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BACTERIAL GROWTH
FYBSc.
Bacterial growth
4-2
Binary fission
Generation time
Phases of growth
Binary fission
Figure 4.2
1. Prokaryote cells grow
by increasing in cell
number (as opposed
to increasing in size).
2. Replication is by
binary fission, the
splitting of one cell
into two
3. Therefore, bacterial
populations increase
by a factor of two
(double) every
generation time.
Generation time
4-4
The time required to for a population to double (doubling
time) in number.
Ex. Escherichia coli (E. coli) double every 20 minutes
Ex. Mycobacterium tuberculosis double every 12 to 24
hours
Principles of Bacterial Growth
Growth can be calculated
Nt = N0 x 2n
(Nt ) number of cells in population
(N0 ) original number of cells in the population
(n) number of divisions
Example
N0 = 10 cells in original population
n = 12
4 hours assuming 20 minute generation time
Nt = 10 x 212
Nt = 10 x 4,096
Nt = 40,960
1. Bacteria growing in batch culture produce a growth curve with up to
four distinct phases.
2. Batch cultures are grown in tubes or flasks and are closed systems
where no fresh nutrients are added or waste products removed.
3. Lag phase occurs when bacteria are adjusting to them medium. For
example, with a nutritionally poor medium, several anabolic pathways
need to be turned on, resulting in a lag before active growth begins.
4. In log or exponential phase, the cells are growing as fast as they can,
limited only by growth conditions and genetic potential. During this
phase, almost all cells are alive, they are most nearly identical, and they
are most affected by outside influences like disinfectants.
5. Due to nutrient depletion and/or accumulation of toxic end products,
replication stops and cells enter a stationary phase where there is no
net change in cell number.
6. Death phase occurs when cells can no longer maintain viability and
numbers decrease as a proportion.
Growth in Batch Culture
Growth in Batch Culture
Mean Generation Time
and Growth Rate
The mean generation time (doubling time) is the amount of time required for the concentration of cells to double during the log stage. It is expressed in units of minutes.
Growth rate (min-1) =
Mean generation time can be determined directly from a semilog plot of bacterial concentration vs time after inoculation
timegeneration mean
1
Mean Generation Time
and Growth Rate
Basic Chemostat System
Lab Chemostat System
Environmental factors
4-12
Temperature
Oxygen requirement
pH
Water availability
Temperature
4-13
Enzymes, the machinery of the cell, are influenced by external factors and can be shown to have a range where they function that includes an optimal value that produces the highest activity.
The range of enzyme activity determines the range for growth of specific bacteria, analogously leading to a value for optimal growth rate.
In the case of temperature, bacteria are divided into categories based on the temperature range where they can grow and the temperature that provides optimal growth.
Temperature
Psychrophile
0o to 18o C
Psychrotroph
20°C to 30°C Important in food spoilage
Mesophile
25°C to 45°C More common
Disease causing
Thermophiles
45°C to 70°C Common in hot springs and hot water heaters
Hyperthermophiles
70°C to 110°C Live at very high temperatures, high enough where water threatens to become
a gas
Usually members of Archaea
Found in hydrothermal vents
Oxygen requirements
4-15
• Oxygen is a very reactive molecule and can affect cells in several ways. The effect of oxygen is often determined using thioglycollate broth, a special medium that contains a reducing agent (thioglycollate) that removes oxygen so that a gradient occurs within the tube.
• Obligately aerobic bacteria can obtain energy only through aerobic respiration and have to have oxygen available. Thus, they will grow only at the surface of thioglycollate broth.
• Obligately anaerobic bacteria die in the presence of oxygen and can only grow at the bottom of thioglycollate broth. Some anaerobes are so sensitive to oxygen that even thioglycollate broth is not anoxic enough to provide suitable anaerobic conditions.
• Microaerophiles require oxygen for growth but the 20% in air is too toxic. As a result, they grow near the top but beneath the surface of thioglycollate broth where the oxygen concentration is typically 4 – 10%.
• Facultative anaerobes can use oxygen for aerobic respiration but can switch to fermentative metabolism in the absence of oxygen. As a result, they will grow throughout thioglycollate broth. (Heavier growth at top.)
• Aerotolerant anaerobes are anaerobic bacteria that can grow in the presence of air. (Not shown in diagram.)
pH
4-16
Neutrophiles grow best around neutral pH (7)
Acidophiles grow best at pH < 7
Alkophiles grow best at pH > 7
Acidotolerant grow best at pH 7 but can also grow at
lower pH
Alkotolerant grow best at pH 7 but can also grow at
higher pH
Water Activity
Liquid water is essential for life.
Aqueous solutions actually have different amounts of
water available, depending on how many solutes are
dissolved in it. As a very simple model, consider two
glasses, one full of pure water, the other containing the
same amount of water plus a sponge. Which one would
be easier to drink? On a much smaller scale, dissolved
solutes act like a sponge, making less water available.
Water activity (aw) can be decreased by the addition of
any soluble molecule although salt (NaCl) and sugars
are probably the most common.
Water Activity
Microbes that require a high water activity (near or at 1) are termed nonhalophiles. (Halophile = salt-loving)
Some bacteria require salt to grow and are called halophiles. If a very high concentration of salt is required (around saturation), the organisms are termed extreme halophiles.
A nonhalophile that can grows best with almost no salt but can still grow with low levels of salt (~ 7%) is called halotolerant.
In general, fungi are more tolerant of low water activity. (That’s why your jelly is more likely to get contaminated by fungi than bacteria.)
Nutritional Requirements
Growth of prokaryotes depends on nutritional
factors as well as physical environment
Main factors to be considered are:
Required elements
Growth factors
Energy sources
Nutritional diversity
Nutritional Requirements
Major elements (CHONPS + K, Mg, Fe, Ca) Carbon, oxygen, hydrogen, nitrogen, sulfur, phosphorus,
potassium, magnesium, iron, and calcium Essential components for macromolecules
Organisms classified based on carbon usage Heterotrophs
Use organism carbon as nutrient source
Autotrophs Use inorganic carbon (CO2) as carbon source
Trace elements (Co, Cu, Ni, Zn, Se, Mg, Wo) Cobalt, zinc, copper, molybdenum and manganese
Required in minute amounts Assist in enzyme function
Nutritional diversity Different organisms require the same nutrients but may require
different forms of the nutrients
Major elements
Element % dry wgt Source
Carbon 50 organic compounds or CO2
Oxygen 20 H2O, organic compounds, CO2, and O2
Nitrogen 14 NH3, NO3, organic compounds, N2
Hydrogen 8 H2O, organic compounds, H2
Phosphorus 3 inorganic phosphates (PO4)
Sulfur 1 SO4, H2S, So, organic sulfur compounds
Potassium 1 Potassium salts
Magnesium 0.5 Magnesium salts
Calcium 0.5 Calcium salts
Iron 0.2 Iron salts
Carbon Source
Organic molecules
Heterotrophs
Inorganic carbon (CO2)
Autotrophs
Nitrogen Source
Organic nitrogen
Primarily from the catabolism of amino acids
Oxidized forms of inorganic nitrogen
Nitrate (NO32-) and nitrite (NO
2-)
Reduced inorganic nitrogen
Ammonium (NH4+)
Dissolved nitrogen gas (N2) (Nitrogen
fixation)
Phosphate Source
Organic phosphate
Inorganic phosphate (H2PO4- and HPO4
2-)
Sulfur Source
Organic sulfur
Oxidized inorganic sulfur
Sulfate (SO42-)
Reduced inorganic sulfur
Sulfide (S2- or H2S)
Elemental sulfur (So)
Growth Factors
Some bacteria cannot synthesize some cell constituents These must be added to growth environment Referred to as growth factors
Organisms can display wide variety of factor requirements Some need very few while others require many These termed fastidious
Typical molecules Amino acids
Nucleotide bases
Enzymatic cofactors or “vitamins”
Culture Media
4-29
Complex (contains undefined components)
Chemically defined (all concentrations are known)
Selective (favors the growth of a particular organism or
group of organisms)
Differential (has reactions that give isolates different
appearance)
Anaerobic (oxygen-free)
4-30
Characteristics of Media