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Drug and Alcohol Dependence 118 (2011) 444451
Contents lists available at ScienceDirect
Drug and Alcohol Dependence
journal homepage: www.elsevier .com/ locate /drugalcdep
Strategies for characterizing complex phenotypes and
environments: Generaland specific family environmental predictors
ofyoung adult tobacco dependence,alcohol use disorder, and
co-occurring problems
Jennifer A. Bailey a,, Karl G. Hill a, Meredith C. Meacham a,
Susan E. Young b,J. David Hawkinsa
a SocialDevelopment Research Group, University of Washington,
Seattle, 9725 3rdAveNE,Suite 401, Seattle, WA98115, USAb Institute
for Behavioral Genetics,University of Colorado,Boulder, 447UCB,
Boulder, CO 80309, USA
a r t i c l e i n f o
Article history:
Received 25 October 2010
Received in revised form 18 March 2011
Accepted 3 May 2011
Available online 2 June 2011
Keywords:
Nicotine dependence
Alcohol use disorder
Phenotype definition
Measuring environment for GE research
a b s t r a c t
Background:Defining phenotypes in studies oftobacco and alcohol
misuse is difficult because ofthe com-
plexity ofthese behaviors and their strong association with each
other and with other problem behaviors.
The present paper suggests a strategy for addressing this issue
by conceptualizing and partitioning vari-
ancein phenotypes into eithergeneralor
substance/behavior-specific.The paper also applies thegeneral
or
substance/behavior-specificconceptualization to environmental
predictors oftobacco and alcohol misuse
and other problem behaviors.
Methods: Data were drawn from the Seattle Social Development
Project, a contemporary, ethnically
diverse and gender-balanced longitudinal panel including 808
participants. Latent variable modeling
was used to partition variance in young adult (age 24) nicotine
dependence, alcohol abuse and depen-
dence, illicit drug abuse and dependence, involvement in crime,
and engagement in HIV sexual risk
behavior into general problem behavior and behavior-specific
variance. Similarly, measures ofgeneral,
drinking-specific, and smoking-specific adolescent family
environment were constructed.
Results: Consistent with expectations, more positive general
family environment during adolescence
was associated with lower levels ofshared variance in problem
behaviors at age 24, but not with unique
variance in tobacco or alcohol use disorder. Higher levels
offamily smoking and drinking environmentsduring adolescence,
however, were positively associated with unique variance in tobacco
and alcohol
use disorder, respectively, but did not predict shared variance
in problem behaviors.
Conclusions: Results support the utility of the proposed
approach. Ways in which this approach might
contribute to future molecular genetic studies are
discussed.
2011 Elsevier Ireland Ltd. All rights reserved.
1. Background
Adult tobacco and alcohol misuse are complex behaviors that
are influenced by a combination of environmental and genetic
fac-
tors (Kreek et al., 2005;Rutter et al., 2006), which also are
complex.
Researchers aiming to understand the etiology of
adulttobaccoand
alcohol misuse are faced with the difficult task of measuring
anddefining these outcomes, or phenotypes, and of modeling a
wide
array of risk and protective factors from multiple domains.
Further
complicatingresearch, tobaccoand alcoholmisuse are
stronglycor-
related with each other and with several other problem
behaviors.
The present study builds on prior research focusing on the
notion
of general and specific variance in problem behaviors, as well
as
Supplementary information for this article is available. Please
see Appendix A
for more information. Corresponding author. Tel.: +1 206 616
9115; fax: +1 206 543 4507.
E-mail address:[email protected] (J.A. Bailey).
general andspecific etiological factors. It aims to demonstrate
how
latent variable modeling can be used to partition variance in
com-
plex, multidimensional phenotypes and environment measures,
and tests whether general family environment, family smoking
environment, and family drinking environment in adolescence
are
differentiallyrelatedto tobaccomisuse,alcoholmisuse,and
general
problem behavior at age 24.
1.1. Specification of complex tobacco and alcohol use
phenotypes
The development of tobacco dependence and alcohol use dis-
orders is intertwined (Hawkins et al., 2002; Hughes et al.,
2000;
Jackson et al., 2005). It has been well established that
problem
tobacco and alcohol use also share substantial variance with
other
forms of drug use (Bailey et al., 2006; Tsuang et al., 2001;
Young
et al., 2006; Kendler et al., 2003), crime, and HIV sexual risk
behav-
ior (Iacono et al., 1999; Young et al., 2000; Duncan et al.,
1999;
Bryan and Stallings, 2002). Sociologicaland criminological
research
0376-8716/$ seefront matter 2011 Elsevier Ireland Ltd. All
rights reserved.
doi:10.1016/j.drugalcdep.2011.05.002
http://localhost/var/www/apps/conversion/tmp/scratch_7/dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.drugalcdep.2011.05.002http://localhost/var/www/apps/conversion/tmp/scratch_7/dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.drugalcdep.2011.05.002http://www.sciencedirect.com/science/journal/03768716http://www.elsevier.com/locate/drugalcdepmailto:[email protected]://localhost/var/www/apps/conversion/tmp/scratch_7/dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.drugalcdep.2011.05.002http://localhost/var/www/apps/conversion/tmp/scratch_7/dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.drugalcdep.2011.05.002mailto:[email protected]://www.elsevier.com/locate/drugalcdephttp://www.sciencedirect.com/science/journal/03768716http://localhost/var/www/apps/conversion/tmp/scratch_7/dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.drugalcdep.2011.05.002
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J.A. Bailey et al. / Drug and Alcohol Dependence 118 (2011)
444451 447
Family
Smoking
Environment
Family
Drinking
Environment
General
Family
Environment Shared
Variance in
Problem
Behaviors
AUDCriteria
NDCriteria
-.28*
.39*
.30*
.21*
.01-.02 I
DUDCriteria
Crime
SexualRiskBehavior
.75*.57* .94*
.80*.79*
Fig. 1. Model showing structural associations among latent
constructs without control variables. All structural paths
estimated in the final model are shown in the figure.
Omitted paths were notsignificant in preliminary models and were
dropped.
compared to Caucasians. Significant associations among
control
variables (African American with poverty r= .29, Asian
American
withpoverty r= .18,Asian Americanwith African Americanr=
-.34)
are not shown in the figure to improve readability. Model fit
was
acceptable [2 (73)= 208.72,p< .05, CFI= .91 TLI= .91, RMSEA=
.05
WRMR= 1.12].
4. Discussion
This study sought to use latent variable modeling to test
the
utility of conceptualizing both predictors and outcomes in
terms
of general and behavior-specific variance to examine the
contri-
bution of family environmental factors to tobacco misuse,
alcohol
misuse, and other problem behaviors. We sought to partition
FamilySmoking
Environment
Family
Drinking
Environment
General
Family
Environment-.24*
.39*
.24*
.11*
Male
Poverty
African American
Asian American
.42*
-.23*
-.09*
.10*
-.30*
-.10*
-.18*
-.41*-.28*
Shared
Variance in
Problem
Behaviors
AUDCriteria
NDCriteria
IDUDCriteria
Crime
SexualRiskBehavior
.75*.57* .94* .80* .79*
Fig. 2. Model showing structural associations among latent
constructs with control variables. All structural paths estimated
in the final model are shown in the figure;
correlation coefficients among control variables arepresented in
the text. Omitted paths were notsignificant in preliminary
modelsand were dropped.
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