Upload
shashankdatey
View
56
Download
4
Tags:
Embed Size (px)
Citation preview
Banana cultivation
Varieties And Crop Improvement
Species And Cultivars > Amruthapani > Tella Chakkarakeli > Karpura Chakkarakeli > Bontha > Robusta > Vamanakeli > Yenugubontha >
Species And Cultivars
Species
The banana belongs to the family Musaceae. There are only two genera,
viz Ensete and Musa with about 50 species in this family. Ensete is an old
declining genus, which probably originated in Asia and spread to Africa,
has about 6-7 species, of which E.ventricosa is reported to be grown in
Ethiopia as a food crop.
Cultivars
There are about 300 recorded cultivars of banana. The important cultivars
are described below.
Poovan (Tamil Nadu)
The plant is tall, hardy and grows vigorously under
the ratooning system of cultivation. It is a true
cosmopolitan cultivar growing with equal vigour
both in India and the West Indies.
One of the distinguishing characters of the plant is the rose-pink colour on the outer side of midrib. It can grow under unirrigated condition or with scanty irrigation.
The fruit is medium to small, yellow skinned,
firm fleshed with a sub-acid taste. It has a
good keeping quality. It is resistant to Panama
wilt and fairly resistant to bunchy top disease.
The average bunch weight is about 15 kg.
Kanchkela (West Bengal)
This is the most important commercial culinary banana cultivar of India.
The plant is tall, robust, light green, very hardy and grows under
unirrigated condition. Average bunch weight is about 15 kg. In Tamil
Nadu, the ripe fruit is also popular.
Dwarf Cavendish
It is the leading commercial cultivar of Maharashtra.
The plant is dwarf, fruits large, curved, skin thick and
greenish, flesh soft and sweet.
The greenish colour of the fruit is retained to some extent even after
ripening, but fruits ripen during the winter season develop yellow colour. It
is susceptible to bunchy top and leaf spot disease but resistant to Panama
Wilt. The keeping quality of fruit is, however, not good. A bunch on an
average weighs about 20 kg.
Harichal
Bombay green (Maharashtra), Peddapachaarati (Andhra Pradesh), Robusta (Tamil Nadu). It is a semi-tall sport of Dwarf Cavendish. It is another important commercial banana of Maharashtra. Fruits are large, skin thick, greenish to dull yellow, sweet and delicious. The fruits have better keeping quality than that of Dwarf Cavendish. Average bunch weight is about 20 kg.
Martaman (West Bengal)
Musa (AAB) group-Syn. Rasthali (Tamil Nadu), Mutheli (Maharashtra),
Malbhog (Bihar), Amruthapani (Andhra Pradesh), Rassabale (Karnataka),
Sonkel (Kerala), Silkfig (Trinidad).
It is the choicest table cultivar of West Bengal. The plant is tall and can be
identified by the yellowish green stem with brownish blotches, reddish
margins of the petiole and leaf sheath. The average bunch weight is about
12 kg. fruits are medium-sized and similar to that of Poovan in
appearance, skin thin, ivory-yellow in colour, flesh firm, sweet with a
pleasant aroma. Its cultivation is decreasing due to susceptibility to
Panama wilt. The other demerits are easy dropping of ripe fruits from the
bunch and formation of hard lumps in the pulp.
Hill Banana
Musa (AAB) group-Virupakshi Syn. Mala vazhai. The hill banana is a
speciality of Tamil Nadu. These are perennial bananas of high quality.
There are two main types: Sirumalai and Virupakshi. Fruits of Sirumalai
have better taste compared with Virupakshi. The average bunch weight is
about 12 kg.
Nendran (Kerala)
This cultivar is known in all parts of the world as
plantain. This is a dual-purpose cultivar of Kerala. It
has very good keeping quality.
The fruit is relatively longer and thicker than most
other bananas. The bunch is not compact. The
average bunch weight is 15 kg.
Safed Velchi
It is under stray cultivation throughout South India and Maharashtra and
mostly grown as intercrop in coconut and arecanut garden. The plants are
medium-sized with slender, yellowish pseudostem having reddish petiole
margin. The fruits are small, firm-fleshed and sweet. The average bunch
weight is about 12 kg.
Lalkela (Maharashtra)
This cultivar is grown throughout the world. The colour of the pseudostem
petiole, midrib and fruit peel is purplush red. The fruit is of good size and
has a characteristic aroma. Average bunch weight is 20 kg.
Kunnan (Kerala)
This is a quality cultivar of Kerala. The plants are
medium-sized and slender. Fruits with firm pulp,
taste well.
Gros Michel
Among the dessert banana cultivars of the world, Gros
Michel occupied the first rank in desirable fruit
characters, such as size, quality, flavour, attractive
skin colour, resistance to bruising, grade yield,
symmetry and strength of bunch. The most serious
demerit of this cultivar is its susceptibility to wilt.
Giant Governor
Musa (AAA) group-Cultivation of this cultivar is gaining popularity in West
Bengal. The plant is medium-dwarf, fruits large, greenish to dull yellow in
colour, flesh firm and sweet. A bunch on an average weighs about 15 kg.
the cultivar Amruthapani (Rastali, Pedda Sugandam)
Wt. In Kg
No.of fruits
No.of hands
Duration
Spacing
p 12
p80-100
p 8-10
p 13-14
p 2.0X2.0 m
is susceptible to leaf spot (sigatoka) but resistant to wilt.
Characteristics
This is a choice table fruit. The plant suckers moderately and is medium
tall and does not bear heavily.
The fruit is better in size to Poovan more rounded with a glossy green
colour and the tip is less pronounced.
The rind is thin and develops an ivory yellow colour when ripe. The flesh is
white, rather firm but tasty with a characteristic flavour.
Occasionally hard lumps develop in the pulp which is a drawback. It is
highly resistant to Leaf Spot but very susceptible to 'Panama' disease.
It is exported to Orissa and West Bengal. It is suitable for the entire State.
But it is not grown in Rayalaseema and Telangana Regions. Climate And Soils
Climate > Soils >
Climate
The major banana-growing areas of the world
are geographically situated between the
equator and latitudes 200 North and 200 South.
Conditions in this area are mainly tropical, with
temperature fluctuations from day to night
and from summer to winter being
comparatively small.
Banana is essentially a humid tropical plant, coming up well in regions with a
temperature range of 10° C to 40° C and an average of 23° C. In cooler climate
the duration is extended, sucker production is affected and bunches are smaller.
The growth of the banana plant responds quickly, within a matter of an hour or
two to changes in air temperature. All growth ceases as soon as the temperature
of the surrounding air falls below 11° C.
As long as the temperature remains 11° C, no growth whatsoever takes place. As
the air temperature rises above 11° C growth starts and the growth rate
increases gradually at first, and then with rising temperatures, more and more
rapidly.
The biggest increase in growth rate for every degree that the temperature rise
appears to lie between approximately 19° C and 23° C.
The daily growth at 23° C is, in fact, about double that at 19° C. With further rise
in temperature, the growth continues to increase, but more and more slowly as
high levels of temperature are reached. In the experiments conducted, no falling
off or even leveling off of the growth rate was observed,.
Banana is cultivated under different conditions in India.
Temperature, Rainfall and Latitude details of banana growing states in India.
State Latitude ° N Temp° C Region Rainfall (Cm)
Andhra Pradesh 16-18 16-43 Coastal 100
Telangana 81
Rayalaseema 68
Assam 25-27 16-38 - 252
Bihar 22-25 10-46 - 137
Karnataka 14-28 13-18 Coastal 326
South 124
North 69
Kerala 10-14 16-38 - 301
Maharashtra 19-22 13-41 - 92
Tamil Nadu 10-12 16-41 - 102
Uttar Pradesh 25-28 7-43 East 102
West 96
Bananas can be grown from sea level to an altitude of 1200 metres. The 'hill
bananas' of Tamil Nadu are raised between elevations of 500 to 1500 metres
mostly under rainfed conditions.
The wind prone areas cause devastating damage to the banana plantations by
toppling down the plants due to pseudostem breakage. Similarly, bananas cannot
withstand frost to any extent. So, at higher elevations the low temperatures
prevailing cause delayed cropping and slow growth.
In coastal areas of Andhra Pradesh and Tamil Nadu the cyclonic wind damages
the plantations. Hence it is advisable to select areas where mean temperature is
around 25-30° C with a mean annual rainfall of 100 mm per month.
Effects of low Winter temperatures
The problems which result in a banana plantation from low winter temperatures
serve to only emphasize the importance of adequate heat as a factor, in banana
production.
The most important of these are 'choke throat' 'November dump' and frost
damage.
Choke throat
Bunch bursting through pseudostem
Low winter temperatures greatly reduce
vegetative growth of the banana plant. During
the coldest months, the leaf emergence and
number of leaves produced are affected.
The top hands become trapped in the throat of the plant
The elongation of the leaf internodes is reduced.
This reduction in length of the internodes causes
a constriction at the throat of the plant and
combined with the correspondingly reduced
elongation of the internodes of the bunch stem,
makes it difficult for the bunch to emerge
through the throat.
This condition is referred to as 'choke throat' and the trapped bunches which are
exposed to the sun are also called "sun lookers".
This is a major problem with Dwarf Cavendish. Flowering during the winter period
can result in considerable losses, especially during colder years. Severely
chocked bunches should be cut down to let the follower develop faster.
November dump
Cold temperatures also have a marked effect on bunch development. When the flower initiation occurs during the winter, a characteristically a peculiar bunch can be expected.
The November dump bunch is small and composed of
hands of uneven size and often deformed fruits. The
smaller fingers on the hands are, in many cases, fuller at
the flower end and thinner at the stalk end.
The flower end is often black, rough and cracked and
during a good rainy season, fungal diseases further
damage these fruits.
Another common symptom is the cone-shaped protuberance at the flower end.
This protuberance is pale green in colour. The amount of misshapen fruit as
November-emerging bunches varies from year to year.
It must be stressed that November dump symptoms are caused by cold
temperatures and they are not mineral deficiency or drought symptoms. A good
orchard practice is to cut down all the plants producing severe November dumps.
Soils
Banana comes up in relatively wide range of soil
conditions. Two important factors to
be looked into are the soil
depth and drainage. Soils of atleast 50 cm depth, well
drained, fertile lands are necessary for banana cropping.
Soils of Banana growing states in India
State Soil Type
Maharashtra
Coastal Areas
Plains
Sandy soil
Black cotton soil
Tamil Nadu
Cauveri Delta
Hill slopes
Clay soil; Alluvial
Loamy type
Central India
Gangetic delta Alluvial soil
Andhra Pradesh Alluvial, clay
Kerala
Coastal area
Plain & Low hill slope
Sandy loam tract
Red laterite
Bananas can grow well in slightly alkaline soils, but saline soils with salinity
exceeding 0.05 per cent are unsuitable. In alkaline soil wilt disease is less
prevalent.
The physical condition of soils on which bananas are cultivated is very important,
since root development is determined chiefly by the degree of aeration of the soil.
In poorly aerated soils, that is soils which have compacted as a result of poor
structure, or badly drained soils which are over irrigated, there is a marked
decrease in root development.
Season of Planting
The season of planting of banana varies between the various states. In most parts the colder seasons
of the year are unsuitable for planting.
In West Coast, planting is done from September to November, when irrigation facilities are available.
Planting is done all the year round in order to secure better prices during the off season.
In other areas planting is done during South west monsoon in May-June, and continues thereafter till
November. Bontha and Mauritius and for Poovan the best time is November to January because it has
a longer duration.
Planting in cold season is a problem and great care is to be given for irrigating the crop in summer and
also it exposes the plants to high winds or cyclone damage during bunch season.
In Kerala, where Nendrans are cultivated as pure crop planting is done in September-October. On the
Lower Palneys, including Sirumalai April planting is preferred. February-March is the best planting
season in wet lands along the Cauvery bank as in Trichy. But in the perennial plantations in Tanjore,
planting is done from January to June.
October-November is considered to be the best time. They suggested that the rapid progress of plant
growth during the four months of the monsoon is particularly helpful in plants in building up their
growth and establishing themselves in advance of the setting of cold weather in November, when
growth is retarted.
The best time for planting in Karnataka, Andhra Pradesh and Orissa is by the end of the June and in
West Bengal, Bihar and Assam planting could be done at any time during the South West monsoon,
when the rains are not too heavy.
The planting should not be taken up during very cold and very hot months. Similarly, that planting
season should be so adjusted that during the period of high winds, banana should not be in flower or
near flowering stage. The period of planting should be so adjusted that active growth phase of the
plants can continue unhampered during flower bud initiation stage.
In view of the divergence of climatic and soil conditions in our country, bananas are grown all through
the year, while the peak seasons vary in different parts of the country. Different planting seasons
adopted in different states are given below.
Variety and Planting seasons in different States in India
States Variety Season of planting
Maharashtra Robusta August-December
Tamil Nadu
Poovan
April-December
Rasthali
Hill bananas
Kerala
Rasthali
Nendran
November-January
May-September
West Bengal
August-December
March-April
Bihar
July-October
Andhra Pradesh
December-April ( East Godavari)
August-September (West Godavari)
Gujarat
August-January
Assam
May-September
Karnataka
April-June
September-March
Tripura
August & September
Fruits from rhizomes planted in April took two weeks longer for development than those planted in May
Planting Materials
The nature of banana plant has made it imperative that reproduction be
accomplished by vegetative means, since most commercially grown
bananas are vegetatively parthenocarpic and effectively seed sterile.
There are certain problems in propagation of banana plant.
Planting materials (Sucker) are more bulkier and difficult for transport
Proper identification of clones in younger stages may not be possible
Rapid multiplication methods are required to produce more plants from an
achieved hybrid
Disease free and disease resistance seed materials have to be produced.
Besides the above, there are factors like soil, climate, temperature, manuring, size age, type etc., which may adversely affect the
Bananas planted in March/April made better growth and gave higher yields than those planted upto
December. Flowering occurred in less than 300 days after planting in March/April.
Growth and flower bud differentiation and fruit development were adversely affected, when the
average temperature was below 750 F.
Sprouting of rhizomes was inhibited when the monthly average maximum temperature went above 980
F. Six months old rhizomes were better planting material than two month old rhizomes.
propagation of the plants.
In banana, the material commonly used for planting is
sucker. Sword suckers have a well-developed base with
narrow sword-shaped leaf blades at the early stages.
The second type is the water sucker with broad leaves,
which do not produce a healthy banana clump.
Planters throughout the world usually plant sturdy and
healthy sword suckers.
Suckers of 3 months old well developed, disease free
corms are seperated from the mother plant and planted
for starting a new plantation.
Sword suckers having strong base, gradually tappering to a slender point
with one or two narrow sword like leaves at the tip are preferred for
planting, since it grows faster and comes to bearing early compared to
water suckers.
Suckers from high yielding and healthy plant crop are selected. The
suckers are cleared of old roots over the corm, and can be stored in a cool
dry place under shade of a tree for a week.
Planting Distance
Plant population per unit area depends on cultivar, topography, soil
fertility, various aspects of management and duration of plantation etc.
In general, tall cultivators are given wider spacing than the dwarf ones.
High density planting may be practiced in mono-crop culture, while wider
spacing is advocated for ratoon crop.
Tall cultivars 9 feet x 10 feet
Dwarf cultivars 6 feet x 6 feet
Cultivar Recommended spacing
Robusta 1.0 x 2.0 m
Jahaji of Assam 1.2 x 2.0 m
Nendran 1.2 x 1.5 m
Dwarf cavendish 1.5 x 1.5 m
Karpura chakrakeli 2.0 x 2.0 m
Pedda pacha arati 1.8 x 1.8 m
Vamanakeli 1.4 x 1.4
For intercropping 3 x 1.5 m
A density of 4,500 plants/ha is practiced in Maharashtra and Gujarat
The palnt to palnt distance is 1.2 m , row to row ddistance is 1.5 m and
between row to row is 2.0 m . considering the per hactare yield , net
returns and quality of fruit spacing of 1.5 X 1.5 m corresponding to a plant
population of 4,444 /ha was found to be optimum.
The maximum profit in Dwarf Cavendish banana when spaced at 2m x 2m
or 2.5m x 2.5 m. Closer spacing also produced higher yield of fruits.
From a trial with Robusta banana spaced at 2.4 m x 1.8 m and 2.4 m x
2.4m, the highest yield was obtained with a spacing 2.4 m x 1.8m. Though
there was higher yield in high density planting, the growth was found to
be slower and shooting was delayed.
Finger tip disease was severe in close planting. In high density plantation
nearly 30 percent of the plants could not be harvested in time
Preparing Suckers And Planting Material
If any damage is noticed to the corm of the sucker at the time of
seperation of the suckers from the mother plant, the damaged portion of
the corm may be clearly sliced off.
The top portion of the pseudostem of the suckers may be gven a slant cut
leaving six to nine inches psuedostem over the corm.
This will fecilitate easy draining of plant sap, rainn water, leading to
successful establishment of the suckers.
But in coastal Andhra Pradesh the top portion of the sucker is retained
while planting and deheaded to 2/3 size in about 20 days when growth is
visible to maintain uniform height of the plantation.
All the old roots of the rhizome should also be trimmed. The suckers thus
prepared should be dipped in 0.1% Ceresan at the rate of 1g in one litre
solution for five minutes and then planted.
In areas of endemic for banana stem weevil, they should also be treated
with 0.1% metasystox solution
Only flat lands or lightly slopy lands can be selected for planting of
banana. When banana is grown on hill slopes, soil conservation methods
like bench terracing or contour bunding based on the gradient have to be
necessarly adopted.
Banana suckers should not be planted either too deep or too shallow. The
suckers must be planted in the centre of the pit in such a way that the
corm and another two inches of the pseudostem over it should submerge
in the soil.
Press the soil arround the sucker to avoid air spaces, to give firm stand to
the stem and for better sprouting of the suckers.
Suckers must be grouped according to their size and then planted.
Gapfilling
Generally the banana suckers strikes roots within 10-15 days after
planting, even after 15 days if there are no roots to the planted suckers it
means it has died.
Inspite of all precautions taken, some suckers may fail to sprout. This may
be due to defective planting or defective plant material or defective
irrigation. So, one should go around after 15 days in banana gardens and
search for the causalities.
All such causalities should immediately be gap filled with fresh sword
suckers. Maintaining optimum population for unit area always leads to
higher yields.
So all gaps in the banana plantation must be filled with fresh suckers with
in 20 days. This will also ensure fair uniformity in the stand of the crop.
Micro-propagation
Rapid multiplication of banana suckers has been engaging the attention of scientists since a very long
time. There is a problem when a new clone is being generated for extended cultivation or when a large
amount of planting material of a specific pathogen tolerant clone is to be distributed to the growers.
The prevalence of disease problems and the need for generating clean planting stock in large
quantities have stimulated recently a surge of interest in the production of banana clones raised
though aseptic micropropagation techniques.
Shoot tips isolated from the rhizomes were found suitable for platelet production in vitro. Shoot tips
with several older sheathing leaf bases enclosing the axillary buds regenerated multiple pantalets.
Individual shootlet when separated and subcultured, produced a new crop of multiple shoots.
Each plant cell has the potential to generate into a single plant. This is called Totipotency and when
this character is involved into rapid and mass multiplication of propagules at optimum levels is called
Micropropagation.
This is an alternate to slow vegetative plant propagation.
In Tissue Culture when a group of undifferentiated and meristamatically active cell called tissue is
aseptically disserted out and put into a medium containing nutrient and incubated under conducive
controlled conditions of light and temperature, it establish it self and starts growth.
This is called Culture and the concept of 'tissue culture'.
Tissue culture involved following stages
Preparation of Stock plant
The elite plants are selected and maintained under hygenic conditions (by spraying fungicide,
bactericide and insecticide) and then the plant parts are taken for initiation.
Initiation (Stage-I)
The innermost tissue of surface sterilised plant in dissected aseptically and put an to the medium of
growth, Medium contains major and miner elements, same vitamins. Amino acids and growth
promoting hormones, solidified by agar.
Multiplication (Stage II)
Shooting and Rooting (Stage III)
Root Organogenesis
After multiplication, the single shoots are separated
and placed into a shooting are rooting medium. At
this stage the hormones may or may not be
required.
The shoot elongates and new root came up. Rooting
takes place within 3-4 weeks.
Hardening (Stage IV)
Complete Plantlet
It involves acclimatisation of bottle grown
plants to the natural environment in Green
House.
The plants are taken out of the bottle and the
media adhering to the root system in washed
fully.
After wards the plants are graded as per their
size and then transferred singly to wells of
portrays containing sterile medium (a mixture
of peat moss and perlite).
The whole portray with plants is maintained under high humidity conditions for a couple of weeks and
there after the portrays are kept in open in the Green House under controlled temperature and
humidity.
This hardening taken 6 weeks and is called primary hardening - Regular sprays of plant protection
chemicals are sprayed to achieve good hygenic condition of the plants.
Established Plantlet
Phosphorous
Phosphorus helps to produce healthy rhizome and a strong root system. It
also influences flower setting and general vegetative growth.
The deficiency of P causes complete cessation of elongation, at a height of
about two feet rosetting of leaves with older leaves becoming increasingly
irregularly necrotic, leaf production is reduced, and marginal chlorosis and
premature death are caused.
Dose :
40-60 g/plant
Entire quantity of phosphorus fertiliser should be applied at the time of
last ploughing or applied at the time of filling the pits.
Introduction
Banana root system spreads in the top 60 cm soil. Being an exhaustive
crop, proper manuring and fertilizer application has to be resorted to in
obtaining good yields.
The choice of fertilizers, the dosage of nutrients, time of application etc.
varies widely with respect to agroclimatic regions and varieties.
The effects of proper fertilization of banana are
increase of the crop yield by the improvement of grading, or of weight of
bunch,
reduction in crop duration
increasing the number of marketable good quality bunches per hectare,
and
Improvement in quality, with physical and chemical characters leading to
high return to farmers.
Nitrogen
Nitrogen is the chief promoter of growth. It induces the vegetative growth
of pseudostem and leaves giving them desired healthy green colour.
A healthy robust vegetative frame is an essential pre-requisite for high
yields and nitrogen is mainly responsible for such a vegetative frame.
Banana plants which have not received N produce only seven leaves
against 17 leaves produced by banana plants supplied with adequate N.
If N is deficient in bananas the leaves take 23 days for unfolding against
10 days for the leaves of banana supplied with N.
It was observed that greater the number of healthy and large leaves
produced during the first 4-6 months, larger will be the size of fruit bunch,
N influences the longitudinal growth of petioles.
Nitrogen increases the bunch grade, and sucker production. Nitrogen
deficiency causes slow growth and paler leaves with reduced leaf area and
rate of leaf production.
Leaf petioles short, thin and compressed, thin profuse roots and lesser
number of suckers are produced due to lack of N. Phosphorus uptake is
higher due to N deficiency.
Nitrogen fertilization
Statewise fertilizer recommendations for banana
Mode of application of nitrogen
Nitrogen should be applied in five split doses. Nitrogen is to be applied in
five split doses one at the time of planting
o 2nd 45 days after planting (DAP)
o 3rd - 90 DAP
o 4th - 135 DAP
o 5th - 180 DAP
For banana if 25 % nitrogen is applied in organic farm and remaining
State Spacing (m)
N (g) P2O5 (g) K2O (g) FYM (Kg/pl)
(per plant)
Andaman &
Nicobar 2 x 2 160 160 280
Andhra Pradesh 2 x 2 200 0 200
Arunachal
Pradesh 2 x 2 180 100 225 20
Assam 1.8 x 2.4 110 35 330 12
Bihar 2 x 2 125 80 225 9
Goa
75 75 240
Gujarat 1.8 x 1.8 or 1.2
x 1.2 180 90 180 10-15
Karnataka (DC)
(Robusta)
Others
1.8 x 1.8
2.2 x 2.2
2 x 2
540
405
400
325
245
240
675
507
500
40 t/ha
40 t/ha
40 t/ha
Kerala
Nendran(irrg.)
Palayankonda
(Rain)
Others
2 x 2
2.2 x 1.8
2.2 x 2.2
190
100
160
115
200
160
300
400
320
10
10
10
Maharashtra 1.5 x 2.5 600 720 600 100 cart-load/ha
Mizoram 2 x 2 100 50 300 10-20 kg
Orissa 1.8 x 2.0 80 32 90
Tamil Nadu
1.8 x 1.8
(garden land)
1.5 x 1.5 (wet
land)
110
110
35
35
330
330
10 kg
10 kg
Uttar Pradesh 2-3 m 200 100 250
West Bengal
Robusta
Cavendish
Champa
2.4 x 2.4
1.8 x 1.8
3 x 3
140
90
140
35
35
50
90
90
120
10-15 kg
10-15 kg
20
Potassium
Stimulates early shooting and significantly shortens the time required for
fruit maturity. It improves bunch grade, and size of fingers. The quality of
the fruits is also improved by potassium.
Deficiency of potassium causes marked reduction in growth, interval
between the production of new leaves become longer and leaves are
profusely smaller, premature yellowing of plant.
Once the potassium contained in the storage organs is exhausted, deficiency symptoms appear suddenly starting with a yellowing of the tips and distal margins of older leaves, closely followed by necrosis and dessication.
The yellowing and necrosis spread rapidly
in a proximal direction until the whole leaf
has withered standing in a normal position.
Fruits are badly shaped, poorly filled and unsuitable
for marketing.
Splits develop parallel to the secondary veins and
the lamina folds downwards, while the midrib bends
and fractures, leaving the distal half of the leaf
hanging.
Purplish brown patches appear at the base of the petioles and in severe
cases the centre of the corm may show areas of brown, water soaked
disintegrated cell structures.
Dose :
200-300 g/plant
Mode of application of potassium
Potassium should be applied in split doses. Potassium is to be applied in
five split doses one at the time of planting
o 2nd 45 days after planting (DAP)
o 3rd - 90 DAP
o 4th - 135 DAP
o 5th - 180 DAP
Micronutrients
Zinc
Zinc deficiency is found in banana when it grows in zinc deficient soils.
Narrow pointed and chlorite young leaves,Bunch top crowns are the
symptoms of zinc deficiency
Application of 50 g/plant zinc sulphate at the time of planting is
recommended or foliar application of zinc sulphate at 3 g/litre + urea (5g
per litre) + 10 ml non ionic sticker in 20 litres of water. The above
prepared solution is sprayed at 45 and 60 days after planting.
For ratoon crop 45 days after cutting the mother plant.
Boron
Deficincy of boron may results in reduction in weight and size of the bunch
and it will effects the proper filling of the bunch.
For boran deficiency apply 20 g borax per litre at the time of planting of
spray boric acid at 0.2 % in 4th of 5th month after planting.
Iron
Iron deficiency has been recorded in alkaline soils and is identified by
interveinal chlorosis of young leaves.
Application of iron sulphate will correct the iron deficiency.
Magnesium
Magnesium deficiency symptoms show green
banding around the margin and next to the midrib.
Spraying magnesium sulphate 2 g/l of water
effectively corrects the deficiency.
Water Management
Irrigation > Scheduling Of Irrigation >
Irrigation
Water requirement of banana varies according to topography, soil,
climate, cultivar and type of culture. If there is no rain, the plants should
be irrigated immediately after planting. The soil in banana plantation
should not be allowed to dry completely
Bananas are grown both as a rainfed crop and as an irrigated crop in India.
Wherever the adequate rainfall is not available, banana growers resort to
supplement it with irrigation.
Proper water management is essential for obtaining good yields in
commercial banana.
In olden days, bananas were irrigated by using flooding system or basin
irrigation system wherein, depending upon the moisture retention
capacity of the soil, irrigation is scheduled as once in 3 days, twice in a
week, once in a week likewise.
Banana being a mesophyte, requires a huge amount of water because of
the large foliage area and moisture content of the pseudostem. The
consumptive use of water increased with increase in the available soil
moisture level.
The total water requirement varied from 1841 mm to 2150 mm for the
various conditions. The per day consumption of water varied from 4.81 to
6.11 mm.
The daily water consumption was greater at higher moisture regimes. The
total number of irrigation ranged from 22 to 78 for the various treatments.
Maintenance of high soil moisture level required frequent irrigation with
less quantity of water per irrigation, whereas, the low moisture regimes
required less number of irrigations with more quantity of water for each
irrigation.
Maintenance of a high soil moisture range between 60 and 80 per cent of
available soil moisture may be considered optimum for economic
production of banana.
The height and girth of the pseudostem, total leaf area and number of
leaves per plant at shooting increased significantly with increase in
available soil moisture level. The phylachron (the time interval between
the production of successive leaves) was high under dry conditions.
Sucker production was not significantly influenced by the various
treatments. The bunch weight and the characters associated with it were
significantly increased with increasing soil moisture availability.
Total soluble solids, reducing sugars, total sugars and acidity of fruits
increased significantly with dry soil conditions. Irrigation at 20 per cent
depletion of available soil moisture significantly advanced the shooting.
The shooting to harvest interval was shortened with frequent irrigations.
The total crop duration was extended with decreasing moisture
availability.
The density of roots of banana palms subjected to different irrigation
levels revealed that the mass of roots was not much affected by moisture
stress, though a slight increase in number of roots was observed with
higher moisture stress.
The dry weight of roots increased with decrease in the available soil
moisture which may be the result of increased number of root production
and total root length.
Delay in irrigation for banana results in delay in bunch formation, delay in maturity of bunch Intercultural Operations
Weed Control > Desuckering > Male Bud Removal > Propping > Trimming > Bunch Covering >
Weeding
Weeds are a menace in any cropping system. In a crop like banana, where
the entire crop depends on the surface soil for its nutrition and water
requirements, weed of any sort will be of deleterious effect to the crop.
The weeds compete with the main crop for nutrients and moisture. They
at times also harbour pests of banana.
The luxurious weed growth in any banana fields will reduce the yield by
way of reduction of bunch weight, grade of bunches, etc. Hence in banana
plantations, periodical weeding is taken up to have a clean cultivation.
Weeding is done either through a light digging of surface soil, by mulching
Irrigation Schedule
Irrigate the plants immediately after planting. After that irrigate at weekly intervels for about 35-40
times.
Rainfall requiement for banana growing areas should be 1500-2000 mm. In summer irrigate for every 5-10 days depending up on the type of soil.
Irrigation through drip system will
induce early bunch formation and
arround 40-45% water can be
saved. Drip system has to be
operated daily for 2-3 1/2 hours.
or by manual weeding. Presently, in commercial banana gardens,
weedicides, are also used extensively to control the weeds.
One Dalapon and Eleven Paraquat sprays controlled weed effectively in
banana plot.
Pre-emergence application of Diuron at 4kg a.i/ha was effective in
checking both monocot and dicot weed growth. Diuron treatment did not
reduce banana quality.
Among the post-emergence sprays, the combination of Diuron and
Gramaxone at 4 kg/ha and 1.5 l/ha gave good control of weed population.
Desuckering
Bananas are vegetatively propagated through the suckers, which are
produced from the auxiliary buds of the underground rhizome, once the
plant crop attains maturation.
The suckers produced by different varieties vary in number. The time of
sucker production by parent plant is that more than half the number of
total suckers produced by a plant is produced since flowering of the
mother plant.
Some suckers are produced three or four months before flowering also. In
a pure crop of banana, where single crop is only taken, usually all the
suckers, which arise before flowering are removed as it will compete with
mother plant for nutrients resulting in reduction of bunch size.
Hence suckers which are produced by the plant in excess, or out of place
are removed periodically to ensure better growth and bunch development
of mother plant.
This is an important operation in growing of bananas. In perennial system
of banana culture, the 'setting of followers' at proper time will ensure good
ratoon crop to the banana growers.
In Tamil Nadu, it is a practice to pour kerosene into cavity left after
digging the suckers. In case of hill bananas, unwanted suckers are
removed after heading off and killing them by pouring kerosene (5-10 ml
per sucker) over the cut surface of the sucker.
While using kerosene, it should be avoided to treat suckers, which arise on
the corm above ground level and have no root system. These suckers are
entirely dependent on the parent plant and the kerosene may move back
into the sap stream and injure it.
The best method of handling these suckers is to cut off level with the
parent corm.
Desuckering of bananas by using chemicals like, 2, 4-D is also found to be
in use. A pruning paste consisting of a mixture of 2, 4-D, fuel oil and
grease may also be applied for desuckering.
Setting of followers for ratooning
Removal of all suckers upto flowering of the plant and maintaining only
one follower afterwards is the best desuckering practice.
Ordinarily daughter sucker commences to appear from the base of the
plants from about the third month of planting, but in suckers carelessly
removed as to include large slices of rhizomes, some buds may shoot up
to form new suckers even earlier than above period.
Removal of male bud
The part of the inflorescence which consists of male flowers only, is
invariably termed in different parts of the world as male bud, heart, or
Navel. This has apparently no comprehensible function or value in the
normal bunch formation or development.
Therefore, the male bud is more often pruned off in many places, where
intensive and efficient cultivation is practiced, obviously with the belief
that the removal of unwanted growth may favour better bunch
development.
In one of the commercial variety Karpura Chakkrakeli Male bud was
removed (12-15 days after shooting) soon after the completion of bunch
formation, leaving a 5cm length of a barren axis. It was found that pruning
the male bud had resulted in some increase in both the length and
circumference of the fruit.
In respect of mean duration from shooting to maturity, there was
reduction of light days in the pruned plants.
In the case of yield also, there was a significant increase of 0.9kg in the
mean bunch weight of pruned plants which worked out to 7.5 per cent
increase in yield.
Other advantages in pruning the male bud include extra monetary returns
by sale of male buds which are used as vegetable.
It was observed that the banana thrips which attack the fruit and cause
unsightly brown freckling on the fruit, live and breed in the male buds in
large numbers.
When the bunches are nucleus foci for further infection. The removal of
the male buds obviously results in less damage from this pest.
In Dwarf Cavendish whenever the male bud was allowed to grow, it
delayed the harvest by 18 days.
The bunches in which male bud was removed, were heavier by three
kilograms over the un removed plants
Propping of Banana plants
One of the important problems facing banana growers is the lodging of plants with mature or immature bunches during heavy winds and cyclones. The plants are uprooted or broken at the middle resulting in heavy losses to the growers.
Plant supported with bamboos
To overcome this problem, the plants have to be
propped with bamboos or caesarian poles. Single
props are given. The top of the prop is placed
against the throat of the plant, under the
curvature of the bunch stem.
It is important that the prop itself is clear of the
bunch to prevent fruit injury. Double props consist
of two poles of equal length and tied together. The
legs are spread to form a V at the top, in which the
bunch stem is held.
Top
Trimming of leaves and care of Banana bunches
Leaf trimming is an important operation for controlling certain leaf
diseases and for promoting light penetration.
Trimming is the removal of the dead leaves that hang down the sides of
the pseudostem. It is very important that only the dead and diseased
leaves are cut and removed and not the still green leaves that often hang
down the side of the pseudostem.
By removing those green leaves, the photosynthetic area is reduced and
the final bunch size is affected.
Leaf removal may be done throughout the growing season. By keeping the
plantation clean, more light and heat are available for promoting plant
growth.
Further advantages of removing dead and dried leaves are that the
potential dangers of fruit injury and disease infection are reduced.
Bunch covering
Bagging is a cultural technique used by planters in
the French West Indies, Latin America, Africa,
Australia, etc., particularly, where export bananas
are grown.
The main purposes are the protection of bunches
against cold, sun scorching, against attack of thrips
and scarring beetle.
It also improves certain visual qualities of the fruits. Bunch covering with
dry leaves is a common practice in India, which, however, may be a
source of inoculum for post harvest diseases.
Earthing up
Earthing up should be done during the rainy season to provide drainage,
and to avoid waterlogging at the base. During summer and winter, the
plants should be in furrow and on ridges during rainy season. Disease Management
Introduction > Anthracnose > Dimond Spot > Brown Spot > Cigar End Or Tip Rot > Sigatoka Leaf Spot > Panama Wilt > Bacterial Soft Rot > Bacterial Wilt Or Moko > Bunchy Top > Infectious Chlorosis >
Introduction
Banana is much more vulnerable to disease than to the insect pests. The
diseases often occur in epidemic proportions and bring about catastrophic
losses.
Among the diseases, the banana wilt ranks first. In addition to fungal
diseases, the bunchy top virus has created a situation of a dismal future
for the banana industry.
Top
Fungal Diseases Of Post-Harvest-Fruits
Anthracnose:
Gloeosporium musarum
Severe during June-September when temperatures are high accompanied
by rain. Attack plants at any growth stage.
Both green and ripe fruits are attacked, however, ripe fruits are more
susceptible to the disease.
Symptoms
Infection of green fruits, flowers and distal end of hands show circular black, sunken spots surrounded by yellow halos later convening the entire fruit resulting in premature ripening.
Black spots on Fruit
Ripe fruits develop symptoms from the tip as
minute, circular dark brown sunken spots
invading the entire tip which becomes black.
A pinkish fungus sporulation is produced in the
black, sunken areas of fruit.
Control
Spraying Chlorothalonil 2 g/I at 15 days interval is effective in minimising
later infections.
Careful harvesting, clean packing, refrigeration at 100C after harvest, fruit
dip in aqueous solution of Benomyl at 1000 ppm or aureofungin 100 ppm
help in reducing blemishes on fruits.
Top
Diamond Spot: Cercospora hayi, Fusarium spp
Symptoms
The spot is black, sunken, diamond-shaped lesion, very much confusing
with pitting disease.
Diamond spot is prevalent after prolonged rainy season.
Control
Plantation sanitation, good drainage and proper spacing reduce the
incidence of this disease.
To prevent spread of the disease, spraying of Captan or Dithane M-45 or
Dithane Z-78 is effective.
Brown Spot: Cercospora hayi
Symptoms
Brown spots occur on the rachis, and fingers. The spots are pale to dark
brown with an irregular margin surrounded by a halo of water soaked
tissue.
Control
Plantation sanitation, good drainage and proper spacing reduce the
incidence of this disease.
To prevent spread of the disease, spraying of Captan or Dithane M-45 or
Dithane Z-78 is effective.
Cigar End/ Tip Rot :Verticillium theobromae and Trachysphaera fructigena
Symptoms
A black necrosis spread from the perianth into the tip of immature fingers.
The corrugated necrotic tissues become covered with fungus and
resemble the greyish ash of a cigar end.
Control
The only best control was the removal of the pistil and perianth by hand
as soon as the fingers emerged.
Placing a polythene bag over the stem before the hands emerged was
effective
Leaf Spot Or Sigatoka Disease
Mycosphaerella muscicola - sexual stage
Cercospora musai
- asexual stage
Sigatoka is the name of the valley where the disease first attracted attention. A monogrpah has reviewed information of leaf spot disease. It is a fungal disease.
Causes severe economic losses. Spreads very fast during rainy season. Attacks mostly leaves.
Epidemiology
Three components of weather, usually, determine the production and movement of sigatoka inoculum,
rainfall, dew and temperature.
Conditions favouring mass infection are most common during the rainy season with temperature
above 21° C.
Other factors, which influence the rate of disease developed and intensity of spotting, include amount
of inoculum on the leaf, age and position of the leaf, plant growth, sun and shade effects on leaf
tissue, etc.
The major commercial cultivars of banana-Gros Michel and Cavendish group are all highly susceptible
to leaf spot disease.
All triploid AAA desert bananas of commerce are highly susceptible to sigatoka.
Symptoms
Spots are concentrated towards the leaf
edges.
Eye shaped spots
Streaks enlarge and form small spindle or eye shaped spots with greyish centre and dark brown or black borders and chlorotic halo around them.
Scorching appearance
Disease first appears as pale yellow or
greenish yellow streaks running parallel to
leaf veins on both the leaf surfaces.
Leaves present a scorched appearance, petioles collapse and leaves hang down from pseudostem. if
severe, bunch maturity is affected.
Early diseased plant produces poor fruits.
Control
Removal of infected leaves and burning.
Proper drainage, spacing, weed management are very
Spraying of Thiophanate methyl 1 g/l, or 1per cent Bordeaux mixture + 2% linseed oil, or Captan 2 g/l are some practices that can manage the disease.
Scorching appearance
Disease first appears as pale yellow or
greenish yellow streaks running parallel to
leaf veins on both the leaf surfaces.
Leaves present a scorched appearance, petioles collapse and leaves hang down from pseudostem. if
severe, bunch maturity is affected.
Early diseased plant produces poor fruits.
Control
Removal of infected leaves and burning.
Proper drainage, spacing, weed management are very
Panama Disease Or Banana Wilt: Fusarium oxysporum f.sp. Cubense
The first major disease which attacked banana was called Panama disease
from the area where it first became serious.
Banana wilt is a soil-borne fungal disease and gets entry in the plant body
through roots and wounds caused by nematodes. It is most serious in
poorly drained soil. Disease spreads through infected suckers.
Epidiomology
Warm soil temperature and bad drainage favour the spread of the disease
and also light soils and high soil moisture. Greater incidence of the disease
has been noticed in poor soil with continuous cropping of banana.
Symptoms
Breaking of petioleSplitting of Pseudostem
Vascular discoloration
Dreaded disease of banana and is wide spread in Assam, Bihar,
Karnataka, Kerala, Tamil Nadu, Andhra Pradesh, Maharashtra and West Bengal where the cultivars of Rasthali group such as Rasbale, Amrutapani, Malbhog and Mariban are grown.
Bacterial Soft Rot Of Rhizome And Pseudostem : Erwinia spp
This is a minor bacterial disease, but causing concern in West Bengal.
Symptoms
It is characterised by a massive soft odorous rot of the centre or a portion
of the rhizome. The rot progresses up the pseudostem destroying the
growing point and causing internal decay often with vascular
discolouration.
Externally, the symptoms sometimes resemble those of fusariam wilt.
Yellowing and wilting of the leaves are the characteristic symptoms.
Control
Soil drenching with bleaching powder was found beneficial. Soil and plant
drenching with bleaching powder at 2 g/l water at an interval of 10-15
days was found effective in controlling the disease.
Top
Bacterial Wilt Or Moko Disease :Pseudomonas solanacearum
Symptoms
Affected sucker
Affected plants show more or less rapid-
wilting and collapse of leaves with a
characteristic discolouration of vascular
bundles, wilting and blackening of
suckers.
Affected young plant
If pseudostem and rhizomes are cut, a
characteristic bacterial oozing as shiny
drops can be noticed for besides vascular
discolouration.
In Cavendish varieties, lower leaves
develop a yellowish tinge which soon
spreads to other leaves of the plant,
which subsequently droop and petioles
break at the junction of lamina or
pseudostem.
Production of yellow fingers, discoloured vascular bundles of fruit stalks
and internal dry rot of fruits can also be noticed.
Bacterium is soil born. Spreads through use of diseased suckers for
planting.
In field disease spreads through irrigation water, implements and insects.
Infection is favoured by root injury.
Control
Disease can be minimised by exposing soil to sunlight.
Selection of healthy planting material, eradication of infected plants.
Disinfecting cutting knives and providing better drainage.
Flower visiting insects are main agents for transmitting the disease and
this is a good reason for following the practice of removing the bud from
the male axis before the bunch matures.
Herbicides, e.g., 2, 4-D and 2, 4, 5-T, can be used to kill infected plants in
situ and dieldrin sprayed onto a chopped down mat will prevent insects
transmitting the disease to the unaffected plants.
Initial symptoms appear in older leaves as characteristic yellowing which
ultimately wither, break at petiole and hang down along the pseudostem.
Young leaves may not dry immediately but are erect and also get affected
later. If severe, entire foliage wilt within 2-3 days
Splitting of pseudostem , discoloured vascular region in rhizome are also
seen.
Individual strands appear yellow, in addition red or brown dots and streaks
are also seen.
Longitudinal splitting of pseudostem, emittance of rotten fish smell when
cut, stunting of plants, wilting and death of suckers are other symptoms of
the disease.
Control
Basrai is immune and Poovan or Champa is resistant, while Sonkel,
Rasthali Malbhog, Alpan, Morthaman, Kanthali, Sirumalai, Monthan,
Virupakshi are susceptible. Other resistant cultivars include Cavendish
group, Moongil, Peyladen Rajabale, Vamanakeli.
Selection of healthy suckers, avoiding injury to roots
The diseased plants should be uprooted and burnt.
Highly infected soil should not be replanted with banana at least for 3-4
years.
Use of disease-free planting material and resistant cultivar are
recommended.
Other measures include use of quicklime near the base of the plant and
soaking with water.
Application of lime to infested pits, dipping suckers in carbendazim 1 gl/I
before planting followed by bimonthly drenching starting 6 months after
planting are effective management practices
However, once soil is generally infested, there is no economic method of
reducing the pathogen population to a level where more than two or three
crops of a susceptible cultivar can be obtained.
Spraying of Thiophanate methyl 1 g/l, or 1per cent Bordeaux mixture + 2% linseed oil, or Captan 2 g/l are some practices that can manage the disease.
Bacterial Soft Rot Of Rhizome And Pseudostem : Erwinia spp
This is a minor bacterial disease, but causing concern in West Bengal.
Symptoms
It is characterised by a massive soft odorous rot of the centre or a portion
of the rhizome. The rot progresses up the pseudostem destroying the
growing point and causing internal decay often with vascular
discolouration.
Externally, the symptoms sometimes resemble those of fusariam wilt.
Yellowing and wilting of the leaves are the characteristic symptoms.
Control
Soil drenching with bleaching powder was found beneficial. Soil and plant
drenching with bleaching powder at 2 g/l water at an interval of 10-15
days was found effective in controlling the disease.
Bacterial Wilt Or Moko Disease :Pseudomonas solanacearum
Symptoms
Affected sucker
Affected plants show more or less rapid-
wilting and collapse of leaves with a
characteristic discolouration of vascular
bundles, wilting and blackening of
suckers.
Affected young plant
If pseudostem and rhizomes are cut, a
characteristic bacterial oozing as shiny
drops can be noticed for besides vascular
discolouration.
In Cavendish varieties, lower leaves
develop a yellowish tinge which soon
spreads to other leaves of the plant,
which subsequently droop and petioles
break at the junction of lamina or
pseudostem.
Production of yellow fingers, discoloured vascular bundles of fruit stalks
and internal dry rot of fruits can also be noticed.
Bacterium is soil born. Spreads through use of diseased suckers for
planting.
In field disease spreads through irrigation water, implements and insects.
Infection is favoured by root injury.
Control
Disease can be minimised by exposing soil to sunlight.
Selection of healthy planting material, eradication of infected plants.
Disinfecting cutting knives and providing better drainage.
Flower visiting insects are main agents for transmitting the disease and
this is a good reason for following the practice of removing the bud from
the male axis before the bunch matures.
Herbicides, e.g., 2, 4-D and 2, 4, 5-T, can be used to kill infected plants in situ and dieldrin sprayed onto a chopped down mat will prevent insects transmitting the disease to the unaffected plants.
Bunchy Top- Viral disease
The disease is covered by domestic quarantine regulations. Losses were
estimated to be Rs.4 crores every year and 100% loss occurs if infected
suckers are planted.
Symptoms
Dark green streaks
- Stunting of plant
Aphid
Symptoms appear at stage of growth associated with occurrence of
prominent dark green streaks on petioles and along leaf veins.
In badly diseased plants leaves bunch together, margins of lamina
become wavy and slightly roll upwards.
In case of secondary infections, irregular, dark green streaks occur along
the secondary veins from series of dark green dots to a continuous dark
green line.
Severe stunting, non-elongation of leaf stalks, more erect leaves, non
production of bunches are other external symptoms.
The virus spreads through infected suckers and by banana aphid
Pentalonia nigronervosa.
Control
Adoption of strict quarantine measures. The diseased plants along with
rhizomes should be destroyed as soon as they are detected.
Planting materials should not be collected from places affected by this
disease.
The aphid should be controlled to check spread of the disease by spraying
with an effective insecticide (Metasystox 0.1 to 0.5%, Dimecron or
Parathion).
Injection of Monocrotphos solution diluted with water at 1:4 ratio at 30-day
interval twice or thrice at 2-3 months after planting has been found
effective.
Injection of Fernoxone, 4 ml mixed with water at 1:8 ratio into the corm or
insertion of capsules containing 200-400 mg of the chemical into the
pseudostem after making a slanting hole are also suggested for effective
killing of the infected plants.
Regular inspection, roguing of diseased plants, and planting virus-free
corms have reduced bunchy top disease in Australia.
Field trials with Dwarf Cavendish banana revealed that phytosanitary measures help in minimising the disease to a great
extent.
Banana Mosaic Or Infectious Chlorosis
Infectious chlorosis or heart rot of banana is caused by Cucumber Mosaic
Virus (CMV) has recently become serious, the disease has been recorded
from 20 to 80 per cent in Poovan cultivar.
Symptoms
The disease manifests itself in all stages of crop growth. Due to repeated
use of suckers from infected plants the disease spreads and resulting in
the gradual decrease in yield and quality.
The disease is known to occur in all banana-growing states.
Yellow streaks on leaf
Light yellow streaks run parallel to leaf veins
giving the leaf a striped appearance. The
streaks run usually from mid rib to edge of
the blade.
Outer leaf sheath may separate from
pseudostem and the emerging heart leaf may
be necrotic. Diseased plants may not produce
bunches or only a few fruits are produced.
Rolling of leaves
Mosaic plants are easily recognized by their
dwarf growth and mottled, distorted leaves.
Young leaves show loss of green colour in
patches leading to typical mosaic pattern.
Leaves are reduced in size, narrow, chlorotic.
Virus is disseminated by suckers and Aphis
gossypi.
Control
Adoption of strict quarantine measures.
Systematic destruction of diseased plants.
Use of disease free suckers.
Treating suckers at 40°C with dry heat for 1 day followed by treatment
with 120 ppm aureofungin.
Cultivation of varieties such as Kuru Bale are recommended
Banana Rust Thrips : Chaetanaphothrips signipennis
Thrips affected Fruits
It has yellowish shaded wings, The damage
done by thrips is by oviposition on the young
fruits.
Nature of damage
It causes smoky or red discolouration
between individual fingers.
The skin becomes reddish brown, roughened
and dull in appearance, superficial cracks
appear in discoloured skin. The fruits may
also split.
Control
Using only clean corms
Dipping in Metasystox 0.1% solution to control the spread of the disease
Spray the bunches after emergence with 0.2% Phosphomidan for effective
control of pest
Burrowing Nematode : Radopholus similis
Family: Tylenchidae
Order: Radopholinae
An extremely serious and wide spread nematode, particularly in
Karnataka, Kerala and Tamil Nadu also reported from Andhra Pradesh.
Other hosts include coffee, pepper, coconut, vegetables, ornamentals,
grasses and weeds.
Nematodes are now recognised as an important soil-borne pathogens
causing decline in yield in bananas.
Affected plants do not respond to fertilizer, irrigation or cultural practices.
The other nematodes associated with the banana crop in- clude,
Heterodera oryzicula, Helicotylenchus sp. and Tylenchorhynchus sp.
Nature of damage
Infested roots
Larvae and females are found inside roots in the
cortical parenchyma where they feed on the
cytoplasm of nearby cells destroying them and
forming root cavities which coalesce as the
nematodes continuously feed by burrowing
laterally and towards the endodermis, producing
characteristic reddish-brown lesions throughout
the cortex.
Lesions on stem
Fungi attack through the lesions resulting in
atrophy of roots. There appears to be some
association between the nematode and Panama
disease.
Nematode damaged field
Eventually the root system is reduced to few
short stubs and affected plants get "toppled".
Nematode management
Crop rotation
Rotations involving turmeric, sugarcane, cotton and green gram. Paddy
after banana suppressed the population of all nematodes.
Paddy after banana, green gram after banana, two crops of paddy after
banana were effective in reduction of R.similis. Fallowing and flooding for
3 months after banana efficiently suppressed R.similis.
The nematode population was brought down especially R.similis, in
coriander and banana ntercropping.
Mulching
Applying black polythene mulch at 60 per cent moisture depletion
recorded the lowest population.
Organic amendments
Application of neem coated urea at 110 g/plant as a full dose to banana
reduced the nematode population both in soil and root.
Chemical control
Sucker disinfestation
Paring and pralinage treatment of suckers with Carbofuran 3G (45
g/sucker) is suggested as a control.
Field treatment
Drenching Carbofuran 45% G at planting or Carbofuran pralinage registered lowest root nematode population coupled with maximum bunch yield per plant.
Rhizome Weevil : Cosmopolites sordidus
Family:
Curculionidae
Order :
Coleoptera
Most destructive pest, widely distributed in all banana growing areas. Specific pest of Musa spp. Malbhog and Champa varieties highly susceptible.
Adult Weevil
Adult weevils (10-13mm) are shiny reddish brown to
black, with a long and curved snout, elytra short and
striated longitudinally, though functional, but the
weevils seldom fly.
Grub
Grubs are creamy white, stout, fleshy, legless, wrinkled
and spindle shaped, with red head.
Nature of damage
Damaged Rhizome
Eggs are laid in collar region or on under-
ground rhizomes. Grubs bore into the
pseudostem and rhizome and make
tunnels by feeding.
Weevil damaged field
Adults also bore into the suckers. As a result of
the attack by adults and grubs, the central
shoots gets killed, plants show premature
withering, suckers get killed, fruits remain
undersized and fewer in number.
Damaged stem
Fungi and bacteria accelerate rotting.
Trees may break down with strong winds.
Similar damage is done by Odoiporus
longicollis in North-East India.
Control
Planting of healthy suckers
Clean cultivation
Removal of pseudostems below ground level
Trimming the rhizome
Dipping in methyl oxydemeton 2 ml/l solution prevents infestation.
Applying castor cake 250g or carbaryl 50g dust or phorate 10g per pit
before planting also prevents infestation.
In case of severe attack, dimethoate methl, oxydemeton or phosphamidon
may be sprayed around the collar region.
Trapping of adults using yellow traps is also helpful.
Top
Fruit And Leaf Scarring Beetle: Colaspis hypochlora
Nature of damage
The beetle, Colaspis hypochlora feeds on young leaves and skin of young
fruits.
This insect sometimes lives in the heart of the pseudostem within the roll
of the central leaf.
Occurrence of this pest is usually the maximum during the rainy season.
Severe scarring of fruit skin leads to underdeveloped fruit, which fetches
less price in the market.
Control
Clean cultivation, particularly, the removal of grass weeds from
plantations where the population of this pest is high, can often reduce the
population levels enough to avoid the use of insecticides.
Unless the beetles are causing serious economic losses the use of
insecticides should be avoided.
Low volume spray of aldrin 0.25% a.i., controls the insect.
Dusting with Malathion is also effective. Harvesting And Storage
Introduction > Ripening > Storage > Packing And Transport >
Introduction
Bananas are harvested at various stages of its maturity depending upon
the purpose for which it is cultivated, such as culinary, table purpose etc.,
and distance to the market (3/4 full maturity in Robusta for distant
markets, while full maturity for local market etc.).
The assessment of the harvesting maturity is itself is a skilled job. The
harvesting in India is usually done by visual judging. The duration of
flowering to maturation in days can also be taken as a guide to harvest
index.
In many of the perennial plantations, depending upon the time of setting
of followers, the age of follower sucker at the time of setting it, cultural
practices like manuring, irrigation followed will determine the time of
harvest, and most often a continuous harvest all throughout the year can
be obtained.
After harvesting, the pseudostems should be cut leaving a stump of about
0.6 m height. This practice is called muttocking.
Experimental evidence showed that the left over stump with its stored
food material continues to nourish the daughter sucker (follower) till it
withers and dries up
The cultivars like "Poovan', 'Monthan', 'Rasthali' and Dwarf Cavendish are
ready for harvest in 11 to 12 months from date of planting.
Dwarf Cavendish (Basrai) takes 14 months in Maharashtra. Some cultivars
like Nendran in Kerala takes only 10 months for harvest. Yields are highly
variable.
The following are the yield figures of major cultivars
Dwarf cavendish in Tamil Nadu and Maharashtra 30 to 40 t/ha
Poovan perennial plantations 15 to 20 t/ha
Wetland or gardenland 20 to 25 t/ha
Hill bananas (perennial) 15 -17.5 t/ha
Top
Ripening
Bananas are not usually allowed to ripen on the tree as it takes long time.
Moreover, the fruit-peel splits, fruit ripens unevenly and fails to develop
good colour and aroma, hence the marketable quality deteriorates.
Therefore, banana needs to be ripened artificially.
On arrival at the destination, the banana bunches are immediately sold to
wholesale dealers who store the fruits in loose heaps in godowns and
ripen them in lots as per the need of the retail dealers.
In tropical conditions, fruits for local consumption are harvested and
ripened by hanging the bunches in a shady place.
Some considered four enzymes as catalysts, which increased with ripening
particularly at temperature below 300 C.
The predominant carbohydrate of green banana was found to be starch
which hydrolysed to sucrose, glucose and fructose on ripening.
The starch hydrolysis did not commence until respiration had increased to
the two-thirds of the climacteric peak and at about the peak of ethylene
production.
The starch degradation is accompained by an increase in sucrose content
followed by glucose and fructose formation during ripening.
Some reported that during ripening, arginine, serine, valine, leucine and
histidine contents increased whereas aspartic acid and glutamic acid
content declined.
Smoke treatment is the commonest method to induce ripening in
Maharashtra and Tamil Nadu. Smoking is done with straw, leaves and
cowdung in a closed chamber with bunches arranged in a heap for 18-24
hours in summer and 48 hours in winter.
After taking the bunches from the chamber they are placed in a well-
ventilated room for development of colour.
Smoke treatment causes ripening of the bunches within 3 days. Ripening
is also done by keeping the bunches covered with gunny sacks.
Ethrel, ethylene and temperature promoted respiration can cause ripening
of the fruits.
High concentration (1000 ppm) and/or a prolonged treatment with ethrel
(5 min) and ethylene (48 hours) caused intensive respiration.
Ethylene at a concentration of 1 part per thousand also helps to initiate
ripening of banana.
In commercial trade, ripening is initiated by using various chemical
substances. Growth regulating chemicals, such as 2, 4-D, 2, 4, 5-T, IAA
and TBZ have been tried to hasten ripening.
2, 4-D is the cheapest chemical for inducing artificial ripening, and 1000
ppm of 2, 4-D for 30 seconds was optimum.
A post-harvest dip of banana fruits in ABA and IAA solution also hastened
ripening. Use of acetylene gas generated from CaC2 for ripening banana
was started as early as 1932. Since then CaC2 is used on a large scale in
case of ripening mature green bananas.
Ethrel application at or above 500 ppm accelerated ripening by 2 days,
resulting in optimum eating quality by 4 days after treatment.
Top
Storage
Banana can be stored at a temperature slightly above 550 F (130 C) and a
relative humidity of 85 to 95 per cent for about three weeks, and is
ripened in a week or two at 62-700 F (16.5-210 C).
Banana fruit becomes blackened at lower temperatures and should not be
placed in a refrigerator. Internally, the banana is carried either by rail or
by road in unrefrigerated carriage.
On the other hand, the produce for overseas trade is carried in
refrigerated ships, the banana being kept in a cool air circulation at about
52-560 F (11-13.50 C). Premature ripening is probably the biggest single
cause of loss during storage.
Keeping the fruit in relatively high concentration of CO2 and low
concentration of O2 can prolong storage life.
Dipping of bananas at 200 ppm TBZ has been approved and
recommended as a post-harvest treatment.
A double coating of 12% wax emulsion prolonged the storage life of Dwarf
Cavendish banana by 10-12 days at 580 F (14.50 C).
Top
Packing And Transport
The banana bunches harvested at apt
age of maturity are wrapped with dried
banana levels before packing into in
lorries or railways wagons for long
distance transport. This practice is in
vogue in commercial orchards of
Maharashtra, Bihar, etc.
At destination the bunches of Dwarf cavendish, poovan etc. are dehanded
and sold in retail outlets, whereas in the markets whole bunches as such
are marketed.
In Tamil Nadu, Hill banana 'Virupakshi' is dehanded in the plantation itself
and are packed in small lots of 500 fruits each and marketed in Madras
and Dindigul.
In Kerala, the Nendran bunches are marketed as whole bunches itself.
Often male buds are not even removed to give a better show for the whole
bunch during festive seasons. Marketing
Introduction > Harvesting > Storage > Assembling > Sorting > Packing > Transportation > Distribution > Preparation Of Marketing >
Introduction
Banana stands second next only to mango in area and production among
fruit crops in India. The major banana producing states are Maharashtra,
Kerala, Tamil Nadu, Gujarat, Assam, Andhra Pradesh and Karnataka.
More than 40 per cent of production being in Southern States of India, the
produce finds its market mainly in large North Indian cities like Bombay,
Calcutta, Delhi, etc.
The production centers are situated in the remote villages, with less
conveyance and transport facilities. The harvested produce experiences
losses due to rough handling in different markets and while in transport.
The marketing system for bananas is not well organized in India and
hence, the produce suffers losses in quality and quantity before it reaches
the consumers.
As the export of banana from India is practically nil, the entire produce is
consumed internally. Hence, the prevalent internal marketing system of
banana is briefly discussed.
Before considering the existing situation in relation to internal marketing,
it will be useful to briefly deal with methods of harvesting, packing and
transport to consuming centres.
Top
Harvesting
Banana bunches are cut at different stages of maturity depending on the
distance of haulage and the time of consumption.
Being the polyclonal system of cultivation practiced by cultivators, it is
difficult to stipulate a common harvest index for all the varieties. Usually,
visual judging is the only criterion adopted by the farmers to fix the stage
of harvest.
Bananas meant to be marketed locally are harvested at full maturity. In
Robusta and other Dwarf Cavendish varieties cutting after 90'days of
shooting or at full three quarters maturity is adopted.
In the case of bananas transported to long distance markets, harvesting is
done after 80 days at three quarters full maturity.
The method of harvesting assumes great importance when bananas are to
conform to export specification like absence of cuts and bruises. That
banana bunches are carefully cut with sharp knives and very often two
men are employed to cut a large bunch.
In Maharashtra and Gujarat, harvesting of banana is done by persons
having specialised experience. In most of the states bunches are cut from
the stem by means of a bill-hook or a sickle.
The harvesting of the crop in a particular field is not done at one time,
since bunches produced by all the plants do not attain uniform maturity.
Every day, bunches are harvested which have developed fully and
produce a metallic sound when tapped with the back of the nail.
Immature fruits, which are angular in the beginning, became more
roundish as they mature. It takes about 3 1/2 to 4 months to mature fully
from the date of emergence of inflorescence depending upon varieties.
The fruits are harvested at 80-90 per cent maturity.
In Tamilnadu fruits reach the place of distribution within a day or two from
the assembling centre.
Monthan is harvested about 7-10 days before it is actually distributed. In
the case of Poovan also, it is found to have better shelf life than others.
Mauritius variety, which has to be distributed within four days after
smoking is harvested just a week before the stage of actual distribution.
Hill bananas and Rasthali are harvested at about 80-90 per cent maturity as they are not able to stand for a period more than a week to 10 days after harvest.
Top
Storage
Storage of bananas during the marketing process occurs at different
levels, viz. Producers level, assembling level, wholesaler level and retailer
level.
Being a perishable commodity, the fruits are disposed off in all these
stages very quickly, and as such are not stored for long periods in general.
Producers do not store the produce. They usually harvest the produce only
on the day of marketing or at most a day prior to it.
At assembling centres or village markets also, the bunches are sold on the
same day on which the produce gets assembled.
There is usually no delay in moving the produce from the assembling
centres to wholesalers.
The wholesalers inturn, ripen the fruits in smoke house depending upon
the estimated demand in succeeding days.
The fruits which are given smoke treatment for ripening are disposed off
to the retailers on the same day when it is taken out of ripening chambers.
These fruits may be stored for 2 or 3 days depending on the ripeness. The
retailers are usually hotels, small petty shop keepers, and hand cart a
time from the wholesaler which he can sell on one or two days.
Hence, at retailer level also the storage for the produce is the minimum.
Thus, the mature fruits harvested from gardens are sold as ripened fruits
usually within a period of 7 to 10 days after harvest.
During the peak seasons when markets are flooded with bananas, the
bunches are to be stored for days together for which the modern facilities
like cold storage are not available in many markets.
Hence, a loss of about 1 O to 1 5 per cent due to over ripening, fungal deterioration etc., will be taking place before the produce reaches the ultimate consumers.
Top
Assembling
Assembling of bunches is an important operation. The judging of
harvesting maturity of individual bunches in a garden is a labour intensive
process as there won't be any uniformity in maturation within the same
variety grown in a garden.
Harvesting and assembling the produce for the market is done by
1. Growers
2. Pre-harvest contractors
3. Village merchants.
i) Growers
Banana growers in South India are mainly marginal farmers who do not
find it profitable to harvest the crop at periodical intervals and transport to
markets as the bunches usually do not attain harvestable maturity
uniformly due to variation in sucker size and variation in fertlisation,
irrigation, etc.
Unless the produce is assembled at the village level itself, transport
charges will be high and hence the role of intermediaries. The grower's
share in assembling of the produce will be only upto 10 per cent in India.
ii) Pre-harvest contractors
Pre-harvest contractors are the main assembling agents in the case of
bananas. They conduct periodical visits to the banana garden of individual
small holdings and enter into contract with these farmers by advancing
money to purchase the bunches.
Hence, it will be either the contractor or his subagents who will conduct
the harvesting of bunches from the small holdings, assemble them and
transport to the main markets.
Pre harvest contractors operate in and around all the district markets.
They are the main financing agents for the farmers.
Even before all the bunches emerge in the garden, these contractors enter
into contract with farmers for the
Contract is sometimes fixed on the basis of bunches. Suppose in a garden
having about 1000 plants, contract is fixed only for 900 bunches, as only
that number of good bunches alone are expected.
The choice of elimination of any bunch rests with the contractor as he will
never mark the 100 bunches excluded from the contract, hence till his 900
bunches are harvested, the full bunches in the garden remain to be that of
contractors.
These merchants advance money to cultivators at the time of entering
into contract and go on paying as and when bunches are harvested. Some
of the contractors pay only at the end.
These pre-harvest contractors are the main assembling agency accounting
for nearly 80 per cent of the quantity assembled.
iii) Village merchant
Village merchant accounts for about 10 per cent of the total produce
assembled. These merchants operate in villages near about shandies.
These merchants collect the produce and then have it sold at shandies.
These merchants either make outright purchases on cash basis or act as commission agents.
Sorting
In Maharashtra and Gujarat, bananas are sold by weight and in Tamil Nadu
by bunches or by numbers.
Sale by numbers appears to be the practice in Andhra Pradesh, West-
Bengal and many other states. Hence, sorting of bunches/fingers into
different grades and marketing are not practiced in India by the growers.
Even at the assembling centres, disposal is as bunches and as such no
sorting is resorted to.
At the retail level only, fruits are sorted according to different sizes. In the
case of hill bananas, sorting is done at harvest stage itself as the produce
is sold as fingers, not as whole bunches.
No standard grades are followed for sorting of fruits. The wholesalers, at
times, sort their bunches based on number of hands and number of
fingers.
Top
Packing
In India the bunches are marketed naked. There is no practice of using
any special type of containers.
The bunches are as such loaded or unloaded from the carts, lorries or rail
wagons.
When the produce is to be sent to far off places, through lorry, the
individual bunches are packed with banana waste leaves which served as
cushion in between the bunches and consequently the damage to the
fingers during transit is reduced.
There is no unit of packing as transport and sales are effected on the basis
of number of bunches. In the case of hill bananas, the bunches after
harvest are split up into different hands possibly due to easiness of
transport on mule or ponies.
Hill bananas are, packed in gunny bags each having a capacity of 400 to 600 fruits. If the fruits are to be transported over a long distance, generally no packing is undertaken and the fruits are sent in loose form.
Top
Transportation
The harvested bananas from the gardens located in villages are usually
transported as head loads, on ponies, as cart loads and as lorry loads, the
transport for interstate trade are mainly effected through lorry services
and railway wagons.
Due to difficulties faced by wholesalers to arrange wagons, that too in
correct time, lorry transport is more depended in India.
Distribution
The distribution is effected through growers or producers, preharvest
contractors, whole salers, commission agents and retailers.
The channel of movements in the different distribution system are
depicted in the figure. The most common market channels seen in banana
trade in India are:
1. Producer -wholesaler -retailer -consumer
2. Producer -village merchant -wholesaler -retailer -consumer
3. Producers -village merchants -retailer -consumer
4. Producer -retailer -consumer
5. Producer -consumer
Preparation For Marketing
The majority of cultivators sell their produce to pre-harvest contractors in
advance and the harvesting and preparation for market is done by
merchant contractors only.
Usually bananas are not given any special post-harvest treatments such
as dipping in fungicidal solutions etc.
Since the quality awareness has not been sufficiently developed to admit
higher price differential for treated bananas, it may not be worthwhile to
adopt expensive post-harvest treatment techniques in all cases of internal
marketing.
Similarly, the bunches are harvested, assembled and transported as such
without dehanding in India.
The separation of individual hands for sale are done at retailer level only.
Till then the bunches in toto are handled as a single unit.
The wholesale merchants at the consumer markets will prepare their
bunches for marketing.
The bunches are staked in smoke houses or pits for 24 hours in summer and 48 hours in winter for inducing uniform ripening, before they are exhibited for sale on the days to follow Economics
Cost of cultivation
Details of operations
(Expenditure in Rs.)
Main crop I Ratoon II Crop
Land preparation (Deep
ploughing & harrowing) 1000 - -
Digging pits 6000 - -
Mannures and chemicals 4500 - -
Fertilisers and transport 22,000 11,000 11,000
Planting cost 2,000 - 2,000
Irrigation expenses 500 300 300
Chemicals for foliar
spray+Transportation 3,000 1,500 1,500
Plant protection chemicals 2,500 1,250 1,250
Stakes and staking 6,000 - -
Intercultivation 2,000 1,500 1,500
Labour charges for 365
man days (Rs 30/labour) 10,950 6,500 6,500
Harvestin, Loading &
unloading +
Transportation
5,000 4,500 5,000
Sub Total 86,450 26,550 50,050
Misc. expenses at 5% of A 4,322 1,328 2,503
Cost of cultivation 90,772 27,878 52,553
Crop insurance @5% 4,538 1,394 2,628
Total cost 95,310 29,272 55,181
Bank interest for main
crop@ 12% flat which is
equivalent to 18% P.A on
reducing interest basis
11,437 - -
Total Investment 1,06,747 29,272 55,181
Fixed investments
Fencing 10,000
Borewell 25,000
Drip irrigation (about Rs 10,000 as subsidy) 30,000
Management & Administration expenditure for big
farms more than 50 acres) 15,000
Total 75,000
Note
1. Bank interest was not calculated for ratoon and III crop because the
expenditures can be managed fro revenue from first crop
2. Variation may be there in total costa which may depend generally on
locality, labourwages and trasportation charges.
Crop returns
Assumptions Average yields
1) Main crop - 40 kgs2) I Ratoon - 30 kgs3) II Crop - 40 kgs
Particulars Main crop I ratoon II crop
Crop returns per
acre
2003 x 20 x 4.00
plants x yield/plant x cost
= Rs. 1,60,240
2003 x 15 x 4.00
plants x yield/plant x
cost
=Rs.1,20,180
2003 x 20x
4.00
plants x
yield/plant x
cost
= Rs. 1,60,240
Deducting 10%
amount in crop
returns keeping
in account
mortality, yield
variation,
improper
management
1,60,240
- 32,048
---------------
1,28,192
1,44,216
- 24,036
-------------
96,144
1,60,240
- 32,048
-----------
1,28,192
Total returns per acre/two years
= Rs.1,28,192+96,144+ 1,28,192
= 3,52,528 - P
Total cost = Rs 1,06,747+29,272+55,181
=1,91,200 - C
Profit (P-C) = 3,52,528-1,91,200 =1,61,328
Economics :
Most important and interesting part for the growers, corporate farming
companies and big investors.
The banana crop cycle comprises of 3 crops in 2 years i.e. main crop of
about 12 months duration 2nd and 3rd crops at 18 and 24th month
respectively(ratoon).
The cost of cultivation for main crop per acre is about 90,772 and 2 nd and
3rd crop @Rs.40,000 each.
Expected return from all the three crops is about Rs. 3.6 Lakhs. So by
deducting all these, the total profit out of all the three crop will be about
Rs.1.61 lakhs per acre which walks out 0.5 lakhs per crop or Rs.0.80 lakhs
per acre per year. Crop Improvement
Breeding And Crop Improvement
Breeding banana is almost a difficult exercise due to complexities
resulting from parthenocarpy, sterility, polyploidy and vegetative
propagation. The uniqueness lies in the fact that in banana which is
almost sterile, raising sexual progeny in sufficient numbers to combine
desirable characters and at the same time resulting in another sterile
plant is indeed very difficult.
As the degree of sterility is particularly high in edible cultivars, breeding
banana is complicated, difficult and time consuming. Nevertheless, the
results of work done since 1922 in the West Indies proved to be, in the
words of some, an encouraging milestone of success.
The sole objective of banana breeding in the West Indies was to evolve a
banana as like Gros Michel as possible but immune or highly resistant to
Panama wilt disease. Gros Michel had been the only main commercial
banana (the green gold of Jamaica) at that time (though in the subsequent
years Lacatan, Highgate, Cocos and Valery gained importance) with all the
desirable characters, but it became almost impossible to grow it on
account of its high susceptibility to the wilt disease, for which there was
and still, is, no effective chemical or cultural method of control except by
growing resistant cultivars.
The first artificially produced hybrid banana in the West Indies, named IC-
1was a tetraploid and was highly resistant to Panama disease.
It was evolved by crossing Gros Michel (AAA) with a wild wilt resistant,
seeded diploid M.acuminata spp. malaccensis. Its bunches lacked
symmetry and, hence, were not suitable for shipping as naked bunches.
Besides, the fruits were shorter and the number of hands were also fewer
per bunch. Other hybrids IC-2, S-19, J-1877 and Bodles Altafort produced
subsequently were also similarly unacceptable.
The latter had several desirable qualities, but its tall stature and slow
growth with leaves often breaking at the base proved unsuitable for the
cyclone prone islands.
In the beginning, the breeders were trying to exploit Gros Michel's ability
to form a few unreduced triploid egg cells that could be fertilized with
normal haploid pollen to give tetraploid embryos.
The value of this phenomenon was that genes from the mother plant did
not segregate and, therefore, the maternal characteristics in respect of
the fruits were retained.
Adding one set of chromosome from a diploid, carrying heritable
resistance to wilt to the three sets from the mother was the main idea in
this programme.
This had the undesirable effect of restricting breeding to a parent that was
highly susceptible to the disease, besides, being tall in stature. Another
possibility was then to breed triploids by crossing these tetraploids with
diploids.
This involved the usual processes of reduction division on both sides,
reassortment and seggregation of gene complexes, giving only a remote
chance of success, as practice has confirmed.
Numerous primary tetraploids and secondary triploids have now been
bred in this way.
The objective of banana breeding in India is entirely different. Unlike West Indies, banana cultivation in India is polyclonal and
Panama wilt never became a threat.
Hybrid-95,
Breeding work started in Tamil Nadu in 1949,
therefore, had the objectives of improving
the bunch grade, reducing the stature of the
plant, etc.
Hybrids that resulted from the preliminary
work carried out with 15 triploid cultivars and
four other species of Musa including
balbisiana were found inferior.
In the meantime, nematodes became serious
problem.
Hybrid-21.
The programme was, therefore, reoriented to
include some of the commercial edible
diploids already in cultivation, in the breeding
programme.
As many as 13 acuminata (AA) and 10 hybrid
(AB) diploids were screened and two of them,
Anaikomban (AA) and Tongat (AB) were
found fairly resistant to nematodes.
Another diploid-Sanna Chen Kadali (AA) having a red fruit skin was
selected for its hardy nature, medium tall stature, shorter duration and
resistance to leaf spot disease. A synthetic diploid (AA) evolved by
crossing Matti (AA) and Pisanglilin (AA) has the high fruit quality of the
former and nematode resistance of the latter.
This new diploid has great potential to serve as a male parent in the future
breeding programme.
A new triploid hybrid H-135 (AAB) evolved through multiple crossing
involving M.balbisiana is becoming popular as it resembles the famous
Virupakshi hill banana of Tamil Nadu both in respect of high fruit quality
and external appearance.
Some reported a new banana clone UCRS as resistant to Mycosphaerella
musicola and also resistant to wind damage. The plant adapts well to
various types of soil.
In a trial to determine the acceptability to the British customer, 34 clones
were assessed by taste palels. The acceptability varied considerably, but
the best clones were comparable with established Cavendish clones, such
as Valery.
The cultivars obtained from IITA, Nigeria showed good drought, pest and
disease and wind resistance in Bangladesh. The cv. Ogonired gave the
highest yield.
Most breeding efforts have been directed towards the improvement of
dessert bananas, the greatest consideration being fruit quality, dwarfness
and disease resistance. Resistance to important disease, such as fusarium
wilt, Sigatoka leaf spot, black Sigatoka and resistance to the burrowing
nematode (Radopholus similis) have been by far the main recent breeding
objectives, and these, in turn, have necessitated a continued search for
germplasm and an interest in the origin of various cultivars and clones.
Modest programmes have been initiated to explore the use of induced
mutation breeding. As a purely clonal crop plant, it seems that bananas
are admirably suited to this approach.
It is quite clear that the effects of somatic mutation or bud sporting can be
significant, since from a historical perspective in Jamaica alone, some six
mutants of the once highly prized Gros Michel were detected in a 100-year
period, and it is surmised that many more have gone undetected.
Improvement by mutations induced by chemical mutagens of irradiation
has great potential, which needs further investigations.
Callus and cell culture, somatic embryogenesis, androgenesis and related
techniques for Musa improvement pointed out that genetic engineering
procedures, such as gene insertion, perforce will depend on successful
regeneration of the plant from cells and protoplants.
Even procedures involving pollen genome modification will benefit from
such capability, and screening embryoids from pollen will require
androgenesis to be achievable at a reasonably high efficiency.
All perspective advantages that might accrue to banana-plantain breeding
or improvement programme other than the obvious ones, such as embryo
rescue and multiplication via meristems and shoot tips demand
availability of dependable cell, protoplast, anther-pollen-ovule culture
procedures.