20 metre surface a tape player and a cassette recording of the test. You are required to run 20 metre shuttles in time to the pre recorded beeps on the tape. As the test progresses the time interval between each bleep decreases. You until you are unable to keep up with the pace of the bleeps. This is determined when you fail to reach the line on 2 consecutive bleeps. The level reached is your score.

20 metres

The 12-minute cooper runTo complete this test you require a flat running surface of known dimensions e.g. an athletics track, a stopwatch and a lap recorder. To complete the test you have to run as far as you can in 12 minutes you should try to do it at a steady running pace though you can walk if you are unable to maintain a run. Your score is the distance in meters that you covered.

15

beep

Muscular endurance can be measured using tests specific to the muscle area being assessed for example chest and arms through the maximal press up test; triceps through the dips test; and abdominal muscles through the 30 second sit up test (explained below).

To complete this test you will require a partner (to count your sit ups and time you for 30 seconds) a mat and a stopwatch. Lie on your back on the mat with your knees raised and your soles on the floor your partner may hold your feet if you wish. Fold your arms across your chest with your fingertips on your shoulders. On ‘go’ raise your trunk and touch your knees with your elbows, return to the starting position that counts as 1. Your score is the number of full sit ups you do within the 30 second time limit.

Strength can be measured using a variety of different tests depending on the type of strength being measured i.e. static, dynamic or explosive. Static strength can be measured through the grip strength test (se explanation below); dynamic strength can be measured through a maximal lift test of a specific muscle group (see explanation below); and explosive strength (power) arms medicine ball throw, legs standing vertical jump (see explanation below) and legs standing broad jump (see explanation below)

Grip Strength test: Hold the hand grip dynamometer in your dominant hand down at the side of your body but not against your leg. Squeeze the handle and record the reading on the scale. Perform the test three times and record your best effort as your test score.

Maximal strength tests can be adapted for any muscle group the following is a description of the bench press test (chest and arms). You will require a barbell and loose weights or a bench press machine and a partner to spot and record. After a thorough warm up you will carry out the test. You will attempt to bench press the heaviest weight that you can lift in a single repetition. You continue to bench press with increasingly heavier loads until you fail to lift. The heaviest weight you lift is your score.

16

The standing vertical jump (sergeant jump) test: Adjust the jump board so that the lower edge touches your fingertips when your arms are fully extended above your head. Dip your fingertips into the chalk bag. Prepare to jump by bending legs and swinging arms back. Jump as high as you can of two feet and touch the measuring board with your chalked fingers. Perform the test three times and record your best score.

The standing broad jump: To complete this test you require a partner to measure and record a flat surface and a tape measure. Crouch down with your toes behind the start line. Using your arms and legs jump forward powerfully from 2 feet. Try to jump as far as you can. Your score is the distance you jump from the start line to the back of your heels. Perform the test three times and record your best score.

Flexibility can be measured using various tests for specific muscle groups and joints for example the shoulder lift (see PE IN ACTION page 19 for test procedures); the trunk extension (see PE IN ACTION page 19 for test procedures); The sit and reach test (explained below)

To complete this test you will require a sit and reach box and a partner to record your score. Place the box against a wall. Sit down placing your feet against the box. Keep your knees straight and bend forward with arms extended trying to reach as far forward as you can and hold the position. Do the test 3 times and take your best score. Your score is the number of centimeters reached on the box

17

Speed can be measured by being timed over a set distance. The distance can be set relative to the activity for example basketball players could be timed over 20 to 30 m whereas a hockey player maybe timed over 80 to 100 m. The 30 m sprint test (explained below).

To carry out this test you require a 30m flat track a partner to time and record and a stopwatch. From a crouched or standing start you run as fast as you can over the 30m distance. Your partner will start you by dropping their hand from a raised position whilst simultaneously starting the stopwatch. Your partner will be positioned at the end of the 30m and will stop the timer as you cross the line. Your score for the test is the time taken.

Balance can be measured by a variety of methods. Dynamic balance can be measured using the Bass test (see PE IN ACTION page 18) Static balance can be measured through a timed balance (see below).To carry out the balance test you will require the low beam or an up turned bench, a stopwatch and a partner to time and record your score. You step onto the beam and balance on 1 foot with your eyes closed. Your score for the test is the amount of time you can hold your balance.

Agility can be measured using a number of different methods that involve changes of direction under time constraints such as the hexagon test (see www.brianmac.demon.co.uk for tests) The Illinois agility run (see below).To carry out the test you will require a tape measure, cones, a stopwatch and a partner to time and record your score. The cones are setup as indicated below. Lie down at the start, on the command go you get to your feet and run the course as indicated. Your test score is the time you take to complete the course.

Reaction time can be measured by various methods such as measuring the time it takes to react to a colour or sound stimulus on a computer programme (see www.topendsports.com/testing). The stick drop test (explained below)To carry out this test you will require a metre stick and a partner. Your partner holds the metre stick at the 0 cm mark you place your thumb and forefinger at the 50 cm mark without touching the metre stick. Without warning your partner lets the stick go you must catch it between your thumb and forefinger. Your test score is the number just above your thumb.

18

FITNESS TEST RESULTS

ASPECT OF FITNESS TEST RESULT STANDARD P BA A G E

C.V.E. MULTI STAGE SHUTTLE RUN

M < 6 6 - 7 8 - 10 11-12 12 +

F < 3 3-4 5-7 8-10 10+

C.V.E COOPER RUN M <1600 1600 2000 2500 2800+

F <1500 1500 1800 2200 2600+

FLEXIBILITY SIT AND REACH M < 2 2 - 5 6 - 8 9 - 13 13 +

F < 3 4-6 7-11 12-14 15+

SPEED 30 METRE SPRINT M 4.6 < 4.6-4.5 4.4-4.3 4.2-4.0 < 4.O

F 5 < 4.9-5.0 4.7-4.8 4.5-4.6 < 4.5

AGILITY ILLINOIS AGILITY RUN

M 15.9< 15.9 -14.7

14.6 –13.8

13.7-12.5

< 12.5

F 17.2< 17.2-16.1

16.1-15.2

15.2-14 <14

DYNAMIC STRENGTH

1 REP MAX BENCH PRESS

POWER (EXPLOSIVE STRENGTH)

STANDING BROAD JUMP M < 178 178-197 198-217 218- 228

228+

F < 129 129-139 140-164 165-180 180+

POWER (EXPLOSIVE STRENGTH)

STANDING VERTICAL (SERGEANT) JUMP

M <30 30-39 40-49 50-65 65<

F <26 26-35 36-46 47-58 58<

BALANCE BALANCE BEAM TEST M&F

< 19 19 - 29 30 - 40 41 - 59 60 +

REACTION TIME STICK DROP TEST M&F

< 22 22 – 29.5

29.6 -37 37.1-42.5

42.5<

LOCAL MUSCULAR ENDURANCE

30 SECOND SIT UP TEST M < 16 17 - 19 20 - 25 26 - 29 30 +

F < 8 9-14 15-20 21-24 25 +

For more information on fitness testing see the following websites www.topendsports.com/testing and www.brianmac.demon.co.uk

Now read p34-37 of the Thorburn H/Int2 workbook and make additional notes

19

ENERGY SYSTEMS

In order to participate in any activity we are required to move. This movement is the result of muscular contractions, for these contractions to take place the muscles require a source of energy. The energy for muscle contractions comes from the breakdown of a chemical compound called adenosine triphosphate (ATP). The breakdown of the ATP molecule creates energy, which stimulates the muscle to contract. There are only limited stores of ATP in the muscle so it must be constantly re-synthesised (re-made) to continually supply energy to the working muscles.

The body has adapted several ways or energy systems to regenerate ATP. There are 3 main energy systems in use within our bodies, which energy system is in use depends upon the speed, intensity and length of time of the activity. The 3 energy systems are the ATP-CP system, the Lactic acid system and the Aerobic system.

The ATP-PC and the lactic acid systems supply the energy anerobically this means that the energy is supplied without the presence of oxygen. In the aerobic system as the name implies the energy is supplied aerobically i.e. in the presence of oxygen.

When energy is required for quick and high intensity activities the energy is supplied anaerobically as the aerobic system is too slow. As stated earlier there is only a limited supply of ATP stored in the muscle and this burns out in about 1 second. The body then switches to the ATP-CP system. In this system the chemical compound CP (creatine phosphate) is broken down this releases energy, however this energy is not used for muscle contraction but it is used to rebuild the ATP which is then used to supply the energy as before for muscle contraction see the equation below.

CP C + P + energy + ADP + P ATP ATP ADP + P + energy (for muscle contraction)

The ATP-CP system can rebuild ATP immediately and at high speed. This system is therefore used during intense explosive activities such as sprinting or throwing or to provide the initial energy to start exercising after a rest. However like ATP the PC supplies are limited once the PC levels drop too low fatigue sets in. This usually occurs after about 10 seconds of maximal effort such as in a 100 m sprint. (See diagram below). After about 2-5 minutes rest (depending on level of fitness) the levels of CP and ATP are restored

When the quick high intensity energy demands last for longer than 10 seconds energy can no longer be supplied by the ATP-CP system. After 10 seconds the CP levels have been depleted within the muscle and the energy for rebuilding ATP comes from the Lactic acid system. The lactic acid system involves the anaerobic break down of a substance called glycogen. Glycogen is a form of carbohydrate, stored in our muscles and liver, which is obtained from the food we eat. When Glycogen is broken down it supplies the energy to rebuild ATP this also generates a substance called Pyruvic acid. When there is no oxygen present as in the case of this anaerobic energy system the Pyruvic acid is converted to lactic acid. The lactic acid builds up in the muscle and causes pain and fatigue. Once the exercise ceases the lactic acid is flushed out of the muscles and into the blood stream, enabling the muscles to recover. This energy system supplies energy quickly and is principally used in short term high intensity activities such as the 400m sprint or 100m swim. It also comes into play at the end of aerobic events such as a sprint finish at the end of a 10,000 m race. The lactic acid system can supply energy for about 1 minute.

Glycogen Pyruvic acid + energy + ADP + P ATP ATP ADP + P + energy (for muscle contraction)

No O2 present Lactic acid forms

20

When the energy demands for an activity last more than a few minutes, energy must come from a much longer lasting source. This is when the aerobic energy system is used. Like the lactic acid system the aerobic system breaks down glycogen to produce the energy to rebuild ATP, however this occurs aerobically. When glycogen is broken down in the presence of oxygen the Pyruvic acid that forms is not converted to lactic acid it is broken down into carbon dioxide and water. Therefore the onset of fatigue takes much longer. The aerobic energy system can supply energy over a long period of time but this happens relatively slowly. Therefore this system is mainly used in endurance events such as distance running and cycling etc

Glycogen Pyruvic acid + energy + ADP + P ATP ATP ADP + P + energy (for muscle contraction)

O2 present CO2 + H2O

At the start of any activity even aerobic activities, the energy to move is supplied anaerobically after about 2 minutes the energy systems balance out. This is what some people refer to as getting a second wind and is one reason why a warm up is important.

Therefore we can see that different types of activities draw on different energy systems and to improve your performance in a particular activity you have to train to improve the efficiency of the appropriate energy system.

Decide which energy systems are supplying the main energy demands for the following performers. NB there may be a combination of energy systems for certain activities

A rugby/football/hockey player etc

A marathon runner

A 100m sprinter

A shot putter

A cyclist in the Tour de France

21

TRAINING ZONES

As is mentioned in the principles of training section on page 22 it is important that you work at the correct intensity so that you can improve your fitness. A good method to monitor how hard you are working during your training is to monitor your heart rate and compare it to your training zones (see diagram below). In order to calculate your own training zone you must first calculate your maximum heart rate (MHR). To calculate your MHR you need to subtract your age from 220. Now calculate your own MHR.

220 - (Your age) = this is your MHR

THE TRAINING ZONES

95-100% of MHR Speed zone ___________

85- 95% of MHR Anaerobic zone ______________

65-85% of MHR

Aerobic zone_________

From the diagram we can see that there are 4 main zones and each zone is a percentage of your maximum heart rate and has an upper and lower limit. Each zone is inter-linked to a specific energy system. The recovery and aerobic zones relate to the aerobic energy system. The anaerobic training zone is linked to the Lactic acid energy system and the speed zone is related to the ATP-CP energy system.

The recovery zone as the name suggests is the range of heart rate that if you work inside will help your body to recover quicker from the effects of exercise.

When you reach 65% of your MHR you reach your aerobic threshold. This is the point where you enter your aerobic training zone. In order to improve your aerobic fitness you need to work with your heart rate inside the aerobic training zone (65-85% of MHR) continuously for a minimum of 20 minutes 3 times per week. If your heart rate drops below the 65% level then you are not working hard enough and your aerobic fitness will not improve. If

22

RECOVERY ZONE

AEROBIC TRAININGZONE

ANAEROBICTRAINING

ZONE

SPEED

your heart rate rises above the 85% level you are working to hard and are training anaerobically. Thus by monitoring our heart rate we can ensure that we are working at the correct intensity. When your start your training it is safer to keep your heart rate at the lower end of the zone but as your fitness levels increase you should move to the upper end of the zone. Training to improve aerobic fitness can either be done continuously such as a 40 minute run or in intervals where the work intervals are relatively long with rest intervals of the same or a shorter period of time than the work interval and ensuring that the work periods are at least 20 minutes.

When your heart rate reaches 85% of your MHR you reach your anaerobic threshold. This is the point where you enter your anaerobic training zone. In order to improve your anaerobic fitness you must work with your heart rate inside your anaerobic training zone (85-95% of MHR). Yet again you can ensure you are working at the correct intensity by monitoring your heart rate. Training to improve anaerobic fitness is done through short intervals of work up to about a minute with long periods of rest to allow the body to recover. This is an excellent way to improve speed endurance.

When your heart rate reaches 95% of MHR you enter the speed-training zone. Your body is working up to its maximum capacity so training intervals are very short up to 15 seconds with very long rest periods to allow the body to fully recover and the number of training intervals is small as it is quality not quantity that counts in speed training

Monitoring Heart RateBoth the intensity of training and recovery rates can be monitored using the heart rate. Pulse rate monitors can be used to give the athlete continuous feedback. The training schedule below shows how the aerobic training zone is incorporated into the athletes training

TRAINING SCHEDULE FOR 1500 m (cardio-respiratory endurance)

Continuous Running – Steady Pace1. Long Duration RunsDuration of at least 45 minutes: Distances of greater than 10 miles: Heart rate of 130-160 BPM2. Medium Duration RunsDuration of 30-45 minutes: Distances 0f 4-8 miles: Heart rate of 150-170 BPM3. Short Duration RunsDuration of up to 30 minutes: Distances of 3-5 miles: Heart rate of 160-180 BPM

23

PRINCIPLES OF TRAINING

In order to improve your fitness you need to develop a fitness training programme. To ensure that a sensible, realistic and appropriate programme is developed there are a number of principles of training that should be considered.

SPECIFICITY

The training you undertake must be specific to your own individual needs. Every activity requires a specific mix of fitness components and the training you do should address the areas of specific weakness whilst maintaining the other aspects of fitness. The 3 main factors to be considered are:

The individual training must be specific to the individual. It is important that you assessed your initial levels of fitness to work out your strengths and weaknesses, this will also allow you to set your initial training workloads.

The activity the training must reflect the fitness demands of the activity. The energy systems identify the energy systems used in the activity and their overall contribution and

ensure your training reflects this

OVERLOAD

The purpose of training is to improve your level of fitness. This can only happen if you make your bodywork harder than it is used to this is called overloading. By making your bodywork harder it gradually adapts to the higher workloads and you become fitter. When you overload your body you need to consider:

Frequency how often you need to train per week Intensity how hard you work (the workloads that you will use) Duration how long each individual training session will last

PROGRESSION

After a few weeks your body will have adapted to the overloading and your fitness levels will have increased in order to continue improving you need to continue to increase the workloads this is called progression. Progression can be achieved by:

increasing the frequency of training e.g. from 3 up to 4 times a week increasing the intensity e.g. performing a weights exercise with 70kg instead of 65kg increasing the duration e.g. swimming for 50 min as opposed to 40 min

It is important that you don’t try to progress by too much too quickly or you may injure yourself or over train.

REST

It is important that you have rest days in your training programme to allow your body to recover, muscle fibres to rebuild and avoid to injury from over training. Therefore a heavy intense session should be followed by a rest day or a light recovery session.

24

MAINTENANCE & REVERSIBILITY

Fitness cannot be stored you have to keep training to maintain your fitness. If you stop training your fitness levels will start to drop and in a relatively short period of time the adaptations that have taken place will be lost i.e. your fitness levels will be reversed.

VARIETY

Using a variety of training methods relieves tedium and avoids boredom in training.

A good way to remember the principles is SPORT FIT.SpecificityProgressionOverloadReversibilityTedium (variety)FrequencyIntensityTime (duration).

Warm up and Cool downs

Finally it is important to consider the principles of warm ups and cool downs as part of training programme design.

In order for you to train hard and avoid injury you must be fully prepared. One way of doing this is to ensure that you are properly warmed up prior to performing.

A warm up is a planned series of exercises which are usually :

Jogging or some form of aerobic activity Stretching and mobility exercises

As we progress through a warm up there are various changes that occur in our body to help prepare it for the training ahead. Each stage of the warm up is carried out for a specific purpose.

Stage 1 (Jogging): To raise the body temperature and increase the heart rate and therefore the blood supply to the muscles.

Stage 2 (Stretching/mobility): To stretch the muscles and loosen the joints to prepare the muscles to work over the full range and to avoid injury.

By following a proper warm up we will reduce the chance of injury taking place during training. We will be more physically prepared because we will have a greater range of movement and our heart rate is up and we will also be mentally prepared to train hard.

Cool downs are important at the end of training. It is important that you do a small amount of light aerobic work to flush the body with oxygenated blood. This ensures that lactic acid is removed from your muscles. This coupled with some light stretching will help to limit muscle soreness and speed up recovery from the training.

Now read p46-48 of the Thorburn H/Int2 workbook and make additional notes

25

METHODS OF TRAINING

In order to improve your level of fitness in any activity you have to train. This can be done through the activity or outside the activity. There are numerous training methods that have been developed some of which are outlined below and we will be carrying these out in the football and swimming practical sessions. The method of training selected will depend on which aspects of fitness you are trying to improve.

CONTINUOUS TRAINING

This form of training to improve your aerobic energy system, it will improve your performance in activities where you are continually moving over a long period of time. For example, cross-country running, long distance swimming etc. The training involves running, cycling or swimming etc. continuously at a steady pace over a relatively long period of time. In order for this training to be effective you have to work for a minimum of 20 minutes inside your aerobic training zone at least 3 times per week.

FARTLEK TRAINING

You can use this form of training to improve aerobic and anaerobic energy systems. This form of will improve your performance in an activity where you are continually moving but having to change pace for example, football, hockey, netball etc. This training is sometimes called speed play as there are changes in pace/intensity from jogging to sprinting to walking and changes in terrain (e.g. flat to incline to decline etc). This type of training has the advantage that it is less boring than continuous training and it can be designed to replicate the type of running required in particular activities.

INTERVAL TRAINING

You can use this form of training to improve both aerobic and anaerobic energy systems. Therefore it can be used to make improvements in most activities. The training is divided into periods or intervals of work and rest. In order to improve the aerobic energy system (cve) the work to rest ratio is 1:1 or less. The work periods are relatively long with the performer working between 65% and 85% of their maximal effort e.g. run for 2 mins rest for 1min x10. The advantage of this training is that it allows partial recovery allowing the performer to maintain a higher level of work for longer as work-rate tends to drop gradually throughout a continuous training session. To improve the anaerobic energy systems (speed, strength, speed endurance or power) the work to rest ratio is 1: 4 or greater. The work periods are relatively short with the performer working between 85% and 100% of their maximal effort e.g. swimming front crawl, sprint a length in 20 seconds or under, rest for 100 seconds x 6. The long rest periods allow almost full recovery; this allows the intensity of the training to remain high, which is vital for improving the anaerobic systems

26

CONDITIONING TRAINING

You train through participation in the activity and it can be used to improve the aerobic & anaerobic energy systems. The training can be done through the whole game, conditioned games or drills. The main advantages are that skills and fitness are developed together. The performer is developing activity specific fitness. The training is varied which avoids the effects of boredom and the performer tends to work harder for longer as they focus on the activity rather than how fatigued they are feeling.

ISOTONIC TRAINING

This is when you use isotonic contractions (i.e. the muscles contract and extend) to improve your muscle strength or endurance. Press-ups, sit-ups, chins and weight lifting are all isotonic exercises. Isotonic strength training involves using heavy workloads 65% -85% of max with few reps and sets this makes your muscles grow bigger and makes your contractions stronger. This form of training would improve your performance in activities like shot putt. Isotonic endurance training involves using light workloads 40%-60% of max with many reps and sets. This does not make your muscles bigger but makes more capillaries grow around the muscle. So more oxygen reaches the muscles and they can work for longer. This form of training would improve your performance in activities like rowing.

ISOMETRIC TRAINING

Isometric contractions (i.e. the muscles contract and hold one position) produce static strength. This is the strength you need to push or pull a very heavy object or hold up a very heavy load. The bent arm hang, the wall sit are isometric exercises. This form of training would improve your performance in rugby scrum aging or gymnastics.

PLYOMETRIC TRAINING

Plyometric training improves the anaerobic energy systems. You train explosively at maximal intensity using hopping, jumping, skipping, and throwing activities. This type of training improves speed and power it is very demanding and produces high levels of lactic acid. This type of training would improve your performance in activities such as sprinting, long jump or javelin. A training session tends to be dictated by the number of foot contacts about 100 – 200 per session depending on the performers fitness level

CIRCUIT TRAINING

Circuit training can be constructed to improve the aerobic or anaerobic energy systems. The training consists of a set number of stations, which the performer goes round in a specific order. At each station there is a different exercise to complete. The performer either has to complete a specific number of repetitions or work for a set time at each station before moving on.

27

MOBILITY TRAINING

Mobility training is used to improve flexibility and can be active where the performer holds a specific stretch for 30- 60 seconds. Mobility training can also be passive where a muscle group is stretched by a partner. This can be taken a stage further through PNF (proprioceptive neuromuscular facilitation) where the performer contracts the muscle at the end of the stretch and then relaxes this then allows their partner to stretch the muscle further.

Now read p49-51 of the Thorburn H/Int2 workbook and make additional notes

28

PRACTICAL EXAMPLES OF TRAINING METHODS

CONTINUOUS TRAINING IN FOOTBALL

The training involves running at a steady pace for 25 minutes round the football pitch. To ensure that you are working at the correct level you must stay inside your aerobic training zone. In order to do this you can self check your pulse or wear a Polar watch heart rate monitor. The advantages of this training are that it is very simple to carry out and can be done anywhere and does not have to involve any equipment or much preparation just a stopwatch and good footwear and clothing to run in. The main disadvantages are that it does not really reflect the type of running in a game of football and it can be boring.

FARTLEK TRAINING IN FOOTBALL

This training is also continuous but it involves changes of pace direction and can involve changes on running surface from flat to inclined to declined. This is a 25 minute session and involves walking, jogging, ½ pace running and sprinting. You begin by jogging the length of the pitch, then sprinting diagonally to the opposite corner, then walking the length of the pitch and finally ½ pace running diagonally to the starting corner. This continues until the 25 minute time limit is reached. The advantages of this method are similar to continuous running though it does take a little more organisation. It also has the added benefit of being less boring and it can be tailored to replicate more game like runs.

Start jog sprint

walk ½ pace run

29

INTERVAL TRAINING IN SWIMMING

As stated earlier interval training can be used in most activities to improve both, aerobic or anaerobic fitness depending on the work and rest intervals set. In swimming interval training involves swimming a set distance with a set rest period at the end of each work interval. The following is a speed endurance interval session.

Front crawl full stroke 40m in under 60 seconds with a 45 second rest x 4 85% MHR

Front crawl arms only 20m in under 30 seconds with 30 seconds rest x 2 85% MHR

Front crawl legs only 20m in under 35 seconds with 35 seconds rest x 2 85% MHR

Front crawl full stroke 40m in under 60 seconds with a 45 second rest x 4 85% MHR

The advantages of using interval training are that high intensity work can be undertaken with less fatigue occurring. For example a running training programme for a 1500m could use 4 x 400m in 60 sec with a 120 sec. recovery. This causes less fatigue and allows higher work intensity. Overload can easily be progressed through adjusting frequency, intensity or duration. It can be adapted to include skill related work and requires little or no specialist equipment. For more information read “Swimming coaching” Joseph Dixon page 149 and “Sport and PE a complete guide to advanced level study” Wesson et al pages 102-104

CONDITIONING TRAINING

All swimming training that is pool based could also be described as conditioning as you are actually training whilst participating within the activity. This same method can be applied in other sports her are some football examples. These can either take the form of drills that use a particular skill or through games, which may be full size or have smaller numbers and may have rule changes or conditions placed upon them depending on the fitness objectives.

Drill example

START pass & follow join back of queue

Introducing more balls or getting the passer to sprint to the second, third or fourth corner can vary the practice.

30

Pass the ball to the next corner and sprint after your pass and join the back of the queue. Continue round square for a set time or a number of laps

Conditioned game example

This game is played on a ½ pitch with 5v5 though this can be varied accordingly. Frequency 2 times per week Intensity 70-80% of MHR Duration 20 minutes

Each team defends a row of cones (five or more). The cones are positioned at least one metre apart in a straight line, in each team’s own half of the field. Each team tries to knock over the cones of the opposing team with the ball. When a team succeeds, they place the cone back on the opponents line and, in addition, fetch one of their own cones and place it on the same line. This task must be done by the player who knocks down the original cone, the other players continue the game. Play is allowed both in front of and behind the line of cones. The game is won by the team which has the fewest cones left after a set time. A. When a player knocks down an opponent’s cone it should be brought back to the own line of cones. The winning team is then the team, which has the most cones at the end of the game.

The intensity can be varied by changing the distance between the cones or the cones can stand in small groups, a cone can only be knocked down by a first time shot. If a player who is transporting a cone between the two lines is hit by the ball the cone must be returned. The cones do not have to be placed on a line. They just have to be positioned somewhere in a team’s own half of the field. The game can be played with two balls. Or a cone can only be knocked down when all the players from the attacking team are in the oppositions half of the field.

The advantages of this type of training are that fitness and skills can be developed simultaneously. It reflects the movements of the game. It is more enjoyable and less boring so motivation stays high.

For more information read “Fitness training in football” Jens Bangsbo

Now read p52 of the Thorburn H/Int2 workbook and make additional notes

31

WEIGHT TRAINING

Weights can be used to improve strength and power or muscular endurance depending on the workloads used. Heavy workloads lifted slowly with a low amount of repetitions and few sets are used to develop strength, medium workloads lifted quickly will develop power whereas lighter workloads with a high amount of repetitions and sets will develop muscular endurance. There are a huge number of different exercises that target all the different muscle groups so to construct a weight training programme you must begin with identifying which muscle groups are important in your activity. Then find appropriate exercises to develop these muscle groups. Below is an example of a strength training programme to develop upper body strength.

Train on a Sunday, Tuesday and Thursday using the programme below and rest on a Monday, Wednesday, Friday and Saturday.LONG TERM GOAL: To achieve a 20 – 30% improvement of my strength to improve my handstandWARM UP: Jogging For 5 min Followed by stretching with a specific focus on upper body.TRAINING PROGRAMME WEEKS 1-5INITIAL SHORT TERM GOAL: To increase the maximal weight test results by 10%

EXERCISE AREA OF THEBODY

WORKLOAD75% OF MAX

REPETITIONSAND SETS

BENCH PRESS CHEST, TRICEPS, BICEPS 30Kg 8 X 3SIT UPS ABDOMINALS BODY WEIGHT 20 X 1

SHOULDER PRESS DELTOIDS, TRAPEZIUS 15Kg 8 X 3BICEPS CURL BICEPS 11Kg 8 X 3

SIT UPS ABDOMINALS BODY WEIGHT 20 X 1TRICEPS PRESS TRICEPS 7Kg 8 X 3

The advantages of this type of training are that you can target specific muscle groups, improvements are easily identifiable as workloads increase. However it requires access to a gym with free weights or machines.

THE WEIGHT TRAINING EXERCISES

For more in formation read Weight Training Baechle and Groves

32

CIRCUIT TRAINING

Circuit training can be carried out within or outside the activity and can be designed to improve a wide variety of physical and skill related aspects of fitness.

An example of a simple circuit outside the activity is shown below. The performer works for 60 seconds at each station and then has thirty seconds rest and the circuit is performed 6 times

An example of a circuit within the activity of football is shown below

Players working in small groups move around the playing area completing different tasks at each station for a set period of time. Groups complete the circuit twice and keep record of their score at each individual station.

This provides good feedback when applying the principle of overload to the circuit. Performance targets can be set based on the previous sessions s score.

Initial workload: 40 seconds per station / 80 seconds rest (work to rest ratio 1:2) Frequency: 1 — 3 sessions per week Intensity: 85% maximum heart rate Duration: 20 minutes +

Advantages of using circuit training: By considering various training principles a circuit can be designed to develop general or specific fitness levels. General fitness work might be appropriate during early pre-season and become progressively more specific towards the start of the season. A circuit may be short (6 stations) or long (12 stations) The total duration of each session can be adapted to suit the time available to the players. The workload can be increased progressively and individually. Each player can work at the intensity appropriate for him or her and for his or her positional responsibilities. Example: A midfielder would be expected to perform a higher number of repetitions during high intensity aerobic work than either a central defender or a goalkeeper. By alternating muscle groups or energy systems between stations a player can train for longer. As there are a set number of stations arranged prior to training organisation is easy with only simple equipment required.

Now read p52 of the Thorburn H/Int2 workbook and make additional notes

For more information read “Circuit training for all sports” Scholich and “Sport and PE a complete guide to advanced level study” Wesson et al pages 104-107

33

PLYOMETRIC TRAINING EXAMPLE

JUMPS IN PLACE SETS / REPS FOOT CONTACTS5-5-5 Squat jumps 4x15 60

Tuck jumps 4x6 24

STANDING JUMPS SETS/REPS FOOT CONTACTSBox / Bench Jumps (up) 4x6 24

MULTIPLE JUMPS SETS / REPS FOOT CONTACTSHexagon drill (barriers) 4x12 48

Hurdle jumps 4x5 20Lateral barrier Hops with

Push off single leg4x12 48

TOTAL 224

N.B. Good trainers with heel protection necessary. Expect soreness after first 2/3 sessions

34

For more information read “Jumping into plyometrics” Donald Chu

35

ADAPTATIONS TO TRAINING

As we stated earlier the purpose of training is to improve aspects of fitness and the efficiency and capacity of the energy systems to improve our overall performance. As we carry out regular training our body responds to the overloading and adaptations occur.

Through regular aerobic training our heart (cardiac) muscle becomes thicker making it more efficient as it can pump out more blood per beat (stroke volume) This results in a lower resting heart rate and during exercise the heart does not have to work as hard to supply blood to the working muscles.

The lungs become more efficient at extracting oxygen from the air and our lung capacity increases.

The oxygen transport system becomes more efficient. The substance in our blood, which transports oxygen (haemoglobin) increases. More capillaries develop within trained muscles allowing more oxygen to reach the muscles. The muscle itself becomes more efficient at producing energy aerobically and there are increased stores of muscle glycogen. All of these adaptations enable exercise to be performed for a longer period of time.

Through regular anaerobic training our muscles increase in size and become stronger. Our muscle stores of ATP and PC increase, our body’s tolerance to lactic acid increases and the onset of lactic acid production is delayed. This means we can work more explosively at a higher level of intensity and delay the onset of fatigue and its performance limiting effects

36

DESIGNING YOUR TRAINING PROGRAMME

Training programmes do not come as a standard package to suit everyone; they have to be designed specifically for each individual. For example a sprinter would require a different training programme than a marathon runner. Even within the same sport different positions would require different fitness programmes for example a ruby prop forward and a winger have some very different fitness requirements, though there would be some that are the same. There fore it is important that a training programme is balanced to reflect the needs of the performer and the activity. Imagine if a football midfielder was trying to improve his upper body strength and decided to carry out a weight training programme to the exclusion of all other training. He would certainly improve his strength but his aerobic fitness and speed would drop and therefore he would not be able to fulfil his role properly.

Thus the following factors should always be considered when designing a training programme to make it worthwhile and relevant.

The performers needs The fitness demands of the activity The principles of training The methods of training The training year (stage of the season) Goal setting

We have already covered the first four factors in earlier sections of the workbook so we now need to consider the training year and goal setting.

THE TRAINING YEAR

The training year can be split into different phases or periods this is known as periodisation. The year can be split into 3 periods the transition period (off season), the preparation period (pre season) and the competition period (in season).

The transition period or off-season begins immediately at the end of the season and bridges the gap to the start of the next training year. During this period the performer is involved in rest and recovery. This however should not be a period of inactivity but rather it should be active rest with low intensity aerobic work such as cycling or swimming.

The preparation period or pre season marks the return to a regular pattern of targeted training. In the early stages of pre season the training will focus on improving general fitness levels for the activity with the major emphasis being physical fitness such as strength and aerobic work. As the pre season progresses the emphasis shifts to higher intensity speed and power work and then in to skill related fitness as the start of the season approaches.

The competition period or in season involves maintaining the fitness levels built up during the pre season. Remember the principle of reversibility if you stop your fitness training your fitness levels will start to drop rapidly. The number of fitness sessions is reduced to the minimum required to maintain your fitness levels this will depend on the activity you are training for. For example a distance runner will still have to train at a high level to stay fit for competition. However in team sports there is a conflict between maintaining fitness and working on skill and tactics and having time to recover for the next game. This is where the combined conditioning approach can be most effective as skill and fitness can be worked on simultaneously this saves time and makes the training specific.

TRAINING CYCLES

Within your training year you will have training cycles. The whole year or the long term cycle is called the macrocycle. This would detail your training priorities for the year based on the requirements of your activity. Within the macro cycle are the mesocycle’s these are the medium term plans and are linked to the specific periods of the year e.g. pre season. There may be several mesocycles in a years training such as early pre season late pre season and so on that last anything from 1-3 months. Finally there is the microcycle these are the short term weekly training plans training plans, a mesocycle may consist of several microcycle’s.

37

GOAL SETTING

It is important to set goals within in your training as they can greatly enhance your training give you targets to aim for and help to motivate you. Training goals can give you little steps on your way to your ultimate goal. Goals can be broken down into long term, medium term and short term. For example a badminton player may want to win the Scottish championships and set this out as their long term goal. In order to achieve this they may have several medium term goals such as to improve their cardio respiratory endurance. To help achieve the medium term goals they would have several short term goals such as to complete 10 x 2 minute court movement drills, improve multi stage shuttle run test score by 2 shuttles every 3 weeks. Thus by achieving the goal of completing the training this leads to the increased score in the fitness test this leads to an improvement in CRE which could give the performer the edge needed to win the championship. In order for goal setting to enhance training the goals set should be Specific to the performer, Measurable so improvement can be monitored, Realistic, Attainable to keep the performer motivated and Timed they should be completed within a certain time scale. You can remember this through S.M.A.R.T.

Now read p53-56 of the Thorburn H/Int2 workbook and make additional notes

38

EXAMPLES OF TRAINING PROGRAMMES

The following are examples of 3 microcycles from a swimming programme that makes up an 8 week mesocycle for speed and strength training. Study the training programmes in small groups and answer the questions on the following page.

Speed and strength programme week 1Aim/goal: to improve my sprint swimming times following an 8 week training programme

Date Stroke Interval Rest Time Total timeGeneral warm up using different strokes

Continuous 5.00 5.00

Front crawl 4 x 50m @ 85% max work 60 secs 60 secs 8.00 13.00Butterfly 3 x 50m @ 85% max work 60 secs 90 secs 7.30 20.30Butterfly 1 x 50m @ 85% max work 60 secs arms only

As above but legs only work 90 secsArms only as before

90 secs 8.00 28.30

Front crawl 2 x 50 m @ 85% max work 60 secs arms onlyAs above but legs only work 75 secs

90 secs 10.30 39.00

Butterfly 2x 50m @ 85% max work 60 secs 90 secs 5.00 44.00General cool downusing different strokes

continuous 6.00 50.00

WEEK 5Date Stroke Interval Rest Time Total time

General warm up using different strokes

Continuous 5.00 5.00

Front crawl 4 x 50m @ 85% max work 60 secs 45 secs 7.00 12.00Butterfly 3 x 50m @ 85% max work 60 secs 75 secs 6.45 18.45Butterfly 1 x 50m @ 85% max work 60 secs arms only

As above but legs only work 90 secsArms only as before

75 secs 7.15 26.00

Front crawl 2 x 50 m @ 85% max work 60 secs arms onlyAs above but legs only work 75 secs

90 secs 10.30 36.30

Butterfly 2x 50m @ 85% max work 60 secs 90 secs 5.00 41.30Front crawl 1 x 100m @ 85% max work 120 secs 60 secs 3.00 44.30General cool downusing different strokes

continuous 5.30 50.00

WEEK 8Date Stroke Interval Rest Time Total time

General warm up using different strokes

Continuous 5.00 5.00

Front crawl 4 x 50m @ 85% max work 60 secs 45 secs 7.00 12.00Butterfly 3 x 50m @ 85% max work 60 secs 60 secs 6.00 18.00Butterfly 1 x 50m @ 85% max work 60 secs arms only

As above but legs only work 90 secsArms only as before

75 secs 7.15 25.15

Front crawl 2 x 50 m @ 85% max work 60 secs arms onlyAs above but legs only work 75 secs

60 secs 9.30 34.45

Butterfly 2x 50m @ 85% max work 60 secs 75 secs 4.30 39.15Front crawl 2 x 100m @ 85% max work 120 secs 60 secs 6.00 45.15General cool downusing different strokes

continuous 4.45 50.00

39

GROUP TASK QUESTIONS

Give examples of sections of the training programme that is more demanding between Week 1 and Week 5?

Give examples of sections of the training programme that is more demanding between Week 5 and Week 8?

The two questions above highlight examples of which principle of training?

Why do you need high intensity short duration work with long rest intervals in a speed/strength programme?

Explain two different ways in which intensity has been added in the training programmes?

40

FOOTBALL TRAINING PROGRAMMES

The following are 2 examples of weekly football training programmes (microcycles) one from the pre season mesocycle and one from the in season mesocycle. Study the training programmes in small groups then complete the questions on the following page.

Pre season

Monday Tuesday Wednesday Thursday Friday Saturday SundayEffort Hard Moderate Light Hard Rest LightContent of session

Warm up 10 minWeights session heavy weightslow reps to develop strengthintensity 80% max lift

Warm up 10 min 30 min skillscircuit aerobicintensity 70%20 min conditioned gameintensity 70%

Warm up 10 min Flexibility training25 min jogintensity 60%

Warm up 10 min 25 min aerobic/anaerobic Fartlek run20 mins interval training speed enduranceintervals 200m x 1030 secs work 90 secs restIntensity 90%20 min conditioned game intensity 80%

Warm up 10 min Skill/team developmentand practice games60 – 90 mins

Active recoveryeasy jog or swim etc 25 min intensity60%

In season

Monday Tuesday Wednesday Thursday Friday Saturday SundayEffort Moderate Hard Active Rest Moderate Rest LightContent of session

Warm up 10 min Fast feet drills20 minsintensity 80%Reaction Sprints and short sprint repeats over 5 – 10m10 min Individual skill/ball work

Warm up 10 min 40 min anaerobic runse.g. pyramid runs andshuttle runsintensity 90%20 min drill worke.g. pass and follow around squareIntensity 80%20 min conditioned gameintensity 80%

Flexibility training25 min jogintensity 60%

Warm up 10 min Speed work 3-4 sets of 10 sprints20-30 m10 min conditioned game intensity 80%

Team skills, unit skillsTactics, set piece playsetc.40-60 mins

Match Active recoveryeasy jog or swim etc 25 min intensity60%

41

GROUP TASK QUESTIONS

Give examples of sections of the training programme that have changed between pre season and in season?

Why have these changes been made?

Why do you think active rest days have been included in both programmes?

Explain why there is still specific fitness training carried out during the in season?

42

ATHLETICS TRAINING PROGRAMME

TRAINING PROGRAMME FOR POWER IN THE TAKE OFF FOR LONG JUMP WEEK 1

Plyometric ProgrammeWe must remember that power is a combination of strength and speed with particular attention to elastic strength.SAFETYFor safety reasons all Plyometric exercises for this age group should be of low intensity.

Exercise 1 – HURDLE JUMPING

Two-footed jumps over 6-8 very low hurdles spaced out about 1.25 meters apart.Teaching Points1. Upright body posture, minimal flexion of the knees during amortisation phase2. Good use of the hip flexors and armsVariations could include setting the hurdles progressively higher or alternating high and low hurdles. Or including very low, very fast, very firm priming jump between hurdles.

Exercise 2 – STEPS

Short flight of 20-30 wooden stadium steps. Bounding up the steps 1 or 2 at a time.Hopping up increasing number of steps at a time. Variations can include hopping 2 steps up and 1 step down OR hopping sideways up the step.

Exercise 3 – 1-2-3 JUMP DRILL

Place mark 40 meters form the start. Stand with one foot slightly in front of the other. Use three steps in a continuous motion to stimulate a take off. Complete the three steps with a quick-quicker-quickest rhythm, then explode vertically off the last one. As soon as you land after the jump, step right into the next sequence of steps and continue until you reach the 40-metre mark.

Exercise 4 – HOPPING

Place two cones 3 to 4 feet apart. Stand on one foot between the cones. Hop from one foot to the other, landing the right foot next to the right cone, then the left foot next to the left cone. Continue to hop back and forth for 30 seconds.It is important when considering training methods for a fitness element of a particular performance that the exercise closely intimidates the movement patterns. Therefore when looking at power in the Long Jump we shall look at a particular Plyometric programme.

43

Exercise 1 – Standing Long Jump. Both feet together, arms can be used to aid lift. Exercise 2 – Three Jumps. Three Bunny Jumps and jump. Exercise 3 – 30 meter sprints. Exercise 4 – Overhead Shot. From a squatting position facing inwards inside the shot putt circle, use

legs to drive the shot overhead to land behind the circle.

Three attempts at each exercise, measurements and points can be taken if required to help with motivation

CASE STUDY OF A FOOTBALL STRIKER

Last seasons data revealed poor 2nd ½ performances from a top forward, with fewer attacking runs, frequent dispossession and a decreasing percentage of shots on target in the later stages of the game. In order to address these problems an appropriate training programme had to be developed. To find out the specific problem a detailed fitness assessment of the player was carried out. This identified his strengths and weaknesses. From the testing it showed that his aerobic endurance was satisfactory but his muscular endurance in his legs and his speed endurance were poor and this was leading to the deterioration in his performance.

A combined fitness and skill training programme targeting speed and muscular endurance and incorporating dribbling shooting and passing drills was decided to be the best option.

The training methods included interval training and Fartlek running, a combined fitness and skill circuit and a series of progressive dribbling passing and shooting drills and conditioned games.The personal training programme designed for this forward will address his specific needs. If it is implemented during the pre season, the player should be more effective from the start of the season. This should enable the player and the club to address the long-term targets of scoring more goals and winning more matches to secure promotion to a better league.

44

MONITORING AND EVALUATING TRAINING

When you undertake a training programme it is important to monitor the effectiveness of your programme. This fulfils a number of important tasks. Firstly it provides a record of the progress you are making or not. This then means that your training can be adjusted appropriately to ensure progression in the overloading. Remember that as your fitness levels improve you need to increase your workloads to continue to improve. Actually seeing that your fitness level is improving has a motivational effect. You feel a sense of achievement and a realisation that all your hard work is paying off. This would indicate if you were achieving your short term training goals on the way to achieving your longer term goals.

The best way to monitor your fitness progress is through regular fitness testing about every 4 weeks. It is important you collect data before you begin your programme, then you can compare subsequent test results to see how your fitness levels have increased. For example an athlete who was trying to improve their cardio respiratory endurance could carry out the 12 minute Cooper run at the start, mid point and end of a training programme and compare the results.

Another common method of recording progress is through a training diary. The performer will record each session including workloads etc. They will also note important personal factors as required such as how they felt and if there were any important reasons why training had to be adjusted such as injury or illness. They can then review the diary and adjust their training accordingly.

It is also important to gather information on the influence of your training on your overall performance because ultimately that is why we are training to improve our performance in our chosen activity not to improve our fitness in isolation. In order to do this we would employ the same methods of data gathering as we had used to gather our initial data. Therefore if we use our football example we would video another game and analyse the video using observation schedules. We could then compare this to the original data and see the influence that our training has had on our football performance.

Now read p56 of the Thorburn H/Int2 workbook and make additional notes

45

MENTAL ASPECTS OF FITNESS

We made reference to the various aspects of mental fitness on page 2 but we need to discuss these in more detail. Why is mental fitness important in performance? This is summed up best by the following example from athletics.

Mental training in an athlete is vital in order to produce the best performance. In Athletics mental training can be used when the athlete feels under pressure and is anxious about a particular event. It also allows the athlete to set themselves clear objectives and to focus on the task in hand. This is especially important when performing in front of a crowd and the athlete must block out any external distractions.

There is a tremendous amount of physical, emotional and mental pressures that can arise when playing football. The pressure of playing in front of a large crowd or taking a penalty at a crucial stage in the game can contribute towards a state of stress and anxiety.

Stress is related to the level of physical arousal in the body. It is initiated by the release of adrenaline from the adrenal glands. This substance stimulates changes in the heart rate, respiratory rate, blood pressure and muscle tension which has a profound effect on performance too low amounts and the performer loses interest, gets bored and does not try hard; too high amounts cause the body to tighten up and work against itself causing fatigue, unrefined movement, nervousness and insecurity. This latter type of arousal leads to anxiety. In order to attain optimal performance, i.e., best performance, it is important that the performer regulates their arousal and finds their optimal level. This can be compared to raising and lowering a thermostat to regulate temperature — in this case ‘emotional’ temperature.

Attitudinal and psychological characteristics are required by the player in order to produce a quality performance. Personal qualities relate to the player’s ability to manage their emotions and cope with the challenges of performance. These include motivation, self-discipline, dedication and commitment to training as well as achieving desirable mental states for the performance itself e.g. through using mental rehearsal, concentration and staying calm under pressure.

Here are some good examples of these characteristics. The player must be determined to challenge and win balls in the air. Motivation is related to the player’s desire to succeed and encourages a positive attitude to win every game. Concentration enables the player to remain focused and overcome external distractions enabling him to place the penalty far out of the reach of the goalkeeper.

Players can often influence or affect other players around them; this can be either positive or negative. Often players will tolerate a player who has technical, fitness or tactical weaknesses if he can show by his personality that he can increase the team’s morale. Players who are good competitors thrive on physical and mental pressure and can help other players who are intimidated to cope with stress.

Players can develop techniques to focus the mind on performance only and away from things that distract and cause anxiety. These techniques include goal-setting, mental imagery, breathing and relaxation techniques and self-talk. An example of mental imagery is when a player rehearses in his mind all phases of taking a penalty kick i.e. placing the ball on the penalty spot, running towards the ball and finally successfully placing the ball beyond the goalkeeper’s reach.

The benefits of managing stress: it allows the player to focus on performance-related goals. it builds and maintain self-confidence it enables the player to put their failures in a positive light.

46

LEVEL OF AROUSAL

Arousal is the degree of alertness, preparedness or relaxation in a performer as they prepare to and participate in the activity. It is important in your performance that you perform with the correct level of arousal. This means you are most likely to perform to your best. You need to know your own level of arousal and work at this point. Either side of this and your performance will be poorer. For example if you are not interested in playing then this lack of arousal and limited motivation will lead to a poorer performance. However if you are over anxious this may mean that you become tense and distracted which will also lead to a poorer performance. Experience of competing and carrying out the whole performance is a good way to find your level of arousal.

Arousal can be measured by monitoring variations in heart rate, muscular tension and respiration. There has been a lot of research, which clearly demonstrates the link between level of arousal and a person’s performance. This relationship is shown on the graph below

At point A on the curve the performer is under aroused and is therefore under performing they may appear disinterested and laid back they will lack motivation and will not push themselves frequently giving up. In order to improve there will have to increases their arousal either internally (from themselves) or externally (e.g. from a coach)Between points B and C the performer is operating at their optimal level you would expect to see the performer at their best, highly motivated and focussed on the game. At point D you would see a drop in performance the performer may appear anxious, muscles tighten up, loss of coordination and timing, and they may become overly aggressive. At this point the performer needs to employ stress reducing techniques and emotional control.

Under arousal – Over relaxation and apparent lack of interest.

Over arousal – Excessive tension or nervousness

Now read p45 of the Thorburn H/Int2 workbook and make additional notes

TECHNIQUES FOR CONTROLLING LEVEL OF AROUSAL

There are two types of techniques that are used in the management of stress anxiety: somatic techniques (relating to the body) and cognitive techniques (relating to the mind). Physical relaxation techniques are used for somatic anxiety and mental techniques for cognitive anxiety. As both types of anxiety are usually experienced at the same time, the two types of technique are often used together.

SOMATIC TECHNIQUESSomatic techniques are used to reduce the physiological responses associated with arousal and include biofeedback, breathing and relaxation.

BIOFEEDBACKCertain physiological measures can be taken to help control physiological responses. For example, when the performer hears their heart beat and feels it racing, they can try to think of something calming and thus learn what thoughts can lead to a slowing down of their heart rate. This will lower their arousal state.

47

BREATHING

Increase in breathing rate is a sign of increased arousal and stress. Techniques to reduce it should bring arousal under control. A quick and simple way is by taking deep slow breaths. Muscle tension is released by breathing out, so the performer must learn firstly to take deep breaths and then learn to breath out at the appropriate times during performance. For example, they should take a deep breath and let the air out slowly and thoroughly, immediately before starting this is called centring. Centring allows the athlete to focus their attention on the task in hand and is a good method of quickly relaxing, e.g. taking a deep breath and exhaling can relax you and re-focus your attention on what needs to be done. Excellent for the difficult crucial moments such as taking a penalty kick.

As well as reducing arousal level and muscle tension, breathing control in stress-reduction techniques help you focus and concentrate so that irrelevant cues are less likely to create distraction. These techniques can be practiced in training situations as well as in competition.

RELAXATION

Stress causes muscle tension and the development of relaxation techniques can reduce this. A popular method of physical relaxation is progressive muscular relaxation (PMR). This involves tensing and relaxing groups of muscles in turn, over the whole body, and can relax the body in a short period of time. Musical accompaniment is often used to assist with this technique.

Meditative Relaxation this gives the mind something simple and harmless to do in order to calm down, e.g. relaxing music.

Meditation is another technique used for both somatic and cognitive stress. This technique involves control of breathing and techniques to help the mind become clear of thought — a ‘mind like water’ state.

COGNITIVE TECHNIQUES

Cognitive techniques are used to focus the mind on performance only, and away from things that distract and cause anxiety. They include goal setting, imagery and self-talk.

GOAL SETTING

Goal setting focuses the mind on performance-related goals that are achievable and separate from external outcome-related goals, such as winning or being a success in front of others. These provide greater sources of stress and the performer has little control over them. Setting ambitious goals, such as winning the trophy in the competition, or being the best in the class, only create more anxiety. Setting achievable goals, such as completing all your tackles, switches attention from the external factors that may create arousal and worry.

IMAGERY

The performer imagines the circumstances and feelings associated with being relaxed. Imagery can also be used to practice or rehearse a skill or set piece, or when performing a gymnastics routine. For example a gymnast can ‘run through’ the correct sequence of movements, the apparatus arrangement and any linking transitions to be executed. By doing this they are working on some of the possible sources of stress: uncertainty, pressure and low self-confidence. This technique is known as mental rehearsal or mental practice

WHAT IS MENTAL IMAGERY?

Mental imagery is a technique used by performers to get the best out of their training and performance and increase their overall effectiveness. They rehearse in their mind the action or actions they are going to perform as if they were actually doing them and feeling them. The idea is to programme a positive performance into your brain and nervous system so that the body will follow and do what you want it to do. The ultimate goal is to draw on all your senses, to feel yourself executing the skills perfectly.

48

WHAT ARE THE BENEFITS?

Good progress towards quality performance can be made if the gymnast has good imagery skills:

Skills can be learned quickly. Timing and co-ordination can be improved. External distractions in concentration are reduced. Muscle tension and negative thoughts caused by increased arousal is reduced. Confidence is boosted.

DEVELOPING IMAGERY SKILLS

Imagery requires to be practiced regularly. It can be very tiring at first and the beginner should set aside only five minutes a day and practice using familiar skills. Gradually the complexity and the amount of time can be increased. Practice can start at home — relaxing and imagining the place where you train and the skills you are learning. It is better to have high quality imaging for short periods of time than low quality imaging for long periods of time.

Many performers find it helpful to imagine and feel themselves performing immediately before a performance. This process recalls the feeling of good performance and focuses full attention on the task in band. Mental imagery after a performance allows the performer to re-experience successful aspects and can lead to further positive imagery and better performance. Combining imagery with real movement can speed up the learning process. For example an experienced gymnast can run through their floor routine by walking through their routine with slight movements of the body. It is a good ‘feeling-orientation’ method.

USE OF MENTAL REHEARSAL

The following is an example from swimming. Ensuring you plan ahead for your event, concentrating on the detailed considerations which are often necessary in a swimming performance. For example, memorizing a stroke pattern so that fast effective turns can be built into the performance. In back crawl working out your turn sequence once you have passed the flags. In longer endurance events rehearsing when your stroke pattern may need to be increased to cope with the increasingly demanding performance.

SELF-TALK

The ability to perceive arousal as positive and to maintain a problem-focused attitude before and during performance has a positive effect on performance. Self-talk helps the athlete to see arousal as positive, e.g. a swimmer at the start of a race may try to motivate herself by saying to herself ‘I can do it’; ‘I’m ready’.

THE COACH OR TEACHER’S ROLE

To set performance goals within the reach of each performer, eliminating uncertainty as much as possible.

To reduce the importance of an event and have the player focus on performance-related goals. To build and maintain self-confidence by encouraging the performer to develop a sense of control,

using somatic and cognitive anxiety management techniques to ensure they are physically and mentally prepared.

To enable performers to put their failures in a positive light. Using self-talk to stop negative thoughts and start positive ones.

49

MOTIVATION

Motivation is a valuable quality, which gives the player the determination, encouragement and will to succeed and perform to a high standard. It takes account of the individual’s personality characteristics and the situation they find themselves in e.g. performing in front of a crowd or overcoming stress when taking a penalty at a crucial stage in the game.

Highly Motivated Players Less Motivated Players* look far challenges * avoid challenging tasks* want to do well * pre-occupied with failure* persist for longer in wining * give up easily* value feedback from at-hers * seldom ask for feedback from others* enjoy performing and being evaluated * dislike situation where others can* are not afraid of failure evaluate them because they are afraid of the shame* link their performance to internal factors bring view success as a result of effort and view failure * perform worse when they are being watched as a result of lack of concentration * associate performance to external factors

view success as luck e.g. ball being deflected view

Reward motivates behaviour

The behaviour shown by the highly motivated player is likely to be repeated over and over again and maintained through training, practice and performance if it is constantly rewarded. Reward motivates behaviour. Rewards can come from outside such as praise from your coach, cups, medals and applause from the crowd. This is called extrinsic motivation. In contrast, rewards can come from inside the person themselves such as the satisfaction gained from scoring the winning goal. This is called intrinsic motivation. The two types of motivation work in different ways and have different effects on the player’s attitude and success level.

Intrinsic Motivation

This is the most important type of motivation that comes from within the player is most likely to motivated by internal rewards such as laying of a pass for a teammate to score a goal. These rewards arise spontaneously from within fulfilling a need; others do not give them

Extrinsic Motivation

Extrinsic rewards such as trophies, medals and praise can act as motivators but they must be carefully used and should be:

Appropriate to the individual - some individuals get embarrassed when praised.

Given as a result of particular behaviours e.g. to provide feedback about where to place the ball.

Given as soon as possible after the behaviour occurs - so that the association between the behaviour and the reinforcement is meaningful.

Applied intermittently and gradually phased out - so that the behaviour continues without extrinsic rewards

50

TYPES OF CONCENTRATION

Concentration is the ability to focus and pay particular attention to the task in hand. Concentration has two dimensions: the broad/narrow dimension gives a width of focus; the external/internal dimension gives a direction to the focus.

BROAD/NARROW DIMENSION

Broad attention focus enables the gymnast to be aware of everything around and see several things at the one time.Narrow concentration focuses only one or two cues at a time.

EXTERNAL/INTERNAL DIMENSION

External concentration directs the focus outwards. This can be in the act of assessing the situation around you, but not concentrating on any one part, e.g., taking in playing environment. It can also be in the act of performing a skill automatically focusing on what the defender is doing, as you are about to shoot.Internal concentration focuses on thoughts and feelings, allowing you to analyse experiences from the past and prepare to anticipate for the future.

USING THE CORRECT TYPE OF CONCENTRATION

It is important that the correct type of concentration is used, depending on the performance situation and performance/specific task, as in training, performance, competition, etc. Too narrow a focus, for example, can result in failing to see important performance-relevant information. Increased arousal or stress, causing increases in heart rate, in breathing and in muscle tension, often results from having to perform to an audience and can cause changes in attention and concentration that affect performance.

Mental training programmes develop skills to enable the performer to know what the different attentional demands are for each changing situation. This allows the performer to move smoothly and easily from one type of attention to the other.

51

COMPLETE THE FOLLOWING TASK IN SMALL GROUPS.

Explain how your level of arousal was important in a specific competitive activity. State what the activity is.

Explain how you have used mental rehearsal to aid your performance in a competitive activity. State the activity

52

ASSESSING MENTAL FITNESS

It is difficult to measure the mental aspects of fitness and most practical methods centre around personal reflection and completing questionnaires.

53

54

GYMNASTICS PREPARATION OF THE BODY EXAMPLE

BACKGROUND OF THE PROBLEM AND GATHERING INITIAL DATA

From carrying out a general assessment of my floor skills routine in gymnastics using video and an observation schedule my handstand was highlighted as a major weakness. From carrying out a focused assessment of my handstand using video and another observation schedule I was able to compare my performance to the ideal model. This highlighted that the major factor limiting my success was my inability to lock out my arms and shoulders to support my body weight. My personal thoughts and feelings are that I lack upper body strength, which prevents me from locking my arms out straight and fully extending my shoulders into position when I take my body weight on my hands. This means that I am rarely able to hold a handstand and often I am unable to get myself into a fully inverted position before I collapse.

Through my analysis of the model performance and by watching videos and reading books I discovered that the major upper body muscle groups involved in the handstand are the shoulders (the deltoids and the trapezius), the upper arms (biceps and triceps), the forearm (the brachioradialis and the pronator teres) and the chest (the pectorals).

My next step was to assess my current strength level in these muscle groups. This allowed me to generate some initial data regarding my strength. This data allowed me to make comparisons with data collected at various stages during my training, which in turn would allow me to see the changes in my level of strength and gauge the effectiveness of my training. The initial data also allowed me to set appropriate workloads specific to me and allowed me to set long and short term goals/targets for my training.

In order to assess my strength in the above muscle areas I used a recognised method of testing strength called the maximal lift test. This involves lifting the heaviest weight possible for 1 repetition of the exercise. I read a number of weight training books and asked my teacher to enable me to select exercises for the tests which covered the muscle groups I highlighted earlier. I used the following exercises for my strength assessment.

MUSCLE GROUP (S) MAXIMAL STRENGTH TESTEXERCISE

PECTORAL, TRICEPS AND FORE ARMS BENCH PRESS

TRAPEZIUS, DELTOIDS AND TRICEPS SHOULDER PRESS

BICEPS BICEPS CURL

TRICEPS AND FORE ARMS TRICEPS PRESS

PREPARING A PLAN OF ACTION

After gathering the initial data I constructed a training programme to improve my specific weaknesses. I gathered information from my course notes, my teacher, reading books and the inter-net to help me construct my training programme. From this information I knew there were certain principles of training, which I would have to consider whilst making up my training programme.

SPECIFICITY (relates specifically to the individuals needs) In order to make my programme specific to my needs I had to find out my specific weakness, the specific muscles/areas of the body involved, the methods of training to improve them, the specific exercises involved, my present level of fitness and the workloads I was going to use. I decided to base my training programme on the exercises that I used for my strength tests, as these are recognised exercises and they targeted the specific upper body muscles involved in the handstand. (See programme on the following page for more details)

DURATION (how long) I found out that in order to improve the programme would have to be carried out over a reasonable number of weeks. I decided on 10 weeks, as that was the length of my gymnastics block. NB. Duration can also mean the length of an individual session (e.g. 1 hour) but this is not important for a weights programme it is more relevant for an endurance programme.

55

FREQUENCY (how often) I discovered that I would have to train at least 3 times per week in order to improve. Due to other commitments I decided that three times per week was the most that I would be able to fit in.

REST I was told by my teacher that because I was following a weight training programme I would have to take a rest day after each training day in order to allow my body time to recover and allow time for the muscle to rebuild. Due to the factors of rest and frequency and my other commitments I decided to train on Sundays, Tuesdays and Thursdays. Rest is also important during the actual programme as it allows time for the body to recover between the exercises; this allows you to keep working hard. As my programme focused on upper body strength I decided to include sit ups and some leg work in the programme. This allowed me to break up the routine and allow my upper body time to recover. I chose sit ups which worked the abdominal muscles and leg press which worked the quadriceps and hamstrings, as these muscle groups are also important in the performance of the handstand

INTENSITY (workload) I read in a weight training manual that as I was working on a strength training programme I would have to work with heavy weights, somewhere between 70-85 % of your maximum lift. The manual also said to work with a relatively small number of repetitions and sets. In weight training a repetition is 1 performance of the exercise and a set is the pre-determined number of repetitions you do before resting. I therefore decided that I would perform 8 reps, which made up 1 set and I would perform 3 sets (this is written as 8 x 3) Using approximately 75% of my maximum lift results.

CONDITIONING (training through participation in the activity) Sometimes we can improve our fitness through the activity (e.g. a continuous running and passing practice in football can improve our cardio respiratory endurance whilst working on our passing). Therefore I decided to include 3 sets of 8 handstands in my training programme. This allowed me to improve my strength by using my body weight as the resistance (workload) and work on my hand stand technique at the same time.

PROGRESSIVE OVERLOAD (increasing workloads as body adapts to exercise) I discovered that once you begin training your body begins to adapt to the demands of the programme and your fitness levels increase therefore in order to keep working at an appropriate intensity you need to increase the workload. Thus after 4-5 weeks your body will cope much easier with the demands of the training and you will have to increase the training. In order to discover if I had progressed I re-tested my strength on week 5(using the exact same tests as before). I found that my maximal lifts had all increased therefore I had to increase the weight with which I was training.

THE PLAN OF ACTION

Train on a Sunday, Tuesday and Thursday using the programme below and rest on a Monday, Wednesday, Friday and Saturday.

LONG TERM GOAL: To achieve a 20 - 30% improvement of my strength to improve my handstand

WARM UP: Jogging For 5 min Followed by stretching with a specific focus on upper body.

TRAINING PROGRAMME WEEKS 1-5INITIAL SHORT TERM GOAL: To increase the maximal weight test results by 10%

EXERCISE AREA OF THEBODY

WORKLOAD75% OF MAX

REPETITIONSAND SETS

BENCH PRESS CHEST, TRICEPS, BICEPS 30Kg 8 X 3SIT UPS ABDOMINALS BODY WEIGHT 20 X 1

SHOULDER PRESS DELTOIDS, TRAPEZIUS 15Kg 8 X 3LEG PRESS QUADS, HAMSTRINGS 60Kg 8 X 3

BICEPS CURL BICEPS 11Kg 8 X 3SIT UPS ABDOMINALS BODY WEIGHT 20 X 1

TRICEPS PRESS TRICEPS 7Kg 8 X 3HAND STAND ALL BODY WEIGHT 8 X 3

COOL DOWN: 5min jog followed by stretching

56

At the start of my 5th week of the training programme I re-tested my strength using the exact same battery of tests as I had used at the beginning of the training programme. This enabled me to see how effective my training was by highlighting any improvements in my strength levels. This in turn allowed me to set new workloads to ensure progressive overload and kept me motivated as I achieved my initial goal and could see an actual improvement.

WEEK 5 RE -TEST

MUSCLE GROUP (S) MAXIMAL STRENGTH TEST

EXERCISEPECTORAL, TRICEPS AND FORE ARMS BENCH PRESSTRAPEZIUS, DELTOIDS AND TRICEPS SHOULDER PRESS

BICEPS BICEPS CURLTRICEPS AND FORE ARMS TRICEPS PRESS

INITIAL TARGET ACHIEVED: See 5 week re-test

NEW SHORT TERM GOAL: Increase maximal strength tests by a further 10%

TRAINING PROGRAMME WEEKS 5- 10

EXERCISE AREA OF THEBODY

WORKLOAD75% OF MAX

REPETITIONSAND SETS

BENCH PRESS CHEST, TRICEPS, BICEPS 36Kg 8 X 3SIT UPS ABDOMINALS BODY WEIGHT 20 X 1

SHOULDER PRESS DELTOIDS, TRAPEZIUS 21Kg 8 X 3LEG PRESS QUADS, HAMSTRINGS 70Kg 8 X 3

BICEPS CURL BICEPS 15Kg 8 X 3SIT UPS ABDOMINALS BODY WEIGHT 20 X 1

TRICEPS PRESS TRICEPS 8Kg 8 X 3HAND STAND ALL BODY WEIGHT 8 X 3

WEEK 10 RE-TEST

MUSCLE GROUP (S) MAXIMAL STRENGTH TESTEXERCISE

WEEK10

PECTORAL, TRICEPS AND FORE ARMS

BENCH PRESS

TRAPEZIUS, DELTOIDS AND TRICEPS

SHOULDER PRESS

BICEPS BICEPS CURLTRICEPS AND FORE ARMS TRICEPS PRESS

NEW SHORT TERM GOAL: Achieved with the exception of the bench press.

LONG TERM TARGET: Achieved

CONCLUSION: Training programme was successful for improving my upper-body strength.

57

EVALUATION OF THE PLAN OF ACTION

In order for me to conduct a valid evaluation of my training programme, to gauge the effectiveness of my training (and ultimately the effects on my overall performance of the handstand) I ensured that my methods of analysis/testing were the same throughout.

Through the analysis of the data gathered using the maximal strength tests, it was obvious that my strength levels had increased in my upper body. This lead me to conclude that the training I undertook was appropriate and effective. I carried out the strength tests at the beginning, middle and end of my training programme. This was appropriate for me as it allowed me to find my initial strength levels and therefore set. Appropriate and safe workloads for myself. Testing at regular intervals allowed me to see the progress I was making and set new goals during my training programme. When I compared my initial tests to my mid- point tests I could already see an improvement. This made me feel good and motivated me to continue to improve. The mid-point test results also allowed me to set new workloads and adjust my training accordingly so that I could continue to make progress.

The next stage of my evaluation was to find out what effect improving my upper body strength has had on the performance of my handstand. My own personal feelings were that my handstand had improved, as I knew that I could now actually hold a handstand position without collapsing. In order to prove that my performance was better and to find out the exact nature of the improvements I had to analyse my handstand again. I assessed my handstand again using exactly the same methods and criteria as I had used to gather my initial data . This allowed me to make direct comparisons between the two performances to see what changes had occurred . The Fact that I had used video and observation schedules meant that I had kept a permanent record of my performances, this made a before and after comparison much easier. Using video meant I could watch the performances over and over, in slow motion and even in still, which meant I had an accurate analysis of my performance. This also allowed me to make a direct visual comparison between my initial and final performances. Using the observation schedule allowed me to keep a permanent record of the analysis as I watched the video, which aided the comparison of the performances. The final analysis supported my personal thoughts and proved that my handstand had indeed improved, though my handstand was not perfect and I would have to work on it further.

Evaluating my performance and training programme was important as it allowed me to identify areas of weakness, construct a training programme that was relevant and specific to me. Evaluation also allowed me to monitor the effectiveness of my training, set new targets to ensure progression and kept my motivation high through seeing an actual improvement. Finally evaluating my performance allowed me to see the positive effects that my training programme had on my overall performance.

It is also important to realise that improving my fitness (strength) may not have been the only contributory factor for improving my handstand. Improving an aspect of fitness may not directly change the technique but would improve your body’s capacity to cope with the technique and therefore possibly allow an improvement. Therefore when considering the overall performance we also need to take account of the technical aspects of the skill e.g. the preparation, action and recovery phases, sub-routines etc. We also need to consider mental aspects e.g. motivation, concentration, determination etc.

58

COMPLETE THE FOLLOWING QUESTIONS IN YOUR POB JOTTER

HOMEWORK 1

1 Write down another word for endurance. 1

2 There are two different kinds of endurance. What are they? 2

3 Who do you think needs greater flexibility? a a building worker b a gymnast c a hurdler 1

4 Who do you think needs greater strength? a a rugby player b a swimmer c a golfer 1

5 Match each of these to a sport or sports where it is important.

a leg power b balance c good co-ordination d fast reactions e good timing f agility g cardio-respiratory endurance h muscular enduranceChoose from this list: sprinting rugby swimming canoeing pole-vaulting skiing judo golf marathon

8

TOTAL 13

HOMEWORK 2

1. List the 3 separate areas of fitness 3

2. Give 1 example of an aspect of fitness from the 3 areas identified in question 1

3

3. Name the Aspects of fitness described below:

The time it takes the performer to begin a movement from receiving the initial stimulusThe ability of the heart, lungs and circulatory system to supply O2 to the working muscles over timeThe maximal force a muscle can exert between its end pointsThe control of your body movements and their orientationThe maximal rate at which a single limb or the whole body can moveThe ability to maintain stability whilst stationary or on the moveThe ability to change direction at paceThe determination to succeedThe ability of a muscle or group of muscles to sustain repeated contractions over a long period of timeThe level or state of mind you reach which can enhance your performanceThe range of movement of a joint and/or muscle group

11

TOTAL 17

59

HOMEWORK 3

TAKE OUT YOUR PLANNER NOW AND WRITE IN THE HOMEWORK DEADLINE DATE

Select an activity from the course or any other activity that you are familiar with and describe in detail the fitness requirements to participate in that activity and explain in detail how these fitness requirements influence your performance. If you select a team game such as football you must tailor your answer to a specific playing position. Your answer should include the following information. The activity and your specific role if appropriate Reference to aspects of fitness (from the 3 areas of physical, skill, and mental fitness) with an appropriate explanation of each aspect e.g. in rugby strength is important for a prop. Strength is defined as the maximal force that a muscle can develop. Static strength is particularly important when scrummaging to be able to hold the scrum steady. By locking out my legs I can help to prevent the opposition pushing our scrum back. An explanation of how each of these aspects of fitness influence your performance in your selected role e.g. it is important for me to be aggressive to win challenges, however I have to control my level of aggression so that my level of arousal does not become to high and my performance drops or I become too aggressive and give away fouls or get booked.Your answer should be 1-2 pages in length and will be marked on a pass/fail basis.

HOMEWORK 4

TAKE OUT YOUR PLANNER NOW AND WRITE IN THE HOMEWORK DEADLINE DATE

In order to complete this homework you will have to refer to the data you collected and recorded on pages 11, 12 & 13 on your performance during the football match.

You will now have to analyse your data in detail so that you can identify your strengths and weaknesses. In your POB jotter write up your detailed analysis. Compare your first half performance to your second half performance on your movement analysis sheet and work out how much work you did and how effective it was. Was there a particular area of strength or weakness? Was there an area that dropped of in the second half? Use figures from your sheets to back up your analysis. For example my long sprinting was very effective at the start of the game as I completed 5 successful sprints an no ineffective ones however towards the end of the second half my sprinting dropped I only completed 2 successful sprints out of 6 in the 36-40 min period. You will also have to compare your first half performance to your second half performance on your skill analysis sheet and work how effective you were. Was there a particular area of strength or weakness? Was there an area that dropped of in the second half? Yet again you will have to back up your analysis with figures from your sheets. Compare your thoughts and feelings as the game progressed. Is there a link to the movement and skill analysis sheets?

Your answer should be about 1 page in length and will be marked on a pass/fail basis.

NB The more detail and time you spend on making a good analysis the better your answer will be for the internal assessment

HOMEWORK 5

TAKE OUT YOUR PLANNER NOW AND WRITE IN THE HOMEWORK DEADLINE DATE

When we gathered data on our performance in football we used video and tick sheets and personal thoughts and feelings explain in detail why those methods were appropriate.

Your answer should be about 1 page in length and will be marked on a pass/fail

60

HOMEWORK 6

TAKE OUT YOUR PLANNER NOW AND WRITE IN THE HOMEWORK DEADLINE DATE

From your data you will have highlighted a specific fitness weakness for the purposes of this home work it will be CVE. Select 1 method of assessing this specific aspect of fitness name it and explain in detail why this method is appropriate.

Your answer should be about 1 page in length and will be marked on a pass/fail basis.

HOME WORK 7

TAKE OUT YOUR PLANNER NOW AND WRITE IN THE HOMEWORK DEADLINE DATE

Your answer should be about 1 page in length and will be marked on a pass/fail basis.

1. Write 3 or 4 sentences for each answer to explain what the following principles of training mean

Progressive overload Frequency Duration Reversibility Specificity Rest Intensity Adaptation

16

2. Explain what is meant by the term aerobic exercise 2

3. Explain what is meant by the term anaerobic exercise 2

4. Which of the following activities are aerobic and which are anaerobic and state which of the 3 main energy systems is used to supply the energy needs in each activity e.g. aerobic, lactic or ATP-PC.

100m sprintA25 minute run400m sprintA bench pressA handspring vault 800m swim 12

TOTAL 32

61

HOME WORK 8

TAKE OUT YOUR PLANNER NOW AND WRITE IN THE HOMEWORK DEADLINE DATE

State which aspect of fitness is the main weakness and suggest appropriate methods of training for the following performers. Explain why you made your choices. If you fail to identify the correct aspect of fitness no marks will be awarded for the rest of your answer.

1. A swimmer whose backstroke is poor because her arm enters the water far too wide

2. A hockey player who is unable to make repeated sprints towards the end of the game

3. A football player who is unable to maintain a high work rate, touch and control have decreased and he is breathing heavily in the second ½

4. A rugby player who is unable to lift the jumper in the lineout

5. A volleyball player who is unable to get height in his vertical jump to block effectively at the net

6. A tennis player who is slow at getting into the net

7. A badminton player whose legs become tired and heavy in the latter stages of a game

HOMEWORK 9

TAKE OUT YOUR PLANNER NOW AND WRITE IN THE HOMEWORK DEADLINE DATE

. Select your main physical fitness weakness CVE and select appropriate method(s) of training to improve that weakness. You are now at the stage of designing a programme to improve your weakness in order to do this you have to consider the principles of training and factors, which influence your decisions as to how you organise and construct your training programmeWrite a paragraph about each of the following principles and factors that you would have to take into consideration when planning your fitness programme. I am not looking for a detailed description of the factor or principle I want you to explain how each factor or principle influenced or affected your decisions when making up your training programme. Ensure you continually make reference to yourself and your decisions. make the answer personal.

READ THE GYMNASTICS PLAN OF ACTION EXAMPLE ON PAGES 49-53 OF THE WORKBOOK TO GIVE YOU AN IDEA OF HOW TO GO ABOUT THE TASK

YOUR ROLEYOUR WEAKNESSMETHOD(S) OF TRAININGSPECIFICITY OVERLOADFREQUENCYDURATIONINTENSITY/WORKLOADSETTING TARGETSADAPTATIONPROGRESSIONRESTREVERSIBILITY

62

HOMEWORK 10

TAKE OUT YOUR PLANNER NOW AND WRITE IN THE HOMEWORK DEADLINE DATE

From the data that you gathered about your performance you will have identified strengths and weaknesses in your fitness levels. Taking these into consideration plus the specific demands of the activity select 2 different methods of training to improve your fitness. READ PAGES 25-32 FOR EXAMPLES You must describe each method in detail and explain why it was an appropriate choice for you. Within your description you must include specific details of how each training method is organised and the workloads used etc. For example if you were using interval training to improve your speed endurance in football I would want to know how many intervals you were running what distance or time you were running, work to rest ratio or length of rest in comparison to work periods etcDon’t forget to explain why you made your choices

HOMEWORK 11

TAKE OUT YOUR PLANNER NOW AND WRITE IN THE HOMEWORK DEADLINE DATE

You are now in a position to design a training programme to address the weaknesses you have identified previously in this block .You should have information about your strengths and weaknesses the fitness requirements of football in previous pieces of homework. You should also have selected and described appropriate training methods in another piece of homework and there are the information sections on the principles of training in this workbook. It should be simply a case of puling all this information together in a logical plan. Design a training programme to improve your weakness in relation to your specific role in football. Show a typical weeks training programme (micro-cycle) for the first week of your training. Considerations for your training programme;

Appropriate methods of training, Principles of training overload, frequency, intensity, duration, rest and recovery.Start by constructing the weekly plan like the examples on page 36 & 38You must give specific details of the organisation of the training for each session. This must include

descriptions of the exercises, drills, games etc, you must also include details of how many reps and sets you will do, you must also include details of how long you work for and periods of recovery (if appropriate). This is best done after your weekly plan or else the table will look cluttered

You will have to consider which days are rest days and also which days you play games on as you will have to avoid training on these days.

Don’t forget to include training to maintain the other aspects of fitnessYou may whish to consider the stage of the season as wellBe realistic!

After following this training programme for 4 weeks your body will have adapted and your fitness levels will have increased therefore you will have to increase your training to ensure that your fitness continues to improve.Describe 4 changes that you would make to your training programme to make it more demanding.

HOMEWORK 12

TAKE OUT YOUR PLANNER NOW AND WRITE IN THE HOMEWORK DEADLINE DATE

Explain how you would check for improvements in your fitness after carrying out the training programme you designed. Explain what changes you would find and state why the method you selected was appropriate. Then explain how you would check for improvements in your overall performance. Explain why these methods were appropriate and state the changes you would expect to find.

63

HOMEWORK 13

TAKE OUT YOUR PLANNER NOW AND WRITE IN THE HOMEWORK DEADLINE DATE

Describe in detail how you ensured you were mentally prepared for a competitive activity and explain the benefits of being mentally prepared for your performance in a competitive activity.

64