Banana - Wikipedia, The Free Encyclopedia

15/10/2013 Banana - Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia

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Four varieties of banana fruit

A banana plant on Banana Island in

Luxor, Egypt

BananaFrom Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia

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A banana is an edible fruit produced by several kinds of large

herbaceous flowering plants in the genus Musa.[1] (In some countries,bananas used for cooking may be called plantains.) The fruit is variable insize, color and firmness, but is usually elongated and curved, with softflesh rich in starch covered with a rind which may be green, yellow, red,purple, or brown when ripe. The fruits grow in clusters hanging from thetop of the plant. Almost all modern edible parthenocarpic (seedless)bananas come from two wild species Musa acuminata and Musabalbisiana. The scientific names of most cultivated bananas are Musaacuminata, Musa balbisiana, and Musa paradisiaca for the hybridMusa acuminata M. balbisiana, depending on their genomicconstitution. The old scientific name Musa sapientum is no longer used.

Musa species are native to tropical Indomalaya and Australia, and are

likely to have been first domesticated in Papua New Guinea.[2][3] They

are grown in at least 107 countries,[4] primarily for their fruit, and to alesser extent to make fiber, banana wine and as ornamental plants. In2013 bananas were fourth among the main world food crops (after rice,

wheat, and maize) in financial value.[5]

Worldwide, there is no sharp distinction between "bananas" and"plantains". Especially in the Americas and Europe, "banana" usuallyrefers to soft, sweet, dessert bananas, particularly those of the Cavendishgroup, which are the main exports from banana-growing countries. Bycontrast, Musa cultivars with firmer, starchier fruit are called "plantains".In other regions, such as Southeast Asia, many more kinds of banana aregrown and eaten, so the simple two-fold distinction is not useful and isnot made in local languages.

The term "banana" is also used as the common name for the plants which

produce the fruit.[1] This can extend to other members of the genus Musalike the scarlet banana (Musa coccinea), pink banana (Musa velutina) and the Fe'i bananas. It can also refer tomembers of the genus Ensete, like the snow banana (Ensete glaucum) and the economically important falsebanana (Ensete ventricosum). Both genera are classified under the banana family, Musaceae.

Contents

1 Description

2 Etymology

3 Taxonomy

4 Bananas and plantains



5 Historical cultivation

5.1 Early cultivation

5.2 Plantation cultivation in the Caribbean, Central and South America

5.3 Peasant cultivation for export in the Caribbean

5.4 East Africa

6 Modern cultivation6.1 Cavendish

6.2 Ripening

6.3 Storage and transport

6.4 Production and export

7 Pests, diseases, and natural disasters

7.1 Panama disease

7.1.1 Tropical race 4

7.2 Black sigatoka

7.2.1 In East Africa

7.3 Banana bunchy top virus

7.4 Banana bacterial wilt8 Culture

8.1 Food and cooking8.1.1 Fruit

8.1.2 Flower8.1.3 Leaves8.1.4 Trunk

8.1.5 Nutrition and research8.2 Fiber

8.2.1 Textiles8.2.2 Paper

8.3 Cultural roles8.3.1 Arts

8.3.2 Religion and popular beliefs8.4 Other uses

9 See also10 Notes11 References

12 Bibliography13 Further reading

14 External links

Description

The banana plant is the largest herbaceous flowering plant.[6] All the above-ground parts of a banana plant grow

from a structure usually called a "corm".[7] Plants are normally tall and fairly sturdy, and are often mistaken for trees,but what appears to be a trunk is actually a "false stem" or pseudostem. Bananas grow in a wide variety of soils, as

long as the soil is at least 60 cm deep, has good drainage and is not compacted.[8] The leaves of banana plants are



A banana corm, about 25 cm

(10 in) across

Banana inflorescence, partially

opened.

The female flowers (which can

develop into fruit) have petals and

other flower parts at the tip of the

ovary (the ovary is "inferior").

composed of a "stalk" (petiole) and a blade (lamina). The base of the petiole widens to form a sheath; the tightlypacked sheaths make up the pseudostem, which is all that supports the plant. The edges of the sheath meet when itis first produced, making it tubular. As new growth occurs in the centre of the pseudostem the edges are forced

apart.[9] Cultivated banana plants vary in height depending on the variety and growing conditions. Most are around5 m (16 ft) tall, with a range from 'Dwarf Cavendish' plants at around 3 m (10 ft)

to 'Gros Michel' at 7 m (23 ft) or more.[10][11] Leaves are spirally arranged and

may grow 2.7 metres (8.9 ft) long and 60 cm (2.0 ft) wide.[12] They are easily

torn by the wind, resulting in the familiar frond look.[13]

When a banana plant is mature, the corm stops producing new leaves and beginsto form a flower spike or inflorescence. A stem develops which grows up insidethe pseudostem, carrying the immature inflorescence until eventually it emerges at

the top.[14] Each pseudostem normally produces a single inflorescence, alsoknown as the "banana heart". (More are sometimes produced; an exceptional

plant in the Philippines produced five.[15]) After fruiting, the pseudostem dies, butoffshoots will normally have developed from the base, so that the plant as a wholeis perennial. In the plantation system of cultivation, only one of the offshoots will

be allowed to develop in order to maintain spacing.[16] The inflorescence containsmany bracts (sometimes incorrectly referred to as petals) between rows offlowers. The female flowers (which can develop into fruit) appear in rowsfurther up the stem (closer to the leaves) from the rows of male flowers.The ovary is inferior, meaning that the tiny petals and other flower parts

appear at the tip of the ovary.[17]

The banana fruits develop from the banana heart, in a large hangingcluster, made up of tiers (called "hands"), with up to 20 fruit to a tier. Thehanging cluster is known as a bunch, comprising 320 tiers, orcommercially as a "banana stem", and can weigh from 3050 kilograms(66110 lb). Individual banana fruits (commonly known as a banana or"finger") average 125 grams (0.276 lb), of which approximately 75% is

water and 25% dry matter.[citation needed]

The fruit has been described as a "leathery berry".[18] There is aprotective outer layer (a peel or skin) with numerous long, thin strings(the phloem bundles), which run lengthwise between the skin and theedible inner portion. The inner part of the common yellow dessert varietysplits easily lengthwise into three sections that correspond to the inner

portions of the three carpels.[citation needed] In cultivated varieties, theseeds are diminished nearly to non-existence; their remnants are tiny

black specks in the interior of the fruit.[19]

Bananas are naturally slightly radioactive,[20][21] more so than most otherfruits, because of their potassium content and the small amounts of the

isotope potassium-40 found in naturally occurring potassium.[22]

Proponents of nuclear power sometimes refer to the banana equivalent

dose of radiation to support their arguments.[23]



The Cavendish banana is the most

common banana type sold.

Banana 'tree' showing fruit

and inflorescence.

Etymology

The word banana is generally said to be derived from the Wolof word

banaana.[24]

Taxonomy

The genus Musa was created by Carl Linnaeus in 1753.[25] The namemay be derived from Antonius Musa, physician to the EmperorAugustus, or Linnaeus may have adapted the Arabic word for banana,

mauz.[26] Musa is in the family Musaceae. The APG III system assignsMusaceae to the order Zingiberales, part of the commelinid clade of themonocotyledonous flowering plants. Some 70 species of Musa were recognized

by the World Checklist of Selected Plant Families as of January 2013;[25] several

produce edible fruit, while others are cultivated as ornamentals.[27]

The classification of cultivated bananas has long been a problematic issue fortaxonomists. Linnaeus originally placed bananas into two species based only ontheir uses as food: Musa sapientum for dessert bananas and Musa paradisiacafor plantains. Subsequently further species names were added. However, thisapproach proved inadequate to address the sheer number of cultivars existing inthe primary center of diversity of the genus, Southeast Asia. Many of these

cultivars were given names which proved to be synonyms.[28]

In a series of papers published in 1947 onwards, Ernest Cheesman showed thatLinnaeus' Musa sapientum and Musa paradisiaca were actually cultivars anddescendants of two wild seed-producing species, Musa acuminata and Musa

balbisiana, both first described by Luigi Aloysius Colla.[29] He recommended the abolition of Linnaeus' species infavor of reclassifying bananas according to three morphologically distinct groups of cultivars those primarilyexhibiting the botanical characteristics of Musa balbisiana, those primarily exhibiting the botanical characteristics of

Musa acuminata, and those with characteristics that are the combination of the two.[28] Researchers NormanSimmonds and Ken Shepherd proposed a genome-based nomenclature system in 1955. This system eliminatedalmost all the difficulties and inconsistencies of the earlier classification of bananas based on assigning scientificnames to cultivated varieties. Despite this, the original names are still recognized by some authorities today, leading

to confusion.[29][30]

The currently accepted scientific names for most groups of cultivated bananas are Musa acuminata Colla and

Musa balbisiana Colla for the ancestral species, and Musa paradisiaca L. for the hybrid M. acuminata M.

balbisiana.[31]

Synonyms of M. paradisica include:

A large number of subspecific and varietial names of M. paradisiaca, including M. p. subsp. sapientum

(L.) Kuntze

Musa dacca Horan.

Musa sapidisiaca K.C.Jacob, nom. superfl.



A variety of banana cultivated widely

in Indian state of Kerala, locally

known as nendran

Musa sapientum L., and a large number of its varietal names, including M. sapientum var. paradisiaca

(L.) Baker, nom. illeg.

Generally, modern classifications of banana cultivars follow Simmonds and Shepherd's system. Cultivars are placedin groups based on the number of chromosomes they have and which species they are derived from. Thus theLatundan banana is placed in the AAB Group, showing that it is a triploid derived from both M. acuminata (A)and M. balbisiana (B). For a list of the cultivars classified under thissystem see List of banana cultivars.

In 2012 a team of scientists announced they had achieved a draft

sequence of the genome of Musa acuminata.[32]

Bananas and plantains

In regions such as North America and Europe, Musa fruits offered forsale can be divided into "bananas" and "plantains", based on theirintended use as food. Thus the banana producer and distributor Chiquitaproduces publicity material for the American market which says that "aplantain is not a banana". The stated differences are that plantains aremore starchy and less sweet; they are eaten cooked rather than raw; they

have thicker skin, which may be green, yellow or black; and they can be used at any stage of ripeness.[33] Linnaeus

made the same distinction between plantains and bananas when first naming two "species" of Musa.[34] Membersof the "Plantain subgroup" of banana cultivars, most important as food in West Africa and Latin America,correspond to the Chiquita description, having long pointed fruit. They are described by Ploetz et al. as "true"

plantains, distinct from other cooking bananas.[35] The cooking bananas of East Africa belong to a different group,

the East African Highland bananas,[11] so would not qualify as "true" plantains on this definition.

An alternative approach divides bananas into dessert bananas and cooking bananas, with plantains being one of the

subgroups of cooking bananas.[36] Triploid cultivars derived solely from M. acuminata are examples of "dessertbananas", whereas triploid cultivars derived from the hybrid between M. acuminata and M. balbinosa (in

particular the Plantain subgroup of the AAB Group) are "plantains".[37][38] Small farmers in Colombia grow a muchwider range of cultivars than large commercial plantations. A study of these cultivars showed that they could beplaced into at least three groups based on their characteristics: dessert bananas, non-plantain cooking bananas, and

plantains, although there were overlaps between dessert and cooking bananas.[39]

In Southeast Asia the center of diversity for bananas, both wild and cultivated the distinction between "bananas"and "plantains" does not work, according to Valmayor et al. Many bananas are used both raw and cooked. Thereare starchy cooking bananas which are smaller than those eaten raw. The range of colors, sizes and shapes is far

wider than in those grown or sold in Africa, Europe or the Americas.[34] Southeast Asian languages do not makethe distinction between "bananas" and "plantains" that is made in English (and Spanish). Thus both Cavendishcultivars, the classic yellow dessert bananas, and Saba cultivars, used mainly for cooking, are called pisang in

Malaysia and Indonesia, kluai in Thailand and chuoi in Vietnam.[40] Fe'i bananas, grown and eaten in the islands ofthe Pacific, are derived from entirely different wild species than traditional bananas and plantains. Most Fe'i bananasare cooked, but Karat bananas, which are short and squat with bright red skins, very different from the usual yellow

dessert bananas, are eaten raw.[41]



Original native ranges of the

ancestors of modern edible bananas.

Musa acuminata is shown in green

and Musa balbisiana in orange.[42]

Actual and probable diffusion of

bananas during Islamic times (700

1500 CE)[45]

In summary, in commerce in Europe and the Americas (although not in small-scale cultivation), it is possible todistinguish between "bananas", which are eaten raw, and "plantains", which are cooked. In other regions of theworld, particularly India, Southeast Asia and the islands of the Pacific, there are many more kinds of banana andthe two-fold distinction is not useful and not made in local languages. Plantains are one of many kinds of cookingbananas, which are not always distinct from dessert bananas.

Historical cultivation

Early cultivation

See also: Musa acuminata

Farmers in Southeast Asia and Papua New Guinea first domesticatedbananas. Recent archaeological and palaeoenvironmental evidence atKuk Swamp in the Western Highlands Province of Papua New Guineasuggests that banana cultivation there goes back to at least 5000 BCE,

and possibly to 8000 BCE.[2][43] It is likely that other species were laterand independently domesticated elsewhere in Southeast Asia. SoutheastAsia is the region of primary diversity of the banana. Areas of secondarydiversity are found in Africa, indicating a long history of banana

cultivation in the region.[44]

Phytolith discoveries in Cameroon dating to the first millennium BCE[46]

triggered an as yet unresolved debate about the date of first cultivation inAfrica. There is linguistic evidence that bananas were known in

Madagascar around that time.[47] The earliest prior evidence indicates

that cultivation dates to no earlier than late 6th century CE.[48] It is likely,however, that bananas were brought at least to Madagascar if not to theEast African coast during the phase of Malagasy colonization of the

island from South East Asia c. 400 CE.[49]

The banana may have been present in isolated locations of the MiddleEast on the eve of Islam. There is some textual evidence that Muhammad

was familiar with bananas.[citation needed] The spread of Islam wasfollowed by far-reaching diffusion. There are numerous references to it inIslamic texts (such as poems and hadiths) beginning in the 9th century. Bythe 10th century the banana appears in texts from Palestine and Egypt.From there it diffused into north Africa and Muslim Iberia. During the medieval ages, bananas from Granada were

considered among the best in the Arab world.[45] In 650, Islamic conquerors brought the banana to Palestine.Today, banana consumption increases significantly in Islamic countries during Ramadan, the month of daylight

fasting.[50]

Bananas were introduced to the Americas by Portuguese sailors who brought the fruits from West Africa in the

16th century.[51] The word banana is of West African origin, from the Wolof language, and passed into English via

Spanish or Portuguese.[52]



Fruits of wild-type bananas have

numerous large, hard seeds.

Many wild banana species as well as cultivars exist in extraordinary diversity in New Guinea, Malaysia, Indonesia,China, and the Philippines.

There are fuzzy bananas whose skins are bubblegum pink; green-and-white striped bananas with pulp

the color of orange sherbet; bananas that, when cooked, taste like strawberries. The Double Mahoiplant can produce two bunches at once. The Chinese name of the aromatic Go San Heong banana

means 'You can smell it from the next mountain.' The fingers on one banana plant grow fused; another

produces bunches of a thousand fingers, each only an inch long.

Mike Peed, The New Yorker[53]

Plantation cultivation in the Caribbean, Central and South America

Main article: History of modern banana plantations in the Americas

In the 15th and 16th centuries, Portuguese colonists started banana

plantations in the Atlantic Islands, Brazil, and western Africa.[54] NorthAmericans began consuming bananas on a small scale at very high pricesshortly after the Civil War, though it was only in the 1880s that it became

more widespread.[55] As late as the Victorian Era, bananas were not

widely known in Europe, although they were available.[54] Jules Verneintroduces bananas to his readers with detailed descriptions in Aroundthe World in Eighty Days (1872).

The earliest modern plantations originated in Jamaica and the relatedWestern Caribbean Zone, including most of Central America. It involvedthe combination of modern transportation networks of steamships andrailroads with the development of refrigeration that allowed bananas tohave more time between harvesting and ripening. North America shippers like Lorenzo Dow Baker and AndrewPreston, the founders of the Boston Fruit Company started this process in the 1870s, but railroad builders likeMinor C Keith also participated, eventually culminating in the multi-national giant corporations like today's Chiquita

Brands International and Dole.[55] These companies were monopolistic, vertically integrated (meaning theycontrolled growing, processing, shipping and marketing) and usually used political manipulation to build enclaveeconomies (economies that were internally self-sufficient, virtually tax exempt, and export oriented that contributevery little to the host economy). Their political maneuvers, which gave rise to the term Banana republic for stateslike Honduras and Guatemala, included working with local elites and their rivalries to influence politics or playing theinternational interests of the United States, especially during the Cold War, to keep the political climate favorable to

their interests.[56]

Peasant cultivation for export in the Caribbean

Main article: History of peasant banana production in the Americas

The vast majority of the world's bananas today are cultivated for family consumption or for sale on local markets.India is the world leader in this sort of production, but many other Asian and African countries where climate andsoil conditions allow cultivation also host large populations of banana growers who sell at least some of their

crop.[57]



There are peasant sector banana growers who produce for the world market in the Caribbean, however. TheWindward Islands are notable for the growing, largely of Cavendish bananas, for an international market, generallyin Europe but also in North America. In the Caribbean, and especially in Dominica where this sort of cultivation iswidespread, holdings are in the 12 acre range. In many cases the farmer earns additional money from other crops,from engaging in labor outside the farm, and from a share of the earnings of relatives living overseas. This style ofcultivation often was popular in the islands as bananas required little labor input and brought welcome extra

income.[citation needed] Banana crops are vulnerable to destruction by high winds, such as tropical storms or

cyclones.[58]

After the signing of the NAFTA agreements in the 1990s, however, the tide turned against peasant producers.Their costs of production were relatively high and the ending of favorable tariff and other supports, especially in theEuropean Economic Community, made it difficult for peasant producers to compete with the bananas grown onlarge plantations by the well capitalized firms like Chiquita and Dole. Not only did the large companies have accessto cheap labor in the areas they worked, but they were better able to afford modern agronomic advances such asfertilization. The "dollar banana" produced by these concerns made the profit margins for peasant bananas

unsustainable.[citation needed]

Caribbean countries have sought to redress this problem by providing government supported agronomic servicesand helping to organize producers' cooperatives. They have also been supporters of the Fair Trade movement

which seeks to balance the inequities in the world trade in commodities.[citation needed]

East Africa

Main article: East African Highland bananas

Most farms supply local consumption. Cooking bananas represent a major food source and a major income sourcefor smallhold farmers. In east Africa, highland bananas are of greatest importance as a staple food crop. Incountries such as Uganda, Burundi, and Rwanda per capita consumption has been estimated at 45 kilograms

(99 lb) per year, the highest in the world.[citation needed]

Modern cultivation

All widely cultivated bananas today descend from the two wild bananas Musa acuminata and Musa balbisiana.While the original wild bananas contained large seeds, diploid or polyploid cultivars (some being hybrids) with tiny

seeds are preferred for human raw fruit consumption.[59] These are propagated asexually from offshoots. The plantis allowed to produce two shoots at a time; a larger one for immediate fruiting and a smaller "sucker" or "follower"to produce fruit in 68 months. The life of a banana plantation is 25 years or longer, during which time the individualstools or planting sites may move slightly from their original positions as lateral rhizome formation

dictates.[citation needed]

Cultivated bananas are parthenocarpic, i.e. the flesh of the fruit swells and ripens without its seeds being fertilizedand developing. Lacking viable seeds, propagation typically involves farmers removing and transplanting part of theunderground stem (called a corm). Usually this is done by carefully removing a sucker (a vertical shoot thatdevelops from the base of the banana pseudostem) with some roots intact. However, small sympodial corms,representing not yet elongated suckers, are easier to transplant and can be left out of the ground for up to two

weeks; they require minimal care and can be shipped in bulk.[citation needed]



Cavendish bananas are the main

commercial banana cultivars sold in

the world market.

It is not necessary to include the corm or root structure to propagate bananas; severed suckers without root

material can be propagated in damp sand, although this takes somewhat longer.[citation needed]

In some countries, commercial propagation occurs by means of tissue culture. This method is preferred since itensures disease-free planting material. When using vegetative parts such as suckers for propagation, there is a risk

of transmitting diseases (especially the devastating Panama disease).[citation needed]

As a non-seasonal crop, bananas are available fresh year-round.[citation needed]

Cavendish

Main article: Cavendish banana

In global commerce in 2009, by far the most important cultivars belongedto the triploid AAA group of Musa acuminata, commonly referred to asCavendish group bananas. They accounted for the majority of banana

exports,[59] despite only coming into existence in 1836.[60] The cultivarsDwarf Cavendish and Grand Nain (Chiquita Banana) gained popularity inthe 1950s after the previous mass-produced cultivar, Gros Michel (alsoan AAA group cultivar), became commercially unviable due to Panamadisease, caused by the fungus Fusarium oxysporum which attacks the

roots of the banana plant.[59] Cavendish cultivars are resistant to thePanama Disease but in 2013 there were fears that the Black Sigatoka

fungus would in turn make Cavendish bananas unviable.[5]

Ease of transport and shelf life rather than superior taste make the Dwarf

Cavendish the main export banana.[citation needed]

Even though it is no longer viable for large scale cultivation, Gros Michel is not extinct and is still grown in areas

where Panama disease is not found.[61] Likewise, Dwarf Cavendish and Grand Nain are in no danger of extinction,but they may leave supermarket shelves if disease makes it impossible to supply the global market. It is unclear ifany existing cultivar can replace Cavendish bananas, so various hybridisation and genetic engineering programs are

attempting to create a disease-resistant, mass-market banana.[59]

Ripening

Export bananas are picked green, and ripen in special rooms upon arrival in the destination country. These roomsare air-tight and filled with ethylene gas to induce ripening. The vivid yellow color normally associated with

supermarket bananas is in fact a side effect of the artificial ripening process.[62][63] Flavor and texture are alsoaffected by ripening temperature. Bananas are refrigerated to between 13.5 and 15 C (56 and 59 F) duringtransport. At lower temperatures, ripening permanently stalls, and turns the bananas gray as cell walls break down.The skin of ripe bananas quickly blackens in the 4 C (39 F) environment of a domestic refrigerator, although thefruit inside remains unaffected.

"Tree-ripened" Cavendish bananas have a greenish-yellow appearance which changes to a brownish-yellow as theyripen further. Although both flavor and texture of tree-ripened bananas is generally regarded as superior to any type

of green-picked fruit,[citation needed] this reduces shelf life to only 710 days.[citation needed]



Ripened bananas (left, under sunlight)

fluoresce in blue when exposed to UV

light.

Bananas can be ordered by the retailer "ungassed" (i.e. not treated with ethylene), and may show up at thesupermarket fully green. "Guineo Verde", or green bananas that have not been gassed will never fully ripen beforebecoming rotten. Instead of fresh eating, these bananas are best suited to cooking, as seen in Mexican culinary

dishes.[citation needed]

A 2008 study reported that ripe bananas fluoresce when exposed toultraviolet light. This property is attributed to the degradation ofchlorophyll leading to the accumulation of a fluorescent product in theskin of the fruit. The chlorophyll breakdown product is stabilized by apropionate ester group. Banana-plant leaves also fluoresce in the sameway. Green bananas do not fluoresce. The study suggested that thisallows animals which can see light in the ultraviolet spectrum(tetrachromats and pentachromats) to more easily detect ripened

bananas.[64]

Storage and transport

Bananas must be transported over long distances from the tropics to world markets. To obtain maximum shelf life,harvest comes before the fruit is mature. The fruit requires careful handling, rapid transport to ports, cooling, andrefrigerated shipping. The goal is to prevent the bananas from producing their natural ripening agent, ethylene. Thistechnology allows storage and transport for 34 weeks at 13 C (55 F). On arrival, bananas are held at about17 C (63 F) and treated with a low concentration of ethylene. After a few days, the fruit begins to ripen and isdistributed for final sale. Unripe bananas can not be held in home refrigerators because they suffer from the

cold.[citation needed] Ripe bananas can be held for a few days at home. If bananas are too green, they can be put in

a brown paper bag with an apple or tomato overnight to speed up the ripening process.[65]

Carbon dioxide (which bananas produce) and ethylene absorbents extend fruit life even at high temperatures. Thiseffect can be exploited by packing banana in a polyethylene bag and including an ethylene absorbent, e.g.,potassium permanganate, on an inert carrier. The bag is then sealed with a band or string. This treatment has been

shown to more than double lifespans up to 34 weeks without the need for refrigeration.[66][67][68]

Production and export

Statistics on the production and export of bananas and plantains are available from the Food and AgricultureOrganization. Some countries produce statistics which distinguish between bananas and plantains, but three of thetop four producers (India, China and the Philippines) do not, so comparisons can only be made using the total forbananas and plantains combined. The 2011 statistics (see Table 1) show that India led the world in bananaproduction, producing around 20% of the worldwide crop of 145 million metric tonnes. Uganda was the nextlargest producer with around 8% of the worldwide crop. Its national data does distinguish between bananas andplantains, and shows that the latter made up over 95% of production. Ten countries produced around two thirds of

the total world production.[Note 1]

The statistics for the export of bananas and plantains show a rather different picture (see Table 2). Total worldexports at around 18 million metric tonnes amounted to only 12% of total world production; two thirds of theexports were generated by only five countries. The top three producing countries do not appear in this table, andtwo countries, Costa Rica and Guatemala, do not appear in the table of top producers. Only the Philippines has aconsistent position in both tables. Exports were dominated by Ecuador, with 29% of the world total. Statistics for



Production and export of bananas and

plantains by country (2011)[Note 1]

CountryMillions

of tonnes

Percentageof world

total

Table 1: Production

India 29.7 20%

Uganda 11.1 8%

China 10.7 7%

Philippines 9.2 6%

Ecuador 8.0 6%

Brazil 7.3 5%

Indonesia 6.1 4%

Colombia 5.1 4%

Cameroon 4.8 3%

Tanzania 3.9 3%

All other countries 49.6 34%

Total world 145.4 100%

Table 2: Exports

Ecuador 5.2 29%

Costa Rica 1.8 10%

Colombia 1.8 10%

Philippines 1.6 9%

Guatemala 1.5 8%

All other countries 6.0 34%

Total world 17.9 100%

Ecuador distinguish between bananas and plantains; 93% of its

exports were classified as bananas.[Note 1]

Bananas and plantains constitute a major staple food crop formillions of people in developing countries. In most tropicalcountries, green (unripe) bananas used for cooking represent themain cultivars. Bananas are cooked in ways that are similar topotatoes. Both can be fried, boiled, baked, or chipped and havesimilar taste and texture when served. One banana provides

about the same calories as one potato.[citation needed]

Most producers are small-scale farmers either for homeconsumption or local markets. Because bananas and plantainsproduce fruit year-round, they provide an extremely valuablefood source during the hunger season (when the food from oneannual/semi-annual harvest has been consumed, and the next isstill to come). Bananas and plantains are therefore critical toglobal food security.

Bananas have been an important source of disagreement in theDoha Round of trade talks. A study for ICTSD showed that thenew deal on EU banana import tariffs will be a boon to LatinAmerican exporters but would trigger a drop in exports of the

fruit from African, Caribbean and Pacific (ACP) countries.[69]

Bananas are among the most widely consumed foods in theworld. Most banana farmers receive a low price for theirproduce as grocery companies pay discounted prices for buyingin enormous quantity. Price competition among grocers hasreduced their margins, leading to lower prices for growers.Chiquita, Del Monte, Dole, and Fyffes grow their own bananas inEcuador, Colombia, Costa Rica, Guatemala, and Honduras.Banana plantations are capital intensive and demand significantexpertise. The majority of independent growers are large andwealthy landowners in these countries. Producers have attemptedto raise prices via marketing them as "fair trade" or Rainforest

Alliance-certified in some countries.[citation needed]

The banana has an extensive trade history starting with firms suchas Fyffes and the United Fruit Company (now Chiquita) at theend of the 19th century. For much of the 20th century, bananas and coffee dominated the export economies ofCentral America. In the 1930s, bananas and coffee made up as much as 75% of the region's exports. As late as1960, the two crops accounted for 67% of the exports from the region. Though the two were grown in similarregions, they tended not to be distributed together. The United Fruit Company based its business almost entirely onthe banana trade, because the coffee trade proved too difficult to control. The term "banana republic" has beenapplied to most countries in Central America, but from a strict economic perspective only Costa Rica, Honduras,

and Panama had economies dominated by the banana trade.[citation needed]



Banana bunches are

sometimes encased in plastic

bags for protection. The

bags may be coated with

pesticides.

The European Union has traditionally imported many of their bananas from former European Caribbean colonies,paying guaranteed prices above global market rates (see Lom Convention) As of 2005, these arrangements werein the process of being withdrawn under pressure from other major trading powers, principally the United States.The withdrawal of these indirect subsidies to Caribbean producers is expected to favour the banana producers of

Central America, in which American companies have an economic interest.[citation needed]

The United States produces few bananas. A mere 14,000 tonnes (14,000 long tons; 15,000 short tons) were

grown in Hawaii in 2001.[70] Bananas were once grown in Florida and southern California.[71]

Pests, diseases, and natural disasters

Main article: List of banana and plantain diseases

While in no danger of outright extinction, the most common edible banana cultivarCavendish (extremely popular in Europe and the Americas) could becomeunviable for large-scale cultivation in the next 1020 years. Its predecessor 'GrosMichel', discovered in the 1820s, suffered this fate. Like almost all bananas,Cavendish lacks genetic diversity, which makes it vulnerable to diseases,threatening both commercial cultivation and small-scale subsistence

farming.[72][73] Some commentators remarked that those variants which couldreplace what much of the world considers a "typical banana" are so different thatmost people would not consider them the same fruit, and blame the decline of the

banana on monogenetic cultivation driven by short-term commercial motives.[56]

Panama disease

Panama disease is caused by a fusarium soil fungus (Race 1), which enters theplants through the roots and travels with water into the trunk and leaves,producing gels and gums that cut off the flow of water and nutrients, causing theplant to wilt, and exposing the rest of the plant to lethal amounts of sunlight. Priorto 1960, almost all commercial banana production centered on "Gros Michel",

which was highly susceptible.[74] Cavendish was chosen as the replacement forGros Michel because, among resistant cultivars, it produces the highest quality fruit. However, more care is

required for shipping the Cavendish, and its quality compared to Gros Michel is debated.[citation needed]

According to current sources, a deadly form of Panama disease is infecting Cavendish. All plants are geneticallyidentical, which prevents evolution of disease resistance. Researchers are examining hundreds of wild varieties for

resistance.[74]

Tropical race 4

Tropical race 4 (TR4) is a reinvigorated strain of Panama disease first discovered in 1993. This virulent form offusarium wilt has wiped out Cavendish in several southeast Asian countries. It has yet to reach the Americas;however, soil fungi can easily be carried on boots, clothing, or tools. This is how TR4 travels and is its most likely



route into Latin America. Cavendish is highly susceptible to TR4, and over time, Cavendish is almost certain todisappear from commercial production by this disease. The only known defense to TR4 is genetic

resistance.[citation needed]

Black sigatoka

Black sigatoka is a fungal leaf spot disease first observed in Fiji in 1963 or 1964. Black Sigatoka (also known asblack leaf streak) has spread to banana plantations throughout the tropics from infected banana leaves that were

used as packing material. It affects all main cultivars of bananas and plantains (including the Cavendish cultivars[5]),impeding photosynthesis by blackening parts of the leaves, eventually killing the entire leaf. Starved for energy, fruitproduction falls by 50% or more, and the bananas that do grow ripen prematurely, making them unsuitable forexport. The fungus has shown ever-increasing resistance to treatment, with the current expense for treating 1hectare (2.5 acres) exceeding $1,000 per year. In addition to the expense, there is the question of how longintensive spraying can be environmentally justified. Several resistant cultivars of banana have been developed, but

none has yet received commercial acceptance due to taste and texture issues.[citation needed]

In East Africa

With the arrival of Black sigatoka, banana production in eastern Africa fell by over 40%. For example, during the1970s, Uganda produced 15 to 20 tonnes (15 to 20 long tons; 17 to 22 short tons) of bananas per hectare. Today,

production has fallen to only 6 tonnes (5.9 long tons; 6.6 short tons) per hectare.[citation needed]

The situation has started to improve as new disease-resistant cultivars have been developed by the InternationalInstitute of Tropical Agriculture and the National Agricultural Research Organisation of Uganda (NARO), such asFHIA-17 (known in Uganda as the Kabana 3). These new cultivars taste different from the Cabana banana, whichhas slowed their acceptance by local farmers. However, by adding mulch and manure to the soil around the base ofthe plant, these new cultivars have substantially increased yields in the areas where they have been

tried.[citation needed]

The International Institute of Tropical Agriculture and NARO, funded by the Rockefeller Foundation and CGIARhave started trials for genetically modified bananas that are resistant to both Black sigatoka and banana weevils. It

is developing cultivars specifically for smallholder and subsistence farmers.[citation needed]

Banana bunchy top virus

Banana bunchy top virus (BBTV) jumps from plant to plant using aphids. It stunts leaves, resulting in a "bunched"appearance. Generally, an infected plant does not produce fruit, although mild strains exist which allow someproduction. These mild strains are often mistaken for malnourishment, or a disease other than BBTV. There is nocure; however, its effect can be minimized by planting only tissue-cultured plants (in vitro propagation), controlling

aphids, and immediately removing and destroying infected plants.[citation needed]

Banana bacterial wilt

Banana bacterial wilt (BBW) is a bacterial disease caused by Xanthomonas campestris pv. musacearum.[75]

After being originally identified on a close relative of bananas, Ensete ventricosum, in Ethiopia in the 1960s,[76]

BBW occurred in Uganda in 2001 affecting all banana cultivars. Since then BBW has been diagnosed in Central



Bananas, raw

Nutritional value per 100 g (3.5 oz)

Energy 371 kJ (89 kcal)

Carbohydrates 22.84 g

- Sugars 12.23 g

- Dietary fiber 2.6 g

Fat 0.33 g

Protein 1.09 g

Thiamine (vit. B1) 0.031 mg (3%)

Riboflavin (vit. B2) 0.073 mg (6%)

Niacin (vit. B3) 0.665 mg (4%)

Pantothenic acid (B5) 0.334 mg (7%)

Vitamin B6 0.4 mg (31%)

Folate (vit. B9) 20 g (5%)

Choline 9.8 mg (2%)

Vitamin C 8.7 mg (10%)

Iron 0.26 mg (2%)

Magnesium 27 mg (8%)

Manganese 0.27 mg (13%)

Phosphorus 22 mg (3%)

Potassium 358 mg (8%)

Sodium 1 mg (0%)

Zinc 0.15 mg (2%)

Fluoride 2.2 g

Link to USDA Database entry(http://ndb.nal.usda.gov/ndb/search/list?

qlookup=09040&format=Full)Percentages are roughly approximatedusing US recommendations for adults.

Source: USDA Nutrient Database

(http://ndb.nal.usda.gov/ndb/search/list)

and East Africa including the banana growing regions of Rwanda, the Democratic Republic of the Congo, Tanzania,

Kenya, Burundi, and Uganda.[77]

Culture

Food and cooking

Fruit

Bananas are a staple starch for many tropical populations.Depending upon cultivar and ripeness, the flesh can vary intaste from starchy to sweet, and texture from firm to mushy.Both the skin and inner part can be eaten raw or cooked.The banana's flavor is due, amongst other chemicals, toisoamyl acetate which is one of the main constituents of

banana oil.[citation needed]

During the ripening process, bananas produce the gasethylene, which acts as a plant hormone and indirectly affectsthe flavor. Among other things, ethylene stimulates theformation of amylase, an enzyme that breaks down starchinto sugar, influencing the taste of bananas. The greener, lessripe bananas contain higher levels of starch and,consequently, have a "starchier" taste. On the other hand,yellow bananas taste sweeter due to higher sugarconcentrations. Furthermore, ethylene signals the productionof pectinase, an enzyme which breaks down the pectinbetween the cells of the banana, causing the banana to soften

as it ripens.[78][79]

Bananas are eaten deep fried, baked in their skin in a splitbamboo, or steamed in glutinous rice wrapped in a bananaleaf. Bananas can be made into jam. Banana pancakes arepopular amongst backpackers and other travelers in SouthAsia and Southeast Asia. This has elicited the expressionBanana Pancake Trail for those places in Asia that cater tothis group of travelers. Banana chips are a snack producedfrom sliced dehydrated or fried banana or plantain, whichhave a dark brown color and an intense banana taste. Driedbananas are also ground to make banana flour. Extractingjuice is difficult, because when a banana is compressed, itsimply turns to pulp. Bananas feature prominently inPhilippine cuisine, being part of traditional dishes and dessertslike maruya, turrn, and halo-halo. Most of these dishesuse the Saba or Cardaba banana cultivar. Pisang goreng,bananas fried with batter similar to the Filipino maruya, is apopular dessert in Malaysia, Singapore, and Indonesia. A



similar dish is known in the United States as banana

fritters.[citation needed]

Plantains are used in various stews and curries or cooked, baked or mashed in much the same way as

potatoes.[citation needed]

Seeded bananas (Musa balbisiana), one of the forerunners of the common domesticated banana,[80] are sold in

markets in Indonesia.[citation needed]

Flower

Banana hearts are used as a vegetable[81] in South Asian and Southeast Asian cuisine, either raw or steamed with

dips or cooked in soups, curries and fried foods.[82] The flavor resembles that of artichoke. As with artichokes,

both the fleshy part of the bracts and the heart are edible.[citation needed]

Leaves

Banana leaves are large, flexible, and waterproof. They are often used as ecologically friendly disposable foodcontainers or as "plates" in South Asia and several Southeast Asian countries. In Indonesian cuisine, banana leaf isemployed in cooking method called pepes and botok; the banana leaf packages containing food ingredients andspices are cooked on steam, in boiled water or grilled on charcoal. In the South Indian states of Tamil Nadu,Karnataka, Andhra Pradesh and Kerala in every occasion the food must be served in a banana leaf and as a part ofthe food a banana is served. Steamed with dishes they impart a subtle sweet flavor. They often serve as a wrapping

for grilling food. The leaves contain the juices, protect food from burning and add a subtle flavor.[83] In Tamil Nadu(India) leaves are fully dried and used as packing material for food stuffs and also making cups to hold liquid foods.

In Central American countries, banana leaves are often used as wrappers for tamales.[citation needed]

Trunk

The tender core of the banana plant's trunk is also used in South Asian and Southeast Asian cuisine, and notably inthe Burmese dish mohinga.

Nutrition and research

Bananas are an excellent source of vitamin B6, soluble fiber, and contain moderate amounts of vitamin C,

manganese and potassium.[84] Along with other fruits and vegetables, consumption of bananas may be associated

with a reduced risk of colorectal cancer[85] and in women, breast cancer[86] and renal cell carcinoma.[87] Bananaingestion may affect dopamine production in people deficient in the amino acid tyrosine, a dopamine precursor

present in bananas.[88][89] Individuals with a latex allergy may experience a reaction to bananas.[90]



Peeled, whole, and

longitudinal section

Kilawin na pus ng

saging, a Filipino dish

using banana flowers

Nicaraguan Nacatamales, in

banana leaves, ready to be

steamed

Kaeng yuak is a northern

Thai curry made with the

core of the banana plant

Pisang goreng fried

banana coated in batter,

popular snack in Indonesia

Banana in sweet gravy,

known as pengat pisang in

Malay. Popular along

Malaysia's east coast

Fiber

Textiles

The banana plant has long been a source of fiber for high quality textiles. In Japan, banana cultivation for clothingand household use dates back to at least the 13th century. In the Japanese system, leaves and shoots are cut fromthe plant periodically to ensure softness. Harvested shoots are first boiled in lye to prepare fibers for yarn-making.These banana shoots produce fibers of varying degrees of softness, yielding yarns and textiles with differing qualitiesfor specific uses. For example, the outermost fibers of the shoots are the coarsest, and are suitable for tablecloths,while the softest innermost fibers are desirable for kimono and kamishimo. This traditional Japanese cloth-making

process requires many steps, all performed by hand.[91]

In a Nepalese system the trunk is harvested instead, and small pieces are subjected to a softening process,mechanical fiber extraction, bleaching and drying. After that, the fibers are sent to the Kathmandu Valley for use inrugs with a silk-like texture. These banana fiber rugs are woven by traditional Nepalese hand-knotting methods,

and are sold RugMark certified.[citation needed]

In South Indian state of Tamil Nadu after harvesting for fruit the trunk (outer layer of the shoot) is made into fine

thread used in making of flower garlands instead of thread.[citation needed]



Coconut, banana and banana leaves

used while worshiping River Kaveri at

Tiruchirappalli, India.

Banana flowers and leaves for sale in

the Thanin market in Chiang Mai,

Thailand.

Paper

Main article: Banana paper

Banana fiber is used in the production of banana paper. Banana paper is made from two different parts: the bark ofthe banana plant, mainly used for artistic purposes, or from the fibers of the stem and non-usable fruits. The paper is

either hand-made or by industrial process.[citation needed]

Cultural roles

Arts

The song "Yes! We Have No Bananas" was written by FrankSilver and Irving Cohn and originally released in 1923; for many

decades, it was the best-selling sheet music in history. Since thenthe song has been rerecorded several times and has been

particularly popular during banana shortages.[92][93]

A person slipping on a banana peel has been a staple of physical

comedy for generations. A 1910 USA comedy recording featuresa popular character of the time, "Uncle Josh", claiming to describe

his own such incident:[94]

Now I don't think much of the man that throws a banana

peelin' on the sidewalk, and I don't think much of thebanana peel that throws a man on the sidewalk neither ...

my foot hit the bananer peelin' and I went up in the air, andI come down ker-plunk, jist as I was pickin' myself up alittle boy come runnin' across the street ... he says, "Oh

mister, won't you please do that agin? My little brotherdidn't see you do it."

The poet Bash is named after the Japanese word for a bananaplant. The "bash" planted in his garden by a grateful student

became a source of inspiration to his poetry, as well as a symbol of his life and home.[95]

The cover artwork for the debut album of The Velvet Underground features a banana made by Andy

Warhol. On the original vinyl LP version, the design allowed the listener to "peel" this banana to find a pink,

peeled phallic banana on the inside.[96]

Religion and popular beliefs

In Burma, bunches of green bananas surrounding a green coconut in a tray form an important part of traditional

offerings to the Buddha and the Nats.[citation needed]



Nang Tani, the female ghost

of Thai folklore that haunts

banana trees

In all the important festivals and occasions of Hindus, the serving of bananas plays a prominent part. Traditionally inTamil marriages, banana trees are tied on both sides of the entrance of houses to bless the newlyweds to be useful

to each other.[citation needed] The banana is one of three fruits with this significance, the others being mango and

jack fruit.[citation needed]

In Thailand, it is believed that a certain type of banana trees may be inhabitedby a spirit, Nang Tani, a type of ghost related to trees that manifests itself as a

young woman.[97] Often people tie a length of colored satin cloth around the

trunk of the banana tree.[98]

In Malay folklore, the ghost known as Pontianak is associated with banana

trees (pokok pisang), and its spirit is said to reside in them during the day.[99]

Other uses

Banana sap from the pseudostem, peelings or flesh may be sufficiently

sticky for adhesive uses.[citation needed]

The large leaves may be used as umbrellas.[83]

Banana peel may have capability to extract heavy metal contamination

from river water, similar to other purification materials.[100][101] In 2007,

banana peel powder was tested as a means of filtration for heavy metalsand radionuclides occurring in water produced by the nuclear andfertilizer industries (cadmium contaminant is present in phosphates).

When added and thoroughly mixed for 40 minutes, the powder can remove roughly 65% of heavy metals,

and this can be repeated.[102]

Banana peel has displayed antioxidant activity in vitro, especially from unripe extracts.[103]

See also

Fe'i bananaMusella

Notes

1. â b c The figures in the tables were derived from: "FAOSTAT"(http://faostat3.fao.org/home/index.html#DOWNLOAD). Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations.The datasets for bananas and plantains for 2011 were downloaded and combined (the two are not distinguished inmany cases). Totals and percentages were then calculated. The number of countries shown was chosen toaccount for a minimum of 66% of the world total.

References

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Further reading

Dan Koeppel, The New York Times article of June 18, 2008, "Yes, We Will Have No Bananas"(http://www.nytimes.com/2008/06/18/opinion/18koeppel.html)Harriet Lamb, "Fighting The Banana Wars and other Fairtrade Battles", ISBN 978-1-84604-083-2

External links

Banana (http://www.dmoz.org/Science/Agriculture/Horticulture/Fruits/Banana//) at the Open DirectoryProject

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