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CompostingofSugarMillWastes:AReview

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World Applied Sciences Journal 31 (12): 2029-2044, 2014ISSN 1818-4952© IDOSI Publications, 2014DOI: 10.5829/idosi.wasj.2014.31.12.546

Corresponding Author: P. Saranraj, Department of Microbiology, Annamalai University, Annamalai Nagar, Chidambaram - 608 002, Tamil Nadu, India.

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Composting of Sugar Mill Wastes: A Review

P. Saranraj and D. Stella

Department of Microbiology, Annamalai University, Annamalai Nagar, Chidambaram - 608 002, Tamil Nadu, India

Abstract: India is one of the largest growers of sugarcane with an estimated produced of around 300 milliontons in the marketing year 2009-2019. Sugar-distillery complexes, integrating the production of cane sugar andethanol, constitute one of the key agro-based industries. There are presently nearly 500 sugar factories in thecountry along with around 300 molasses based alcohol distilleries. These include sugarcane trash, bagasse,pressmud and bagasse fly ash. Composting is an efficient method of waste disposal, enabling recycling oforganic matter. Composting is one of the most promising technologies for solid waste treatment. The organicsubstrates in solid waste can be biodegraded and stabilized by composting and the final compost productscould be applied to land as the fertilizer or soil conditioner. The present review paper deals with the followingtopics: Composting, Composting of pollutants and various industrial wastes, Physical and chemical nature ofraw pressmud, Biochemical changes during composting, Microbial enzymes and composting, Factorscontrolling composting and Characteristics of the compost and its application in agriculture.

Key words: Composting Pressmud Bagasse Bacteria and Fungi

INTRODUCTON process of treating raw sewage to produce a non-toxic

India produces on average of 270 million tons of semi-solid sludge, which is used as a soil amendment onsugar-cane per year [1]. During the production process land, incinerated or disposed in a landfill d) incineration aconsiderable amounts of by-products such as pressmud, process of combustion designed to recover energy andbagasse and sugar –cane residue are produced part of reduce the volume of waste going to disposal and e)these by-products can be utilized for the production of landfill the decomposition of waste in a speciallymolasses and alcohol; however, there still remains a designated area, which in modern sites consist of aconsiderable amount of waste to be disposed. Therefore, pre-constructed ‘cell’ lined with an impermeable layerthere is considerable economic interest in the technology (mam-made or natural) and with controls to minimizeand development processes for effective utilization of emissions [5].these wastes [2]. As a result emphasis is now on aerobic The composting process always occurs in nature,composting, that converts wastes into organic manure however, many artificial measures have been developedrich in plant nutrients and humus [3] biodegradation of to improve composting efficiency. Over the past decades,lingo -cellulosic waste through an integrated system of effective inoculation has been reported by severalcomposting with bio-inoculants and vermicomposting researchers. Various specialized inocula have beenhave been studied [4]. applied in practice. For example, Hatakka [6] studied the

Currently, the major methods of waste management lignin-modifying enzymes from selected white-rot fungiare; a) recycling the recovery of materials from products that white-rot fungi played an important role in ligninafter they have been used by consumer, b) composting an degradation. Nakasaki [7] reported that a thermophilicaerobic, biological process of degradation of bacterium, Bacillus licheniformis, could effectivelybiodegradable organic matter, c) sewage treatment a decompose protein and prevent the drop of pH values

liquid effluent which is discharged to rivers or sea and a

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during composting; thus, it could stimulate proliferation temperature and allows mesophilic microorganisms toof other thermophilic bacteria.

Ohtaki [8] revealed that inoculation could increasethe microbial population, formulate beneficial microbialcommunities, improve microbiological quality andgenerate various desired enzymes; and thus enhance theconversion of organics and reduce odorous gasemissions. The studies of Lei [9] indicated that theinoculated microbial populations and indigenouspopulations would evolve continuously, leading tovariations during different composting stages. This couldresult in difficulties in describing the relevant inoculationmechanisms. It also indicated that inoculation did notsignificantly raise the rate of temperature increase, but didincrease the time the composting high temperatureremained. Shin et al. [10] also studied the enhancement ofcomposting efficiency by adding solid and liquidinoculants. However, the inoculation efficiency wasusually affected by competition with indigenousmicroorganisms. The composting system may not havethe desired performance due to improper processoperations. For instance, Steven Donald Thomas [11]completed a study on microbial inoculation with mixedcultures of Bacillus sp., Trichoderma reesei andTrichoderma harzianum in composting fish wastes. Theinocula, performed well overall but were not alwayssignificantly better than the controlled compost piles,depending on the season and combination of inocula.

Composting provides a good model of microbialcommunities to study ecological issues such as diversitysuccession and competition during the biodegradationand bioconversion of organic matter with thermalgradients. The typical batch composting processproceeds via four major thermal stages, i.e., themesophilic, thermophilic, cooling and maturation phases,each of which has a particular microbial communitystructure developing in response to temperature and otherenvironmental conditions. In the first stage, organicsubstances are decomposed by mesophilicmicroorganisms at moderate temperature. Then, thetemperature is increased by self-heating as a result ofvigorous microbial activity. In the thermophilic phase, thetemperature reaches 80°C, which not only stimulates theproliferation of themophilic microorganisms, includingmesophilic pathogens. After the themophilic progressionof waste decomposition, the microbial activity lowers dueto the limited availability of degradable organicsubstances. This cooling phase leads to a decline of

predominate again.Composting converts organic matter into a stable

substance which can be handled, stored, transported andapplied to the field without adversely affecting theenvironment. Proper composting effectively destroyspathogens and weed seeds through the metabolic heatgenerated by microorganism during the process [12]. Suchcomposts are not only suitable for use as a soilconditioner and fertilizer, but can also suppress soil-borneand foliar plant pathogens [13].

Composting is a well-known system for rapidstabilization and humification of organic matter [14].As well as an environmentally friendly and economicalalternative method for treating solid organic waste [15].During composting, readily degradable organic matter isused by microorganism as a source of C and N. The endproduct (Compost) consists of transformed, slowly-degradable compounds, intermediate breakdown productsand the cell walls of dead microorganisms, which areclassified together as humic substances (H S). Numerous2

biological, microbiological and physic-chemicaltechniques have been developed to characterize theagrochemical properties and the maturity of compost.

One of the most effective means of recycling anyorganic wastes for agricultural use is by means ofcomposting, an accepted practice in India and elsewhere.In many cases in India it is valuable to add nutrients tocompost to increase its fertilizer value. Although, sugarindustry wastes are relatively high in nitrogen, calcium,magnesium and potassium, they are generally deficientphosphorus, iron and zinc when compared to fertilizerscommonly used in India. As a result, it is important toinvestigate the effect that amendments that are used toincrease the fertilizer value of compost have on theproduction of compost. Further, the possibility ofenriching organic wastes with micronutrients like Fe andZn, which have become critical in crop production, havebeen studied and their effectiveness is increasedappreciably through combined application of organicswith FeSO4 and ZnSO4 in addition to N, P, K fertilizer [16].Therefore, it is appropriate to develop compostingsystems that are capable of converting these agro-industrial wastes into valuable organic fertilizers.

Composting: India has huge biomass crop residues(100-115 million tonnes) like sugarcane trash, straw,bagasse, coir pith, cotton waste, farmland waste,

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agro-industrial wastes, aquatic weeds, but the potential in temperature, the curing period starts and may last for aof these organic resources is not fully tapped. It has long time. Therefore, two different groups ofbeen estimated that in India, about various tonnes of microorganisms are involved in the composting process:good-quality compost would be made available by Mesophilic and thermophilic microorganisms. Theutilizing these wastes and the monetary value of plant development of the mesophilic microbial community at thenutrients such as N, P, K and lime in the fertilizers. India initial stage is very important as it decides whether theis the second largest sugar producing country in the smooth transition from mesophilic to thermophilic periodworld and sugar industries discharge about 5, 45 and 7.5 can be accomplished successfully despite the fact that themillion tonnes annually of pressmud, bagasse and activity of Mesophilic bacteria may be greatly decreasedmolasses, respectively, as wastes [17, 18]. under a thermophilic temperature of 60°C [23].

Pressmud or filter cake, a waste by-product from Temperature change and the availability of substrates tosugar factories, is a soft, spongy, amorphous and dark bacteria seemed to mainly determine the composition ofbrown to brownish material which contains sugar, fiber, bacterial members at the different stages of compostingcoagulated colloids, including cane wax, albuminoids, [24]. A high external temperature at the initial period mayinorganic salts and soil particles. By virtue of the chemical retard the composting process of food waste because thecomposition and high content of organic carbon, the low pH and high temperature can result in the absence ofusefulness of pressmud as a valuable organic manure has the mesophilic microbial community [25]. been reported by several workers [19]. Bagasse is anotherwaste material from the sugar industry. It has been found Composting of Pollutants and Various Industrial Wastes:to be the best substrate for the growth of cellulolytic and The past 200 years has seen a rapid increase inligninolytic microorganisms [20] and could serve as an populations worldwide resulting in the need for evenexcellent carrier for bacterial inoculants. greater amounts of fuel and development of industrial

Composting, generally defined as the biological chemicals, fertilizers, pesticides and pharmaceuticals toaerobic transformation of an organic by-product into a sustain and improve quality of life [26]. Although, manydifferent organic product that can be added to the soil of these chemicals are utilized or destroyed, a highwithout detrimental effects on crop growth [21]. In the percentage is released into the air, water and soil,process of composting, organic wastes are recycled into representing a potential environmental hazard [27].stabilized products that can be applied to the soil as an Environmental pollution has become unacceptable forodorless and relatively dry source of organic matter, technological societies as awareness of its effects on thewhich would respond more efficiently and safely than the environment has increased. Unfortunately, it is notfresh material to soil organic fertility requirements. The possible to replace all the industrial processes generatingconventional and most traditional method of composting polluting wastes with clean alternatives. Therefore,consists of an accelerated biooxidation of the organic treatment both at source and after release, whethermatter as it passes through a thermophilic stage (45° to accidental or not, must be considered as alternatives in65°C) where microorganisms liberate heat, carbon dioxide many cases [28].and water. However, in recent years, researchers have Composting, the biotransformation of organic matter,become progressively interested in using another related minimizes or even eliminates such risks by means of thebiological process for stabilizing organic wastes, which biological and physicochemical conditions that existdoes not include a thermophilic stage, but involves the during the process. Biological activity leads to highuse of earthworms for breaking down and stabilizing the temperatures that can destroy pathogens if it lasts longorganic wastes. enough [29] and to the decomposition and transformation

Composting is also a self-heating process and of organic components into stable humic substances [30].temperature is a function of the accumulation of heat The production of antimicrobial compounds maygenerated metabolically and is simultaneously a contribute to this activity as well. On the other hand,determinant of metabolic activity. The composting several authors describe a limitation in the bioavailabilityprocess is generally characterized by a short mesophilic of pollutants such as heavy metals or pesticidesperiod initially and then a rapid transition to the throughout the composting process [31].thermophilic period [22]. After the subsequent decrease Composting is an aerobic process that relies on the

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actions of microorganisms to degrade organic materials, compost prepared by using thermophillic bacteria and it’sresulting in the thermogenesis and production of organic vermicompost which is prepared by using species Eiseniaand inorganic compounds. The metabolically generated foetida. while comparing physical and chemicalheat is trapped within the compost matrix, which leads to characteristics, it was found that vermicompost haveelevations in temperature, a characteristic of composting lower temperature, water holding , pH and carbon content[32]. Fogarty and Tuovinen [33] divided the composting but higher electrical conductivity, available phosphorusprocess into four major microbiological stages in relation and moisture content as compared to raw pressmud andto temperature. With these changes in temperature, there its compost.are related changes in the structure of the microbial Bhosale et al. [39] tested the physical and chemicalcommunity. With increases in the respiratory activity, characteristics such as pH, NPK organic carbon, organicthere is an increase in temperature resulting in a decrease matter, moisture content etc. of raw pressmud as well asin mesophilic microbes and an increase in thermophiles pressmud from which the wax is extracted by solventand it is at these higher temperatures that most of the recovery. It was found that the water holding capacity ofmicrobial decomposition takes place. In the third phase, soil containing dewaxed pressmud was high as comparedthere is a cooling effect due to the decrease in microbial to waxed pressmud and in the range of 58.39 to 92.43% inactivity as most of the utilizable organic carbon has been the dewaxed pressmud where as for wax containingremoved, resulting in an increase in mesophilic pressmud it was 49.39 to 86.63 %. The C: N ratio ofmicroorganisms. dewaxed pressmud was high and was 18.54 % as

It is important to differentiate at the onset the compared to that of waxed pressmud. The compostingdissimilarity between compost and composting [34]. processes improve the physical structure and lower the C:Composting is the process by which compost is N ratio of the pressmud and leads to reduction in C: Nproduced, i.e. the maturation of, for example straw and ratio i.e. 16.53 % of dewaxed pressmud after composting.manure [35]. Compost is the resultant product ofcomposting, with the exception of horticultural potting Physical and Chemical Nature of Raw Pressmud:composts. Thus, a composting bioremediation strategy Pressmud or filter cake, a waste byproduct from sugarrelies on the addition of compost's primary ingredients to factory is a soft, spongy, amorphous and dark brown tocontaminated soil, wherein the compost matures in the brownish material which contains sugar, fiber, coagulatedpresence of the contaminated soil. In contrast, compost colloids, including cane wax, albuminoids, inorganic saltscan be added to contaminated soil after its maturation. and soil particles. The composition of pressmud wasThese distinct approaches are discussed separately [36]. found to vary depending upon the quality of cane andBecause of the above characteristics, composting is process of cane juice clarification. There are twoconsidered the most suitable technique for transforming processes, i.e., carbonation and sulphitation by which theorganic wastes into usable agricultural amendments. cane juice is cleaned before its conversion to sugar

Nagaraju et al. [37] assessed the physicochemical crystals. Sulphitation processed pressmud being organicand cellulase activity in waste dump sites. The in nature could serve as a store house of macro and microexperimental results indicated that, most of the nutrients and the chemical analysis showed an organicphysicochemical properties such as silt, clay, electrical carbon of 35- 37 per cent, 1.0 to 1.5 per cent nitrogen,conductivity, water holding capacity, organic matter and 2.5-3.5 per cent phosphorus and 0.5-0.8 per cent potashtotal nitrogen contents, microbial population and cellulase [40]. Pressmud contains many valuable micronutrients.activities were significantly higher in the test sample than When this material is digested under anaerobic condition,in the control. Furthermore, though the application of the lignin, cellulose and waxes are converted to releaseeffluents substantially increased the cellulase activity, but micronutrients from pressmud that are freely available forwas declined at high effluent concentration. Nevertheless, plant growth [41].enzyme activity was gradually dropped upon prolonged Kapur and Kanwar [42] compared the nutritive valueincubation period in all three samples, such as control, between sulphitation and carbonation processedtest and effluent amended samples. pressmud cakes and reported that the nitrogen,

Namita Joshi and Sonal Sharma [38] analyzed the phosphorus and potassium contents in sulphitationphysical and chemical characteristics of raw pressmud, its processed pressmud cane were 2.43, 2.95 and 0.44 per

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cent. While carbonation processed pressmud cake protein. Carbon serves both as an energy source and forcontained 0.88, 0.93 and 0.53 per cent of N, P and K.

Virendrakumar and Mishra [43] found that thepressmud obtained from both carbonation andsulphitation processes was alkaline in nature. The organiccarbon content of pressmud obtained from carbonationprocess was low (15.07%) as compared to that fromsulphitation processed (26.0%). Nitrogen, phosphorusand potassium contents of sulphitation filter cake were2.38, 2.62 and 0.62 per cent respectively, whereascarbonation process cake contained 0.86, 1.02 and 0.60 percent N, P and K respectively.

According to Santhi and Selvakumari [44], thequantity of pressmud available in Tamil Nadu was around6.83 lakhs tonnes. Earlier this material was dumped inheaps in the vicinity of sugar factories since its use wasnot known. Various authors [45] have reported theusefulness of pressmud as valuable organic manure.

Namita Joshi and Sonal Sharma [46] analyzed thephysical and chemical characteristics of raw pressmud, itscompost prepared by using thermophilic bacteria and it’svermicompost which is prepared by using species Eiseniafoetida. It was found that vermicompost have lowertemperature, water holding, pH and carbon content buthigher electrical conductivity, available phosphorus andmoisture content as compared to raw pressmud and itscompost.

Bhosale et al. [47] tested the physical and chemicalcharacteristics such as pH, NPK organic carbon, organicmatter and moisture content of raw pressmud as well aspressmud from which the wax was extracted by solventrecovery. It was found that the water holding capacity ofsoil containing dewaxed pressmud was high as comparedto waxed pressmud and in the range of 58.39% to 92.43%in the dewaxed pressmud where as for wax containingpressmud it was 49.39% to 86.63 %. The C: N ratio ofdewaxed pressmud was high and was 18.54 % ascompared to that of waxed pressmud. The compostingprocesses improved the physical structure and lower theC: N ratio of the pressmud and leads to reduction in C: Nratio i.e. 16.53 % of dewaxed pressmud after composting.

Biochemical Changes During CompostingOrganic Matter Decomposition: When organic materialsare biodegraded in presence of oxygen, the process calledaerobic composting [48]. During aerobic condition, livingorganisms utilize oxygen, decompose organic matter andassimilate some of the carbon, nitrogen, phosphorus,sulphur and other elements for synthesis of their cell

building protoplasm and a greater amount of carbon isassimilated than nitrogen. A great deal of exothermicenergy is released during the oxidation of carbon to CO .2

The overall reaction likely to occur during aerobiccomposting may be represented as follows.

Cellulose Degradation: Cellulose is a basic component ofall plant materials and its production exceeds that of allother natural substances. Plant residues in soil consist of40-70 per cent cellulose. Cellulose is made up of chains of

-D-Glucose consisting of about 1900 glucose units(monomers). The enzymatic cleavage of cellulose iscatalyzed by cellulases. The cellulase system consists ofat least three enzymes viz., Endo -1, 4 glucanases, Exo-1,4 glucanases and -glucosidases.

Cellulose is degraded and utilized well in aerated soilsby aerobic microorganisms. The fungi play a significantpart in the degradation of cellulose under aerobiccondition. They are more successful than bacteria in acidsoils and in the degradation of cellulose embedded inlignin. The fungi actively involved in cellulosedegradation are species of Fusarium, Chaetomium,Aspergillus fumigatus, Aspergillus nidulans, Botrytiscinerea, Rhizoctonia solani, Trichoderma viride andMyrothecium verucaria.

Cellulolytic microorganisms are commonly found inthe field and forest soil in manure and on decaying planttissue. They include both aerobic and anaerobic fungi andbacteria, many of which grow under extreme conditions oftemperature and pH. Among the fungi, white-rot, brownrot and soft-rot fungi are more capable of degradingcellulose materials. The enzyme mechanisms involved incellulose degradation have been well studied by Rhy andMandels [49]. Some cellulose materials are associated withlignin and hence they also become somewhat recalcitrantand resistant to bioconversion. The crystalline cellulosewas found to be a superior carbon source for induction ofcellulase enzyme in thermophilic fungi than its amorphousor impure form. Marchessault and Sundarajan [50] statedthat in addition to the crystalline and amorphous regions,cellulose fibers contain various types of irregularities,such as kinks of twists on the micro fibrils or voids suchas surface micro pores, large pits and capillaries.

Degradation of Hemicelluloses: Hemicelluloses are acomplex group of cell wall polysaccharides. The

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hemicellulose is acted upon by a group of enzymes known such compounds were readily metabolized to methane byas hemicellulases. The hemicellulases complex consists ofthe enzymes viz., xylanases, arabinases, galactanases andmannanases. Wide array of glucosidases are involved inthe breakdown of the non cellulosic structuralpolysaccharides of the plant cell wall.

Hemicellulose includes xylan, mannan, galactanand arabinan as main heteropolymers. Xylan containsD-xylose as its monomeric unit and traces of L-arabinose.Galactan contains D-galactose and mannan is made upof D-mannose units while arabinan is composed ofL-arabinose. The capacity to degrade these carbohydratespresent in the major fungal groups includes the membersof the classes, Deuteromycetes, Phycomycetes,Ascomycetes and Basidiomycetes. Pleurotus sp. areknown to colonize and degrade a variety of lignocellulosicmaterials including crop residues and improve their food,feed and fuel value. Rajarathanam and Bano [51] studiedthe decomposition of hemicellulose in soil and reportedthat any process increasing the surface area of the debrisbefore its incorporation into the soil increased thedecomposition rate. They have observed thatincorporation of hemicelluloses into soil resulted inapproximately 70 per cent of the carbon being evolved asCO after 48 days incubation, whereas fine grinding of the2

hemicellulose prior to incorporation increased thedecomposition to 80 per cent.

Degradation of Lignin: Lignin comprises 20 to 30 per centof the dry weight of vascular plant. The lignin moleculecontains only three elements viz., carbon, hydrogen andoxygen but the structure is aromatic rather than being ofthe carbohydrate type as typified by cellulose andhemicellulose. The molecule is a polymer of aromaticnuclei with either a single repeating unit or several similarsubstances as the building blocks. Lignin is linked tocellulose and other carbohydrate polymers. As suchlignin carbohydrate complexes limit both the rate andproportion of carbohydrate digestion by microbes,particularly under anoxic condition. The economicapplications of microbiological process for producingsolvents, alcohols and methane from biomass requires,among other things, that rapid and complete substrateunder anaerobic conditions.

McCarty et al. [52] showed that pretreatment ofbiomass with alkali at high temperature greatly increasedits digestibility and gave increased yields of methane.During subsequent fermentation, chemical analysis oflignin subjected to heat and high pH showed that simplearomatic compounds were released by the treatment and

populations of anaerobic bacteria.Degradation of lignin and related compounds by

microorganisms has been studied extensively with anexpanding range of organisms known to have thisproperty. In particular, fungi classified as white rotunder Basidiomycetes and Deuteromycetes are wellknown to degrade lignin. Some bacteria are also known todegrade lignin completely, acting synergistically withfungi. The oxidative pathways of lignin degradation bysuch aerobes have been reported by Janshekar andFiechter [53].

Microbial Enzymes and Composting: Composting is aneffective organic matter degrading process when theappropriate conditions for microbial activity are given.It is a well known fact different types of microorganismsdominate as degradation proceeds [54]. Pressmud is asolid waste by-product from sugar industry. The value ofpressmud as an organic manure has been well recognizedfor utilizing in agriculture as it contains valuable plantnutrients and besides being very effective soil ameliorant[55]. However, pressmud and other lignocellulosicmaterials are not easily degraded due to the lignin,crystalline and structural complexity of cellulose matrix[56]. Therefore, many treatments have been tested toimprove the susceptibility of lignocelluloses throughchemical, enzymatic and microbial degradation and alkali,steam and acid treatments are few of the most commonlyused pretreatments on lignocellosic materials to increasethe sugars, the enzyme, the enzyme activity and biomassyields and the digestibility of the substrate [57].

Pressmud can be degraded by variety ofmicroorganisms such as bacteria, fungi and someactinomycetes. Primary decomposition of pressmud iscarried out by mesophilic populations using availablesimple sugars and the metabolic energy is dissipated asheat, temperature increases up to the thermophilic rangefrom 40 to 70°C. A second group of organisms capable ofdegrading polymers and utilizing intermediatefermentation products becomes active during thisthemophilic period. The proper composting process inwhich, conditions were provided for adequate transfer ofoxygen inside the piles was became a good qualitycompost [58].

Charya and Reddy [59] reported hydrolytic enzymeproduction by nonsporic isolates of Phoma enigue andGraphium penicilliodies obtained from Phaseolus aureusand Cyamopsis tetrgonolobus. Sharma and Doshi [60]reported the production of pectinolytic and cellulolytic

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enzymes during growth stages of Phellorina inquinans. lignin from the fiber cell wall, obviating the need fromCellulolytic enzyme systems are produced by a number ofdifferent types of microorganisms, such as aerobicbacteria, mesophilic and thermophilic fungi on widespectrum of lignocellulosic substrate such as wheatstraw [61], baggase [62], pretreated wood [63]. Of all thecellulolytic organisms, fungal cellulolytic enzyme systemshave been well studied with respect to their components,induction and secretion, molecular biology and theirstructure [64].

Maheswari et al. [65] reported that the thermophilicfungi produce multiple forms of the cellulose compounds.However, two different strains of Thermoascusauranticus produced one from each of endoglucanase,exoglucanase and -glucosidase, but it forms the twostrains had somewhat different properties. The multiplicityof individual cellulose might be a result of posttranslational and for post secretion modifications of agene product or might be due to multiple genes. Theendoglucanase of thermophilic fungi were thermostablewith optimal activity between 55°C and 80°C at pH 5.0-5.5and carbohydrate count of 2-50 per cent. Theexoglucanase were optimally active at 50-75°C and arethermostable.

The major hemicellulosic constituents of pressmudresidues are the hetro-1,4 -xylans. The hydrolysis of thexylans in these residues requires the participation ofxylanases as well as cellulases and -glucosidases. Manyorganisms are known to elaborate extracellular xylanasesduring growth on cellulosic residues. A mixed cultureprocess has enhanced cellulose and xylanase productionunder the optimal fermentation conditions [66]. Thecapabilities of the xylanolytic systems of differentorganisms to remove the substituents of the xylanbackbone (acetyl, arbinosyl and 4-methyl glucuronosylgroups) were variable. Trichoderma reesi culture filtratescontained all of these enzyme activities [67].

Prabhu and Maheswari [68] reported that multipleforms of xylanases differ in stability, catalytic efficiency,absorption and activity on substrates. A possible role forthe production of xylanase isoenzymes of differentmolecular size might be to allow their diffusion into theplant cell walls of highly variable structures. The majorityof xylanases have pH optima were ranging from 4.5 to 6.5.Thermoascus auranticus and Thermoascus lanuginosuswere optimally active at 70 to 80°C.

Maheswari et al. [69] reported that xylanases ofthermophilic fungi are receiving considerable attentionbecause of their application in bioleaching of pulp in thepaper industry, wherein enzymatic removal of xylan fromlignin-carbohydrate complex facilitates the leaching of

chlorine for pulp bleaching in the brightening process.A variety of materials such as pure xylan, xylan richnatural substrates, such as sawdust, corn cob, wheatbran, sugar beet pulp and sugarcane baggase have beenused for induction of xylanases.

Lynd and Zhang [70] reported cellulose hydrolysislimits the rate of microbial cellulose utilization under mostconditions as may be inferred from the observation thatmaximum growth rates on soluble sugars were usuallyseveral fold faster than on crystalline cellulose.Thermophilic cellulolytic and thermo tolerant cellulolyticmicrobes exhibited substantially higher growth rates oncellulose than do any of the mesophiles.

Thermostability of cellulases and xylanases is due tothe presence of an extra disulfide bridge which was absentin the majority of mesophilic xylanases and to an extent ofan increased density of charged residues throughout theprotein [71]. Important enzymes involved in compostingprocess include cellulase, protease, lipases, phosphatesand arlyl sulphatases. High levels of protease, lipase andcellulose activities have been detected throughout theactive phase of composting [72].

Goyal et al. [73] reported that the activities ofcellulases, xylanases and proteases were maximumbetween 30 and 60 days of composting in various wastes.Similar trend was observed with respect to mesophilicbacterial and fungal population. Various qualityparameters like C:N ratio, water soluble carbon (WSC),CO evolution and level of humic substances were2

compared after 90 day composting. Statistically significantcorrelation between C:N ratio, CO evolution, WSC and2

humic substances were observed.

Factors Controlling CompostingMoisture: Optimum moisture content is essential for themicrobial degradation of organic wastes. Aerobicdecomposition can proceed at moisture content between30 and 100 per cent if aeration can be provided. Initiallythe moisture content may be between 45 and 75 per centwith 50 to 65 per cent as optimum.

The materials can be stabilized at various moisturelevels depending upon several factors including initialmoisture, volatile solid content, turning frequency andwater added from rainfall. Floate [74] reported thatmoisture content has less influence than temperature onthe decomposition of organic materials of plant and animalorigin. Consequently, high moisture content must beavoided because water displaces air from the intersticesbetween particles and creates anaerobic conditions.Very low moisture content may deprive the organisms of

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water needed for their metabolism and inhibit their composting were within the above pH level. Further,activity. Verdonck [87] reported that organic matter with a wide

Waksman [75] recommended 75-80 per cent moisture range of pH (3.0 to 11.0) can be composted and thefor composting farm yard manure. Gotaas [76] stated that optimum levels for composting are between 6.0 and 8.0little decomposition takes place in manure heaps both and between 4.0 and 7.0 for the end product.under dry and waterlogged conditions and suggested amoisture content of 65-85 per cent depending on the Physical and Chemical Nature of Substrates: Thecharacteristic of the composting materials. chemical and physical properties of the substrate affect

Singh [77] reported that the loss of organic matter the composting process and the quality of the finishedincreased as moisture content upto 70 per cent and also product [88]. The waste which contains high content ofdecreased the rate of decomposition. Inbar et al. [78] organic matter, domestic wastes, sewage sludge andobserved that that moisture content had a major effect on agricultural biomass are suitable for composting [89].oxygen consumption. They reported that the oxygen Nutrient quality and quantity are the terms which mayconsumption was higher at higher moisture content and be considered for the chemical characteristic of themicrobial activity declined. wastes. The relative quantity of carbon, nitrogen,

Optimum moisture content is essential for the phosphorus, sulphur and other nutrients is important, butmicrobial proliferation during composting of wastes. it is also the quality of the substrate that decides the rateParticle size and moisture content are the important of decomposition [90]. Cellulose and lignin have similarphysical properties that affects the rate of decomposition. content of carbon but lignin undergoes decompositionOptimum moisture content of 40-60 per cent is essential much more slowly than cellulose [91]. Microbial andfor composting. If the moisture is below 40 per cent, enzymatic access to the substrates acceleratesdecomposition will be slow. If the moisture content is decomposition of wastes [92].more than 60 per cent anaerobic conditions occur [79].

Temperature: Proper temperature control is an important of the composting process and the volume of materialsfactor in aerobic composting process. During the process, finished. In other words, the rate at which organic matterthe temperature condition is considered to be a reflection decomposes during composting is principally dependentof the metabolic status of the microbial population upon the C:N ratio of the materials. During composting,involved in the process [80]. The temperature in the microorganisms utilize the carbon as a source of energycompost heap increases during the first few days between and the nitrogen for building cell structure. But, if the C is60°C and 70°C for several days and then decreased excessive, decomposition decreases. When thegradually to a constant temperature [81]. A drop in availability of C is less than that required for convertingtemperature could mean that the materials need to be available N into protein, microorganisms use most of theaerated or moistened [82]. The temperature must be available C and there may be loss of N through NHmaintained between 60°C and 70°C for 24 hrs to kill all volatilization [93].pathogens and weed seeds [83]. Golueke [94] reported that the optimum C:N ratio as

Shindia [84] reported that the variation in temperature 20-25 to 1. However, the C:N ratio of 50:1 is well withinrecorded during the composting process led to the optimum range and excellent results are also obtained withchanges in distribution of decomposing fungi in the even higher ratios as demonstrated by successfulcompost. Goyal et al. [85] observed changes in composting of leaves, sugarcane bagasse, saw dust, aldertemperature at various stages of decomposition of chips and cotton waste. Gaur [95] observed that whendifferent organic wastes. The initial temperature of 20- there is a severe nitrogen deficiency in the waste, addition30°C was recorded at the start of composting and highest of small amount of urea or other nitrogen sources may betemperature of 68°C was observed at 14 days of required to overcome to complete.composting.

pH: The pH of compostable material influences the type initial moisture content in composting materials. Adequateof organisms involved in the composting process. Fungi supply of oxygen to the organism should be maintainedtolerate a wide pH range than bacteria. The optimum pH if composting is to proceed rapidly. The supply of oxygenrange for most bacteria is between 6.0 and 7.5. According can be increased by blowing air into the compost.to Gotaas [86], most of the waste materials available for The provision of air vents into the base of the composting

C:N Ratio: The carbon to nitrogen ratio affects the speed

3

Aeration/Turning: Aeration is useful in reducing high

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mass or by ‘turning’ or regular mixing of compost heaps with bioinoculants and subsequent vermicomposting.[96]. Wheat straw was pre-decomposed for 40days by

Turning the materials is the most common method of inoculating it with Pleurotus sajor-caju, Trichodermaaeration. Turning is often cited as the primary mechanism harzianum, Aspergillus niger and Azotobacterof aeration and temperature regulation during windrow chroococcum in different combinations. This wascomposting [97]. Turning frequency is commonly believed followed by vermicomposting for 30days. Chemicalto be a factor which affects the rate of composting, time analysis of the samples showed a significant decreaserequired to reach full maturation and the elimination of in cellulose, hemicellulose and lignin contents duringphytotoxicity as well as compost quality [98]. However, pre-decomposition and vermicomposting. The N, P, Koptimum turning frequencies for different materials vary content increased significantly during pre-decompositionwidely. It was also reported that composting of spent litter with bioinoculants. The best quality compost, based onwith a 2 or 4 day turning frequency had a faster chemical analysis, was prepared where the substrate wascomposting rate than turning of spent litter pile with a 7 treated with all the four bioinoculants together followedday turning frequency. by vermicomposting. Results indicated that the

Odour and Colour of the Compost: The unpleasant odour required for composting and accelerated the compostingemitted from composting heaps decreased during the first of lignocellulosic waste during the winter season besidesstages of bio oxidation phase and practically disappears producing a nutrient-enriched compost product.by the end of the composting process [99]. Chanyasak The effect of composts prepared from various organicand Kubota [100] stated that lower fatty acids are one of waste were examined by several workers through glassthe major components causing the very unpleasant odor house and field experiments. It is evident that increasedin the compost. During the composting of waste, a yield and nutrient uptake were related mainly to thegradual darkening or melanization of the material takes improved physical condition or the nutrient contents ofplace and the final product was dark brown in color. organic wastes [104] and a significant increase in crop

Characteristics of the Compost and its Application in application of enriched compost. The results of fieldAgriculture: Compost produced by super thermophilic experiments indicated that application of 3202 kg ofbacteria was well characterized by Kanazawa et al. [101] pressmud compost was equivalent to 502 kg of triplefor its application as fertilizer to cultivate plants. Soil super phosphate. They also demonstrated that dry matterfertilized by the compost keeps nutrient ions in forms yield, phosphorus uptake, grain and straw yield of riceeasily accessible for uptake by plant roots. Nitrogen in were comparable for pressmud compost and triple superorganic compounds is converted to ammonium ion phosphate.through hyper-thermophilic aerobic fermentation. The Mishra et al. [105] observed that the compostoxidative process producing nitrate ion does not take application increased the phosphorus use efficiency byplace during composting because Nitrosomonas or wheat (20.48%) and greengram (12-90%) as compared toNitrobactor cannot survive or be active under single super phosphate. It was also reported that thetemperatures higher than 80°C. For the same reason, the compost increased the quality of grains by increasing thedenitrification process might not be activated. Organic protein and Ca contents.nitrogen, typically amino or heterocyclic group in Gaur [106] observed that the addition of compost tobiochemicals, is either converted to ammonium or remains the top layer at a soil favoured the penetration of waterin an undigested form in the compost, thus reducing any and air. Organic matter has greater influence of waterlosses of nitrogen. One explanation of the advantages of retention through soil structural changes viz., change inapplying the compost in agricultural fields is that the pore size between soil aggregates. The results of the threechemical and micro-morphological features of compost year field trials conducted by Raman et al. [107] haveproduced by the hyper-thermophilic aerobic bacteria shown that application of pressmud significantlyeffectively control the ecology of bacteria and other increased infiltration rate as well as water stableorganisms, even though the hyper-thermophilic bacteria aggregates and found to be superior compared to fly ashthemselves are inactive [102]. and gypsum.

Anshu Singh and Satyawati Sharma [103] conducted Pressmud applied to sugarcane along with N, Pthe preliminary studies on wheat straw to test the and K fertilizers significantly increased the yield oftechnical viability of an integrated system of composting, cane and also quality of rice [108]. On the contrary,

combination of both the systems reduced the overall time

yield and nutrient uptake was reported due to the

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Yaduvanshi et al. [109] observed that application of Goyal et al. [114] studied the changes in temperaturepressmud and nitrogen alone or in combination did not and physico-chemical parameters of sugar industryaffect the sucrose and purity of cane juice. However, they wastes during windrow composting. The rise infound that the yield of cane increased by 12.9 to 65.6% temperature which occurred as composting progressedover that of control. Application of pressmud increased was accompanied by an increase in NH –N and thethe maize and wheat yield by 129.4 and 62.2% passage of the thermophilic phase to mesophilic tookrespectively. Continuous application of pressmud and place between 90 and 105 days. This overall pattern wasnitrogenous fertilizer also significantly increased the cane observed in all composting mixes, whereby theand sugar yield of sugarcane. Tiwari et al. [110] found concentrations of NH – N increased rapidly and thenthat combined application of 5 tonnes of pressmud and 5 declined gradually over the course of monitoring withtonnes of FYM significantly increased sunflower seed increase in NO – N. The C:N ratios of the compostingyield, seed protein and oil contents as compared to mixes decreased substantially by the 90 day in fullcontrol without pressmud. thermophilic phase and became comparatively stable later

Virendrakumar and Mishra [111] observed that on. Addition of additives showed potential in improvingaddition of pressmud obtained from carbonation process the C:N ratios. increased the pH and decreased the available Rahul Kumar et al. [115] composted the wastephosphorus; whereas sulphitation pressmud caused no by-products of the sugar cane industry, bagasse,change in the pH and available P, both types of pressmud pressmud and trash using bioinoculation followed byincreased the organic carbon and available K content of vermicomposting to shorten stabilization time andsoil. Addition of organic manure in conjunction with improve product quality. Pressmud alone and infertilizers to maize-soybean cropping system significantly combination with other by-products of sugar processingincreased available N, P, K, Fe, Cu, Mn and Zn in soil. industries was pre-decomposed for 30 days by

Yadav et al. [112] reported that addition of sugarcane inoculation with combination of Pleurotus sajor-caju,trash enriched with rock phosphate, phosphorus Trichoderma viride, Aspergillus niger and Pseudomonassolubilizers, cellulolytic fungi and Azotobacter increased striatum. This treatment was followed bythe number of nodules, nitrogen activity of nodules and vermicomposting for 40 days with the native earthworm,grain and straw yields of greengram. In sugarcane Drawida willsi. The combination of both treatmentscultivation, nitrogen uptake and dry matter production reduced the overall time required for composting towas increased by incorporation of pressmud (normal or 20 days and accelerated the degradation process of wasteenriched with Pleurotus or Trichoderma viride) in to soil by-products of sugar processing industry, therebyfor sugarcane. Continuous application of pressmud and producing a nutrient enriched compost product useful fornitrogenous fertilizer also increased significantly cane and sustaining high crop yield, minimizing soil depletion andsugar yield of sugar cane. value added disposal of waste materials.

Shindia [113] conducted the compost studies to Ferial Rashad et al. [116] monitored thedetermine the conversion of sugar mill wastes into a microbiological and physicochemical parameters duringstable product that may be useful in crop production and composting of five piles containing mainly rice straw,to characterize the N transformations. Two kinds of sugar soybean residue and enriched with rock phosphate.mill by-products were composted, filter cake and filter Physico-chemical changes confirmed the succession ofcake mixed with bagasse, at a 2:1 ratio to reduce the C:N microbial populations depending on the temperature ofratio in an attempt to reduce N loss during composting. each phase in all treatments. Intense microbial activitiesMaterials were mixed manually at 3-5 day intervals during led to organic matter mineralization and simultaneouslythe composting process. Both composts were analyzed at narrow C/N ratios. Inoculation of composting mixturesleast weekly to measure temperature, pH, NH , NO , total enhanced the biodegradation of recalcitrant substances.4 3

N content, C loss and germination index. For both The duration of exposure to a temperature above 55°C formixtures, the thermophilic stage lasted 15-20 days and was at least 16 consecutive days was quite enough to sanitizehigher than ambient for nearly 80 days. The degradation the produced composts. After 84 days, all compostsof organic matter was rapid in both mixtures to reached maturity as indicated by various parameters.approximately 40 days after which it began to stabilize. Dan Lian Huang et al. [117] tested the microbialBoth mixtures achieved maturity at approximately 90 days populations and their relationship to bioconversionas indicated by a stable C:N, low NH /NO , lack of heat during lignocellulosic waste composting quinone4 3

production and a germination index was higher than 80%. profiling. Nine quinones were observed in the initial

4

4

3th

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composting materials and 15 quinones were found in Collaboration in Biotech. A Report Portfolio. Firstcompost after 50 days of composting. The quinonespecies which are indicative of certain fungi appeared atthe thermophilic stage but disappeared at the coolingstage. Q-10, indicative of certain fungi and characteristicof certain bacteria, were the predominant quinones duringthe thermophilic stage and were correlated with lignindegradation at the thermophilic stage. The highest lignindegradation ratio (26%) and good cellulose degradationwere found at the cooling stage and were correlated withquinones and long-chain menaquinones attributed tomesophilic fungi, bacteria and actinomycetes,respectively.

Ali Mohammadi Torkashvand et al. [118]investigated the compost production by usingTrichoderma fungus, different acidities of the used waterin moistening organic wastes and nitrogen in a factorialcompletely randomized design. Treatments includeddifferent levels of water pH for moistening organic matterand urea. Each treatment contained a mixture of bagasse,filter cake, manure and fresh alfalfa; that themicroorganism’s suspension was sprayed on the rawmaterials amounted 2.5 mg/kg dry organic matters.-1

Results indicated that the C/N ratio reduced to lessthan16% in produced compost. Treatment having pH=5.5of the used water with 0.5% urea was suitable forproviding compost from the cane organic wastes.

Shrikumar et al. [119] conducted the experiment ondisposal of spent wash by composting with pressmudcake (PMC) through microbial consortium treatment by pitand windrow system. The compost prepared by windrowand pit methods from PMC and spent wash usingmicrobial culture within 45 days ranged C: N ratio from10.19:1 to 13.88:1 and 14.32:1 to 22.34:1, respectively. Thecompost obtained in various treatments by windrowmethod contained 1.52-3.7 % N, 0.9-3.54 % P O , 1.95-3.452 5

% K O and had pH range from 7.02-7.82. Similarly, the2

compost obtained in various treatments by pit methodcontained 1.34-2.85 % N, 0.30-0.72 % P O , 2.20-4.72 %2 5

K O and had pH range from 7.40-8.16. Microbial2

consortium used in their investigation includedphosphate solubilizing fungi and Burkholderia speciesisolated from the sugarcane and sugar beet rhizosphere.

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International and The 4 National Congress onth

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