BACKGROUND DOCUMENT

Electronic conference ‘Successes and failures with animal nutrition practices and technologies

in developing countries’

1 - 30 September 2010

CONTENTS

1. Introduction

2. An overview of animal nutrition practices and technologies in developing

countries

2.1 Preamble

2.2 Development of feeding standards (maintenance and production)

2.3 System of feeding and precision feeding

2.3.1 System of feeding

2.3.2 Precision feeding

2.4 Minerals and vitamins

2.4.1 Minerals

2.4.2 Vitamins

2.5 Removal of mycotoxins from feeds

2.6 Site of digestion

2.6.1 Site of digestion and rumen ‘by-pass’ protein

2.6.2 Control of biohydrogenation/protected fats

2.6.3 Ionophores

2.6.4 Probiotics and live microorganisms

2.7 Intake strategies

2.8 Multi-nutrient blocks

2.9 Crop residue utilisation

2.9.1 Production and nutritive value

2.9.2 Grazing in situ

2.9.3 ‘Stall grazing’/Self selection

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2.9.4 Manual box baling

2.9.5 Manual leaf stripping

2.9.6 Physical treatment

2.9.7 Chemical treatment

2.9.8 Biological treatment/solid state fermentation

2.9.9 Treatment with exogenous fibrolytic enzymes

2.9.10 Traditional plant breeding and modern genetic approaches

2.9.11 Supplementation of crop residues

2.10 Silvipastoral and agroforestry techniques for animal feed

2.11 Forage production

2.12 Forage conservation

2.13 Novel feeds

2.14 Feed enzyme additives

2.14.1 Exogenous enzymes in ruminant feeds

2.14.2 Use of phytase and non-starch polysaccharides degrading enzymes in

monogastrics feeds

2.15 Methane mitigation

2.16 Strategies for alleviating adverse effects of anti-nutritional factors, especially tannins

2.16.1 Tannins

2.16.2 Other antinutrients

2.17 Essential amino acids and supplementation

3. Specific points about this e-conference

3.1 Issues to be addressed in the e-conference and suggestions on the format for writing contributions 3.2 How to submit a message

3.3 How this e-conference will be run

3.4 A checklist before submitting a message

4. References and Acknowledgements

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1. Introduction

Nutrition is the foundation of a livestock production system and proper nutrition is

imperative for achieving high and sustained livestock productivity. During the last four

decades a number of animal nutrition based technologies and practices have been

developed and applied both on-station and on-farm in developing countries, with varying

degree of success. Some technologies have produced profound beneficial effects and

have been widely used; while others have shown potential on research stations but have

not been taken up by farmers. Other nutritional strategies produced benefits to farmers so

long as they were supported by a donor-funded project, but their use could not be

sustained after the project concluded.

To learn from these experiences, the FAO Animal Production and Health Division has

organised this e-conference. This is a stock-taking exercise describing the current status

and analysing the reasons for the success or failure in applying different animal nutrition

practices and technologies and to draw conclusions for the future. The conference covers

both ruminants and monogastrics and the focus is on developing countries.

This e-conference provides an opportunity for researchers and development workers with

an interest in livestock development in the government, NGO and private sectors to share

their knowledge and experience in the area of animal nutrition.

The expected outputs are:

• Documentation of the current status of animal nutrition practices and technologies being practised in developing countries.

• An analysis of the reasons of why different animal nutrition practices and technologies succeed or fail.

• Options to assist developing countries make informed decisions about the adoption of appropriate animal nutrition practices and technologies.

• A ‘plan of action’ to ensure the development community recognises the importance of animal nutrition, and prioritizes and supports appropriate animal nutrition practices and technologies in developing countries.

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This Background Document aims to provide information that participants will find useful

for the e-mail conference. In Section 2 an overview is provided of the different animal

nutrition technologies and practices to be considered in this e-conference. Section 3

presents some specific guidance about this e-mail conference. Section 4 provides

references of articles mentioned in Section 2 of this document and acknowledgements.

2. An overview of animal nutrition practices and technologies in developing

countries

2.1 Preamble

There has been much research and development in animal nutrition during the last 30/40

years – the subject is wide-ranging and the published literature is large. Therefore the

consideration of the subject that follows in sections 2.2-2.17 is necessarily rather

superficial and is by no means an exhaustive literature review. Future sustainability of

technologies is not discussed, but should be borne in mind in view of concerns about food

security, population growth, limiting resources and global warming. Also not discussed is

organic farming, but the subject will assume future importance because of the need for

sustainable systems of livestock production.

Although concepts and technologies are considered individually, in practice, especially in

commercial livestock production, several nutritional interventions will be adopted as a

package, together with interventions from related disciplines e.g. breeding, reproduction

and disease control. Similarly in smallholder farms nutritional strategies need to be

applied along with other interventions related to farm management, reproduction and

breeding and health to ensure sustainable increases in livestock productivity.

2.2. Development of feeding standards (maintenance and production)

Most of the accepted feeding standards for farm livestock have been developed in the

North and West using temperate breeds and feeds, under research conditions: pigs (e.g.

ARC, 1981), cattle (e.g. ARC, 1984), poultry (NRC,1994) and goats (NRC, 1981; AFRC,

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1998). Jayasuriya (2002) questioned the value of accepted feeding standards in

developing countries because of the wide range of low quality and non-conventional

feeds that are used. The partition of nutrients is complex and governed by the genotype of

the animal, stage of development, quantity and quality of feed and the environment

(Buttery et al., 2005). When these are translated to practice, especially under markedly

different climatic conditions and with indigenous breeds, productivity is usually less than

predicted. The alternative approach to setting standards is to measure response to a

defined set of conditions, where again field performance will probably be less than

expected but the inputs will be similar to those used on-farm. This does not imply that

standards are unimportant, they do have a role as a benchmark and as a vehicle for the

inclusion of newly proven concepts, such as ARC (1984), where protein for ruminants

was split between rumen degradable and rumen undegradable (by-pass) protein. Since

then response studies have shown how the application of this concept depends on both

the source of energy, soluble or insoluble carbohydrate, the quality of protein and the use

of non-protein nitrogen. This information is being widely used, in the feeding of crop

residues and the urea molasses multinutrient block (UMMB) technology (section 2.8).

However, there is much that could still be done to facilitate practical application, for

example the feeding programme (DRASTIC) devised by Thorne (1998) for rationing

smallholder owned dairy cows.

2.3 System of feeding and precision feeding

2.3.1 System of feeding

Preston and Leng (1987) suggested that livestock production in developing countries be

matched more closely to the resources available. System of feeding is affected by feeds

and method of dispensing. For ruminants this will consist of a diet based on forages and

concentrates. Winrock (1992) predicted that forage consumption would double by 2025,

with a 10-fold increase in grain for non-ruminants being required over the same period.

With non-ruminants a complete diet is offered, either alone or in combination with

scavenging.

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Ruminant systems depend on the intensity of production and the land tenure system under

which they are kept. Among the most versatile is the mixed farming system practised by

small-scale farmers (Thomas and Rangnekar, 2004). The most extensive systems include

the pastoralists. Communal grazing consists of animals in multi-ownership grazing

together, either in extended paddocks or in open rangeland. Where population pressure

has reduced the amount of grazing, tethering and stall-feeding on a cut-and-carry basis is

common and this can lead to trading of forage and an opening for landless farmers (rural,

peri-urban and urban) (IAEA, 1999), who have to pay in cash or kind for access to

grazing. Intensive grazing systems are based around paddocking, although it is not

unusual for the forage to be fed on a cut-and-carry system. Coupled with the grazing

which supplies the bulk needed and nutrients depending on the season, are

concentrates/supplements needed for the desired level of production. These may consist

of one or a combination of feeds and additives (minerals and vitamins), e.g. UMMB.

Supplements are offered at regular intervals, weekly through to being continuously

available, and in the most sophisticated systems (beef feedlot or intensive dairy) mixed as

a complete ration with the forage (total mixed ration, TMR). The concentrate fraction can

be ‘home-grown’ and mixed, purchased straights for home-mixing or a commercially

prepared compound formulated (using feeding standards) to balance the forage fraction to

provide a complete diet. For the smallholder dairy farmer the programme devised by

Thorne (1999) provides a mechanism to match the potential production of the animal

with the feeds available.

Non-ruminants have traditionally scavenged but increased demands have resulted in a

sophisticated feed industry producing diets tailored to intensity of production and

function. Holness et al. (2005) describe increasing intensification from scavenging,

through part-confinement to full integrated systems, with each step allowing increasing

control over the diet.

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2.3.2 Precision feeding

The relevance of precision feeding is increasing as greater production from a shrinking

resource base is expected, together with aspects such as animal welfare, disease,

environmental issues, economics, traceability, robots and livestock management

(Lokhurst and Groot, 2009). The aims of precision feeding are to deliver accurately the

amounts of nutrients required by the animal for maintenance and the production expected

and of which it is capable. To do this, production management, including control of

feedstuffs, identification of disease and monitoring are needed (Liu et al., 2008). With

pigs and poultry this is likely to involve complete diet feeding, and in large intensive

units sophisticated systems of feed analysis, mixing, delivery and recording. Chadd

(2007) argued that ‘resource sufficiency’ rather than ‘insufficiency’ would help promote

sustainable future poultry production at all levels, but would necessitate consideration of

novel feeds rather than dependence on the traditional. For cattle systems precision

feeding will range from offering a complete diet (TMR) or forage and concentrates

separately, which may involve grazing. Control will consist of two stages, the first being

of ingredients, the second of delivery to cows equipped with a transponders allowing

access to one of many diets depending on animal identification (Yan, 2008). That animal

response rather than requirement should control feeding, and the possibility for this by

the development of computer packages was examined by Newbold (2004).

2.4 Minerals and vitamins

2.4.1 Minerals

The total amount of any one mineral required by an animal will depend on its age and

production function. The amount needed as a supplement will depend on the amount

contained in the feeds. Minerals can be divided into two groups, macro-minerals and

trace minerals. Goff (2004) listed seven macro-minerals, together with symptoms of a

dietary deficiencies, of which sulphur is only required by ruminants, which when absent

will limit the manufacture of rumen microbial protein. Of the eight trace minerals, again

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one, cobalt, is listed as essential only for ruminants because of its role in the production

of vitamin B12, important for efficient use of propionate. Mineral supplements can be

offered in several forms: as a commercial standardised block or lick; in powder form,

often mixed into a concentrate feed or sprinkled over the feed; as straits, occasionally

with free choice; and as a component in a multi-nutrient block (this can be a specific

mineral known to be lacking in the background feed). A standard cocktail of minerals can

be expensive and in large-scale intensive units feed analysis permits specific mixtures to

be prepared. Supplementary sodium is offered either as a lick or block, added to the

concentrate. The sodium content of forage can also be increased through its application as

fertilizer. While essential there are tolerance limits ranging from under 4% in the diets for

chicks and up to 9% for cattle above which ill-effects have been noted, such as increased

water intake, reduced intake in sheep and convulsions in pigs (Reeves, 2004). In Tunisia

dairy cattle productivity was improved by supplementing a diet deficient in calcium and

phosphorus with di-calcium phosphate (Rekhis et al., 2002). In high yielding dairy cows

the links between milk fever and deficiencies of calcium and phosphorus, and magnesium

and hypomagnesaemia are well established. IAEA has supported the production of a 1.0

kg mineral block to improve the mineral status of cattle, camels and yak in Mongolia.

The major constituent was salt but a range of minerals was included (IAEA, 2010).

Chelates are organometallic compounds, many of which occur naturally. In animal

nutrition they are used to sequester or stabilise metal ions, the commonly used agent

being ethy-lenediaminetetraacetic acid (EDTA) (Crenshaw, 2004). The advantages of

chelated minerals, such as Se, Cu, Zn and Mg for poultry, and other livestock, include a

reduction in the quantities required in the diet and a reduction in pollution (Acamovic,

2002).

2.4.2 Vitamins

Vitamins are often present in feeds but when animals are confined or under production

stress, deficiencies may occur. A comprehensive list of their prevalence and predisposing

factors to a deficiency is given by Schaefer (2004). Examples include the following: .

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vitamin A deficiency, mainly in cattle lacking access to green forage, can result in eye

and productivity problems; B2 (Riboflavin) deficiency results in slow growth and other

disorders in poultry and pigs; A shortage of vitamin D can cause rickets in young animals

and occasionally osteoporosis in adult animals; a shortage of vitamin E effects selenium

and oxidation. FAO has distributed vitamins to camelid herders in Peru because of

increasing problems caused by extreme cold (New Agriculturist, 2010).

2.5 Removal of mycotoxins from feeds

Mycotoxins are secondary metabolites, or fungi, that grow on a large number of crops,

including cereals and some forages. They adversely affect both humans and livestock,

and are capable of causing serious disease and death. Plant breeding and good

agricultural and harvesting practices may help to reduce their presence (see Bennet and

Klich, 2003 for a description of the major organisms involved). Production in dairy cattle,

beef cattle and poultry is reduced by infected feeds and can result in conditions

transferable to humans, for example transfer of Aflatoxin M1 to milk. Correct and rapid

fermentation in silage to lower the pH will reduce the likelihood of mould growth

(Whitlow and Hagler, 2010). Schwaizer and Baecke (2010) listed possible interventions

to inactivate mycotoxins; the most promising being those with multi-functional activity.

Those listed include microbial inactivation, mould inhibition, fermentation, physical

separation, thermal inactivation, ammonification, ozone degradation and absorption. The

most promising were thought to be microbial inactivators, which work during the

digestive process thus safeguarding vital organs such as the liver from damage. Sundstøl

and Coxworth (1984) recommended ammonia treatment of crop residues not only to

improve digestibility and intake, but also to inhibit mould in moist materials. In

Zimbabwe, Wood et al. (2001) developed on-farm, low-cost forage stores using locally

available materials to overcome mould growth during storage.

Other methods to reduce mycotoxin levels include milling, for density segregation, the

use of forms of calcium and sodium and ammonia and the addition of vitamin E to the

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diet (D’Mello et al. 2007). The authors recommended preventive, rather than remedial

measures and the use of materials resistant to fungal growth where possible.

2.6 Site of digestion

2.6.1 Site of digestion and rumen ‘by-pass’ protein

Digestion in the rumen gives ruminants two major advantages over monogastrics: the

ability to digest large amounts of fibre and therefore utilise low quality forage, including

crop residues; and the ability to convert non-protein nitrogen into microbial protein.

However, there are some constraints in that an excess of ammonia in the rumen compared

to the amount of fermentable energy can lead to a build-up of ammonia in the liver

causing toxicity and a waste of nitrogen. Depending on the type and level of production

required, microbial protein may be insufficient and a supply of ‘by-pass’ protein,

escaping rumen breakdown to be digested in the small intestine may also be needed.

Steps to increase the supply of by-pass protein include complexing the protein with

tannin to avoid rumen breakdown, but reversible in the lower tract, and also heat and

chemical treatments such as formaldehyde (Buttery et al., 2005). Digestion of starch (a

major component of cereal grains) in the rumen is normally around 70-80% and is used

for the production of volatile fatty acids (VFA) that are absorbed through the rumen wall

and constitute a major source of energy for the animal. The composition of the VFA will

depend largely on the type of diet fed, fibrous feeds favouring the production of acetate

and starchy feed propionate. Starch that escapes rumen fermentation is available for

digestion in the small intestine, similar to that of a monogastric with the principal end-

product being glucose, which can be stored in the liver and muscular tissue, thereby being

available when the feed supply cannot meet the needs of the animal. With high grain diets

some starch may reach the lower gut.

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2.6.2 Control of biohydrogenation/protected fats

Fat is a high energy compound available both from oilseeds and their residues, as well as

tallow. However, if large amounts are fed in their natural state to ruminants excessive

biohydrogenation will occur as well as a reduction in fibre digestibility. To overcome this

fat can be protected by encapsulation with casein and spraying with formaldehyde

making it undegradable in the rumen (Scaife, 2004). The technique can be used to

manipulate milk yield and quality as well as carcass fat. Whereas hard fats are

recommended for ruminants, soft fats are preferred for non-ruminants where oilseeds will

need severe physical processing, such as extrusion or micronization, to make them

available (Soffe, 1995).

2.6.3 Ionophores

Ionophores are described by Reed (2004) as ion-bearing compounds that surround

cations. Ionophores act by interrupting transmembrane movement and

intracellular equilibrium of ions in certain classes of bacteria and protozoa. The actions of

ionophores give a competitive advantage for certain microbes at the expense of

others. Some of the commonly used ionophores are valinomycin, lasalocid, monensin,

lysocellin, narasin, tetronasin and salinomycin. Stock and Mader (2008) listed three ways

in which ionophores affect rumen fermentation, by: 1) changing the types of volatile fatty

acids produced in favour of propionate and enhancing the glucose status; 2) decreasing

the breakdown of feed protein in the rumen and increasing the flow of protein of dietary

origin to the small intestine (total flow of protein to the lower tract is often increased with

ionophore feeding); and 3) reducing the incidence of acidosis and bloat. Ionophores may

also reduce coccidiosis. Monensin and lasalocid have been the most studied in research,

demonstrating benefits to animals. Monensin also has a potential to decrease methane

emission from ruminants (Iqbal et al., 2008).

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2.6.4 Probiotics and live microorganisms Probiotics are feed supplements added to the diet to improve the microbial health of the

digestive tract. In ruminants most benefits are likely in young animals before the

microflora of the rumen is developed, although yeast may improve rumen fermentation in

adult ruminants (Phillips, 2004). Hughes and Heritage (2001) warned of the risks of using

medically proven antibiotics for livestock and recommended in their place feed enzymes,

competitive exclusion products including microbes, and probiotics. Steiner (2007)

suggests three action pathways for probiotics to work: competitive exclusion; bacterial

antagonism; and immune modulation. The benefits include growth in poultry and pigs,

and improved feed conversion in pigs.

2.7 Intake strategies

Voluntary feed intake and diet selection in farm animals have been summarised by

Forbes (1995) and NRI (2006). An adequate diet consists of two interrelated components,

a balanced ration and sufficient intake. When offered a balanced ration an animal will eat

to meet its requirements to produce according to its genetic potential. When stall-feeding

the amount offered can be restricted to ensure total intake or fed to the extent that refusals

occur, when the animal is said to be fed ad libitum. If there is an imbalance in the diet,

intake will be impaired, e.g. an excess of fibrous foods compared to protein, thus limiting

digestion and reducing rate of passage and intake, or an excess of readily fermentable

carbohydrates compared to fibre, which can result in ketosis especially in newly calved

dairy cows.. In some systems amount of time of access may be a constraint, as occurs

when grazing animals have to be herded or the time to eat concentrate feed is restricted,

e.g. in a milking parlour for slow eaters or in a group for non-dominant animals.

Manipulation of the feeding system can optimise intake and thereby increase animal

productivity.

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Feeding a complete mixed diet is the best way to ensure a balanced intake, with least

opportunity for selection. However, with ruminants this is only an option in limited

circumstances such as intensive dairy and beef finishing units (cf. section 2.3.2). Feeding

in excess of expected intake, especially of a fibrous diet (e.g. Osafo et al., 1997) increases

intake by allowing selection of the most palatable (see section 2.9.3). In some

circumstances tethering does not restrict intake and simplifies management in busy

periods including during the cropping season (Romney et al., 1996). With high-yielding

dairy cows it is established that lactation yield can be increased by maximising peak yield

in early lactation, but this is not always easy as there is often a reluctance to eat at this

time. Steaming up of a pregnant animal in the weeks before parturition ensures body

reserves that can be used in early lactation. However, often a combination of approaches

is more effective than a single approach. In Nepal farmers’ goats fed a supplement and

dosed with an anthelmintic grew faster and flock asset value increased more than those

receiving either treatment in isolation (Rymer et al., 2004).

Forbes (2004) suggested likely intakes for poultry, both for meat and eggs at various

stages of growth and production and lists four reasons for deviation from predicted

‘requirements’; 1) ‘requirements’ specified by a specific feeding system may differ from

the animals needs; 2) there may be a physical restriction to intake; 3) there might be a

metabolic imbalance; and 4) the animal might be sick.. Acamovic et al. (2004) discussed

feeding of scavenging poultry in India, both as a source of income and for household

nutrition. Mupeta et al. (2003) recorded better returns from scavenging chickens than

village chickens reared intensively in Zimbabwe. Poultry rearing in Southern Asia from

village level up to large-scale intensive units for meat and eggs was described by

Prabakaran (2003). Conroy et al. (2004) found that scavenging poultry benefited from

waste seeds from crops and from predating dung heaps and other domestic livestock

within the household.

Like poultry, pigs are able to exist by scavenging, although productivity is low. With

some confinement, supplementation is possible whilst full confinement enables feeding

of balanced rations. With intensive production the aim should be linear growth from

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weaning through to slaughter (Holness et al., 2005). Forbes (2004) suggested restricting

pregnant sows to just under half ad libitum intake, but after farrowing intake will increase

rapidly depending on environmental temperature, litter size and diet quality. Growth and

fattening potential are factors affecting intake in growing pigs. With all livestock species

full intake potential will only be reached if adequate drinking water is available (Buttery

et al., 2005).

2.8 Multi-nutrient blocks

The urea molasses multi-nutrient block (UMMB) was originally developed to supplement

ruminants fed low quality, fibre-rich rations with low nitrogen. Because of the danger of

feeding urea (Leng et al., 1992) without a fermentable energy source, molasses was

incorporated, together with cement or bentonite as a binder. The ingredients of the block

can be flexible, allowing for the inclusion of local materials (e.g. olive cake in Tunisia;

Ben Salem et al., 2003), by-pass protein as well as urea, minerals (Rekhis et al., 2002)

and medication (Aarts et.al., 1990). The recipe used can be tailored to suit all levels of

production and class of stock. Blocks can be produced commercially, as a community

exercise, thus generating off- farm employment, or by individual farmers. Transport is a

major element of the cost of the finished product, whether it is for moving dietary

components to the point of manufacture or delivering ready-made blocks to the farm.

Although UMMB are usually associated with raising the nutritional status of the diet,

they can also have a role in disaster feeding strategies, e.g. total mixed rations (TMR)

based on a high straw inclusion of up to 85 % for low yielding cows, the remainder of the

mix being molasses, minerals and salt; the straw amount being reduced for higher

yielders and protein being added (Walli, 2009). Multinutrient blocks have also been

successfully used as a carrier for anthelminthics to control internal parasites and for other

additives such as polyethylene glycol to inactivate tannins and enhance nutrient

availability from tannins-rich feedstuffs (Makkar et al.,2007).

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UMMB have been widely tested in Africa and Asia through programmes initiated by the

International Atomic Energy Agency (IAEA) and by the Food and Agriculture

Organisation of the United Nations (FAO). In 1999-2001 10 Asian countries took part in

field testing (IAEA, 2002). Similarly for Africa, results from programme RAF/5/041

were presented at a meeting in Cairo (IAEA, 1999). Supplementing forage with a feed

concentrate and UMMB increased milk production up to 1.5 litres/day and enhanced both

live-weight gain and body condition score. Conception rate was improved in the

supplemented cows, resulting in substantial fall (from 24 to 36 months without

supplementation to 12 to 15 months with supplementation) in calving interval. Also a

significant decrease in the age at first calving of heifers has been noted. Research and

development of UMMB have been supported by extension through field days and

demonstrations of manufacture and use in the field. A summary of the background and

present stage of uptake was given by Makkar et al. (2007).

2.9 Crop residue utilisation

2.9.1 Production and nutritive value

Fibrous crop residues are stovers and straws of cereals and pulses and by-products of

processing (e.g. sugarcane bagasse, hulls and husks) and vast quantities are produced

(e.g. for cereals, 1.5-6.0 t/t grain) throughout developing countries. Crop residues

represent a large forage resource for ruminants and herbivores but are under utilised,

mainly because of their low nutritive value. Due to lignification and high cell-wall

content they have a low organic matter digestibility (OMD less than 50%) and hence a

low content of metabolisable energy (about half that of cereals for ruminants and even

less for non-ruminant herbivores). They contain little crude protein (<50 g/kg DM) and

are deficient in minerals and vitamins. Because of these limitations, the intake of crop

residues is low (<15 g DM/kg live weight daily for ruminants). They are also bulky,

therefore expensive to transport and store. During the past 30-40 years there has been

much R & D to improve the utilisation of crop residues as feeds (Kategile et al., 1981;

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Pearce, 1983; Sundstøl and Owen, 1984; Doyle et al., 1986; Owen and Jayasuriya, 1989a

& b; Ørskov and colleagues, 1989; Schiere and Ibrahim, 1989; Preston, 1995); much of

the work has been in developing countries and has largely involved stall-fed ruminants.

2.9.2 Grazing in situ

In practice crop residues are mostly utilised by grazing in situ, but there is relatively little

literature on grazing methods per se, although there is some, e.g. in southern Africa, with

the emphasis being on strategic supplementation (Holness, 1999) (see section 2.3.1) and

stocking rate (Manuychi et al., 1992a). Removing cereal stubble by grazing instead of

burning is under investigation at ICARDA in Syria (Rihawi et al., 1993; Rihawi, 1997).

2.9.3 ‘Stall grazing’/Self selection

A grazing approach to stall feeding crop residues, whereby animals are offered about

twice as much as they will consume, has been shown to improve intake of digestible OM,

e.g. from sorghum stover by cattle, goats and sheep in Ethiopia (Aboud et al., 1993;

Osafo et al., 1997), and from maize stover by dairy cattle in Kenya (Methu et al., 2001).

Increasing the amount offered allows animals to select for the more digestible leaf and

leaf sheath (Zemmelink, 1980; Bhargava et al., 1988) which make up about 50% of the

weight of stover. This grazing approach is also referred to as ‘high offer-level of feeding’

and ‘self selection’ (Preston, 1995). High offer-level feeding involves no treatment, but

requires an abundance of crop residues. Osafo et al. (1997) found that high offer-level

and chopping of sorghum stover were additive in their positive effects on intake in sheep,

but not in cattle.

2.9.4 Manual box baling

For resource-poor smallholders the use of conventional baling machines to facilitate

transport of bulky crop residues is too expensive. Manual ‘box baling’ of maize stover,

using a bottomless wooden box as a frame and trampling, was shown to halve transport

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costs in Tanzania (Massawe et al., 1999a). In Africa manual box baling of forages was

first developed in Kenya (Onim et al., 1992) and has been investigated for packaging rice

straw in Bangladesh (Akbar et al., 2005).

2.9.5 Manual leaf stripping

Leaf stripping from maize as a method for generating high quality forage for livestock

without adversely affecting cereal yield has been developed in Kenya and elsewhere in

Africa (Thorne et al., 2002). Massawe et al. (1999b) reported stripping leaves from maize

stover combined with box baling as a means of reducing the cost of transporting the

‘edible’ portion of stover for feeding livestock whilst leaving the stalks in the field for

nutrient recycling (Powell et al., 1995).

2.9.6 Physical treatment

Physical treatment of crop residues involves reducing particle size (chopping,

grinding/milling) with or without packaging into pellets or cobs (Walker, 1984). Most

literature involves commercial feed manufacture and production of total mixed rations on

farm in developing countries and (more recently) in China (Tingshuan et al., 2002; Pi et

al., 2002; Jiang et al., 2004). Chopping of forages is often practised in smallholder

farming in developing countries to facilitate handling and to reduce selection and

wastage. However, chopping does not always increase intake as the response depends on

the extent of particle size reduction produced by the method used; generally sufficient

particle size reduction to increase intake is only achieved by grinding – much of the

literature on chopping and grinding lacks detailed description of particle size (Owen,

1978; Walker, 1984). If anything, digestibility is decreased by grinding. However, in

India, chopping of straws and soaking it in water is used widely since it increases intake

and productivity of the animal.

Also considered a physical process is steam treatment of bagasse, the moist, fibrous

residue after extraction of sucrose from sugar cane (Walker, 1984; Rangnekar et al.,

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1986; Preston, 1995). Optimal treatment (pressure and time) results in a large increase in

digestibility of bagasse and the reduction in pH (<4) improves keeping quality.

2.9.7 Chemical treatment

Chemical treatment of cereal straw with sodium hydroxide to improve digestibility and

intake in ruminants and herbivores has a long history in Europe (Homb, 1984) and since

1970 industrial methods (Rexen et al., 1984) and on-farm methods (Wilkinson, 1984)

have been developed and applied. Treatment of crop residues with sodium hydroxide in

developing countries has received relatively little R & D except for comparison with

other methods (e.g. Saadullah et al., 1981; Said, 1981).

Treatment of straw with ammonia solution or anhydrous ammonia has also received

much R & D and application in Europe, especially since the 1970s (Sundstøl and

Coxworth, 1984). Unlike sodium hydroxide, treatment with ammonia/ammonia

generating chemicals has received much R & D in developing countries (Owen and

Jayasuriya 1989a & b; Schiere and Ibrahim, 1989; Preston, 1995; Tingshuan et al., 2002).

Compared to sodium hydroxide, ammonia is slightly less effective in improving

digestibility and intake, but its gaseous form reduces the need for physical processing to

enable admixture with the chemical. Ammonia has the further advantage of improving

nitrogen content thus reducing the need for supplementation when feeding it. Ammonia

also inhibits mould resulting in improved keeping qualities of treated residues. For cereal

crop residues, ammonia treatment increases OM digestibility by 5-10% units, nitrogen

content of DM by about 1% and ad libitum intake by 25-50% (Preston, 1995).

The most common ammoniation method in developing countries is to spray the dry crop

residue with an equal weight of water containing 4-5% of urea, and then place in a pit or

covered stack for 3-14 days. The method is referred to as ‘wet treatment with urea’

(Preston, 1995) or ‘urea-ammonia treatment’ (Schiere and Ibrahim, 1989). Due to urease

presence in the crop residue and in microbes present as contaminants on straws, urea is

converted to ammonia during storage (Makkar and Singh, 1987). As some crop residues

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contain no urease (e.g. maize cobs) addition of a source (e.g. whole soya bean) may be

beneficial.

Sundstøl (1994) reported animal urine as a potential renewable source of ammonia for

upgrading crop residues. Zaman and Owen (1995) used calcium hydroxide and urea. In

southern China ammonium bicarbonate (applied at 5-15% of residue) is the preferred

source of ammonia for treating rice straw whilst in northern China, urea plus calcium

hydroxide has been used (Liu and Wang, 2005).

Urea is a valuable fertiliser. Calcium hydroxide as well as other locally-available

alternatives to urea for treating crop residues are wood ash and Magadi soda (in East

Africa) (Owen et al., 1984; Owen and Jayasuriya 1989a). A further method for reducing

usage of urea is to merely treat the more fibrous fractions rejected by animals in ‘self

selection’ feeding (Wahed and Owen, 1987) as the improvement in digestibility from

treatment is inversely related to digestibility before treatment (Mwakatundu and Owen,

1974).

2.9.8 Biological treatment/solid state fermentation

Biological treatment of fibrous crop residues using fungi to improve nutritive value has a

long research-history (Zadrazil, 1984) and much R & D has been underway, particularly

in India (Gupta et al., 1993) to find microbes which improve digestibility (by

delignification) and increase protein content, whilst minimising loss of biomass. The

method used is solid-state fermentation (Nigam et al., 2003). Margerison (2004) writes

“Solid state fermentation using white rot fungi Pleurotus florida and brassica haulm can

produce a highly digestible myco-protein-rich fermented ruminant feed. Oyster

mushrooms degrade cellulose in sugarcane bagasse or spent rice straw, trapping and

consuming nematodes, which provide additional nitrogen”.

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2.9.9 Treatment with exogenous fibrolytic enzymes

Treatment of fibrous crop residues with exogenous fibrolytic enzymes is an emerging

technology that shows potential (e.g. Senthilkumar et al., 2007), as evident from the

reviews of Beauchemin et al. (2003) and Colombatto and Adesogan (2007). The latter

conclude that there is inconsistency in the response to enzyme use and that part of this

can be attributed to lack of adequate characterisation of enzymes products prior to use.

They call for more research to develop or refine in vitro bioassays that reflect ruminal

conditions.

2.9.10 Traditional plant breeding and modern genetic approaches

Traditional plant breeding in cereals has been for higher grain yields and decreased straw:

grain ratios, yet high grain-yielding varieties of the Green Revolution have not been

widely adopted by small-scale farmers, probably because of their lower yields of crop

residue which are needed for feeding (Nordblom et al., 1997). There is considerable

potential for breeding cereal crop residues of higher nutritive value in developing

countries (e.g. Capper et al., 1988; Nordblom et al., 1997; Blümmel et al., 2009) but the

extent to which this has been done appears limited.

There is also considerable potential for using modern genetic approaches to improve crop

residues and other forages, e.g. stay green (e.g. Robson et al., 2001) and high sugar grass

(IGER & British Seed Houses, 2003).

2.9.11 Supplementation of crop residues

Crop residues, with or without the treatment, require some supplementation to make up

for inherent deficiencies of protein, minerals and vitamins and there is a large literature

on this aspect (e.g. Preston and Leng, 1984; Preston 1995; Buttery et al., 2005; Smith et

al., 2005a) (see sections 2.3, 2.4, 2.8, 2.10).

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2.10 Silvipastoral and agroforestry techniques for animal feed

Leaves and fruits from multi-purpose trees (MPTs) contain medium to high levels of

protein. Bennison and Paterson (1993a) when discussing Gliricidia spp. found that exotic

species grow faster and are more consistent in their forage yields than indigenous species.

Other trees covered in the Natural Resources Institute series included Prosopis spp.

(Clinch et al., 1993); Acacia spp. (Bennison and Paterson, 1993b), Quercus spp.

(Paterson, 1993a), Cassia spp. (Paterson and Clinch, 1993a), Ficus spp. (Paterson and

Clinch, 1993b) and Calliandra spp. (Paterson, 1993b). The counter argument is that

indigenous species are often well established in mixed rangeland and serve many

purposes other than supplying forage. Many of the species from both sources are

legumes. Intercropping with exotic species not only supplies forage but also increases the

arable crop yield by providing mulch, acting as a control to soil erosion and enhancing

soil fertility (Topps, 1992). Exotic species to Africa include Leucaena leucocephala,

Gliricidia sepium, Cassia, Calliandra calothyrus and Sesbania, sesban. Indigenous

species include Accacia spp., together with closely related species. A description of the

indigenous and many of the naturalised non-indigenous species of Southern Africa and

their uses is given by Coates Palgrave (1983). The importance in the field of local names

is demonstrated by their use in the Field Guide to the acacias of Zimbabwe (Timberlake

et al., 1999).

Where goats are allowed into rangeland, much of their forage will come from browsing,

especially from indigenous species. Fruits from these trees can either be collected and fed

as supplements (Smith et al., 2005b) or grazed as tree litter during times of grazing

scarcity. The fruits have a hard exterior making them easy to store for strategic use when

a production supplement is needed or when other feeds are in short supply. With exotic

species, especially when grown in cropping areas, forage is likely to be harvested within

a cut-and-carry system. A farmer with a surplus of such forage to his own requirements

has a tradeable asset.

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2.11 Forage production

Ruminant livestock production is dependent on forage for its success. While in

commercial intensive systems land suitable for cropping will be used for forage

production, in extensive and smallholder systems forage production is largely from non-

arable land. Forage encompasses grass and legume spp. together with shrubs and trees for

grazing, cut-and-carry and browsing. Techniques for developing and managing sown

pastures were summarised by Humphreys (1987) but uptake has been slow in the

smallholder sector. Kidunda et al. (1990) and Smith et al. (2005a) listed possible

constraints which included shortage of suitable land caused by demand for arable land

encroaching into traditional grazing areas, shortage of credit for inputs, lack of a

guaranteed market for produce, unpredictable rainfall patterns, labour constraints and

lack of knowledge. Dairy farmers are the most likely group to sow forages because of the

immediate return from the sale of milk, typified by feeding Napier grass (Pennisetum

purpureum) together with a legume supplement to cross-bred dairy cows in sub-humid

coastal Kenya (Muinga et al., 1997). Also in Kenya, the production indices of stall-fed

dairy cows were better than those of grazing animals in agro-ecological zones 1 and 2

(Mbuga et.al., 1999). Supplementing cows with tree legume leaves (Sesbania sesban) in

Malawi significantly improved their performance (Kumwenda, 1999). The effect of

season on production and quality of forage was demonstrated by Njoya et al. (1999), who

recorded a marked fall in dairy cow production indices in the dry season, when grass

quality and availability were at their lowest.

2.12 Forage conservation

Most forage is harvested directly by the animal through grazing or browsing. However,

monthly feed calendars of availability show that in most systems a scarcity of forage will

occur naturally within the 12-month cycle due to excessive cold or the absence of rain.

To overcome this forage conservation is essential if productivity is to be maintained.

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Usually this is achieved through making hay or silage, with haylage being an

intermediary product (Suttie, 2000).

Hay is usually made by solar and wind action on cut forage to give a product containing

at least 85% dry matter (DM). The quicker the hay is made and moved to a dry store the

closer the value will be to the original material, through minimising nutrient loss through

leaching and leaf shatter. Haymaking can either be a highly industrialised operation

resulting in big bales, or reliant on hand tools and draught power. Hay can either be fed at

the site of production or transported, giving it potential as a cash crop. Anhydrous

ammonia and dry urea have both been used as preservatives in hay made at up to 35%

moisture (Jones, 2004).

Silage results from stored forage undergoing anaerobic fermentation, good silage

resulting from adequate production of lactic acid and buffering capacity to neutralise that

acid (Davies, 2004a; McDonald et al., 1991). A wide range of forages and other crops,

including whole crop cereals such as maize, can be ensiled, some in combination to

enhance the value of a low quality crop (e.g. mix of wheat straw and citrus waste). The

water soluble carbohydrate content of the ensiled crop will determine the need for an

additive to be used in the making process. However recent work suggests the value of

additives, especially inoculants even under ideal conditions (Jones, 2004b). The method

of making and storing silage, like hay, will depend on the complexities of the livestock

operation in which it will be used. Silage can be made and stored in pits, clamps, towers,

bales (wrapped in plastic) or bags. Unlike the other forms, bale silage is a tradable

commodity. Bag silage, using reject fertilizer bags, has been successfully made and fed to

milking cattle in Zimbabwe (Mhere et al., 2001; LPP project R7010). The point at which

silage is classified as haylage is indeterminate but is generally accepted when the DM

content exceeds 50%, thus restricting fermentation and resulting in a material with a pH

often around 5.5 (Jones, 2004a).

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2.13 Novel feeds

These are derived from crops and locally occurring indigenous plants, and as secondary

products or waste from agricultural and industrial processes based on agricultural crops.

They do not include cereal by-products, or crop residues (section 2.9). Included in this

group are oil-seed cakes and by-products of industries such as brewing, catering,

distilling and sugar refining (molasses, see multi-nutrient blocks, section 2.8). Tree leaves

and fruits are considered separately (see section 2.10) although by-products of tree crops

and fruit processing fall within this group. Many of the materials available contain

moderate to high levels of protein and/or fermentable energy, with fibre contents lower

than those of traditional crop residues. Some, e.g. highly-valued oil-seed cake, will only

be affordable by commercially based production units, others will involve collection from

the factory, and some, such as brewery waste, may generate a livestock production unit

attached to the primary production unit. Pulses and groundnuts leave highly nutritious by-

products for on-farm use. While the forage based feeds will be of primary use to

ruminants, many of the industrial wastes may be of value to non-ruminants.

Examples of novel feeds in livestock production given by IAEA (2002) included feeding

oil-seed cake to dairy cows in Madagascar and Ghana, where the concentrates were

compared with a multi-nutrient block, and the use of poultry waste in Egypt. Poultry

waste was compared to cottonseed meal as a protein source for feedlot cattle and sheep in

Zimbabwe (Manyuchi et al., 1992b). To overcome the problem of palatability the poultry

waste was introduced gradually. A side effect of the acceptability of the nitrogen source

was a steady increase over time in the cost of the poultry litter. Use of these materials

also raises the questions of legality of use, which varies between countries, and consumer

and cultural preferences. Availability of these feeds has been summarised (Kossila,

1984; FAO/APHCA, 1988; Devendra, 1988) with the likely quantities available

calculated as a percentage of the total yield of the crop. Smith et al. (2005a) listed novel

feeds according to their source, with an indication of their nutritional content and

digestibility. There is no clear relationship between protein content and likely

25

digestibility, the likely drivers of use being accessibility, affordability and shelf-life of the

material.

World-wide there is an abundance of waste paper edible to ruminants especially when

forage is in short supply. However, according to Gohl (1981) the nutritional value of

paper is variable with chemical pulp being more digestible than mechanical pulp. The use

of sawdust, wood pulp and bagasse has been restricted by low digestibility and intake.

2.14 Feed enzyme additives

2.14.1 Exogenous enzymes in ruminant feeds

The use of exogenous enzymes in ruminant feeding in developed countries is as

fermentation stimulants in silage additives (Davies, 2004b) and as feed additives to

improve the performance of intensively-fed dairy and beef cattle (Beauchemin et al.,

2003). As biological silage additives, enzymes (cellulases, xylanases, hemi-cellulases,

pentosanases and amylases) are used to release water-soluble carbohydrates from forage

polysaccharides and are often applied together with inoculants containing lactic acid

bacteria (Davies, 2004b). The potential for using enzyme technology in developing

countries to improve the digestibility of forages, especially crop residues (e.g.

Senthilkumar et al, 2007) is enormous. However, as indicated in section 2.9.9.

Colombatto and Adesogan (2007) consider the use of enzymes an emerging technology

requiring further R & D.

2.14.2 Use of phytase and non-starch polysaccharides degrading enzymes in monogastrics feeds

These are much used as feed additives for intensively-fed pigs and poultry. Phytase,

produced by Aspergillus microbes releases bound phosphorus from phytate in plant tissue

(Benevenga, 2004). Acamovic (2004) writes “Feeds used in poultry and pig diets are

often by-products of human food with high concentrations of non-starch polysaccharides

26

(NSPs) and oligosaccharides, as well proteins that are resistant to digestion, and

antinutrients such as tannins, trypsin inhibitors, lectins and phytates. Enzymes used are

carbohydrases, proteases, phytases and to a lesser extent lipases. Supplementation with

the correct enzymes can increase the availability of nutrients, increase growth and

productivity, alleviate the adverse effects of antinutrients and decrease release of

environment pollutants. A benefit of supplemental enzymes in diets of non-ruminants has

also been in reducing the occurrence of wet, sticky faeces”. There is a large literature on

the subject (e.g. Choct et al, 2005; Nadeem, 2005; Kembhavi, 2006; Taibipour and

Kermanshahi, 2008).

2.15 Methane mitigation

Livestock account for approximately 37% of all anthropogenic emissions of methane,

which although less persistent in the atmosphere than carbon dioxide has 20-25 times its

global warming potential (Bourne, 2005). Cattle emit 25-118 kg per head a year of

methane and small ruminants 5-8 kg (IPCC, 1995). Because of their digestive system,

monogastrics emit comparatively small amounts of methane. A report on behalf of the

UK government (Chadwick et al., 2007) concluded that the largest reductions in methane

emissions could be made through addressing the dairy cow with reductions of 24% from

a combination of increasing yield by 30% and increasing the number of lactations per

cow (at constant output this would reduce the number of followers needed), feeding

either high fat or high starch diets (reductions of 14/15%), although reductions from

increasing the quality of the forage would be of less benefit (3%). Some of the other

suggestions were feed additives to reduce H production in the rumen, vaccination and the

use of tannins, saponins, probiotics, ionophores and propionate precursors (Boadi et al.,

2004).

27

2.16 Strategies for alleviating adverse effects of anti-nutritional factors, especially tannins

2.16.1 Tannins

The widespread occurrence of tannins as natural defence mechanisms in tropical trees

and shrubs and methods for determining their type and extent have been discussed by

Makkar (2004) in a report of a joint FAO/IAEA coordinated research project (1999-

2001). The report concluded that a total level of phenolics between 2 and 4% was

unlikely to affect ruminant production. In laboratory trials the addition of polyethylene

glycol (PEG) appeared to inactivate the tannins. In Australia wool growth was increased

by feeding a supplement of PEG (Pritchard et al., 1988), but in Zimbabwe field trials with

a commercial PEG product showed no increase in gain in steers (Smith et al., 1995)

grazing natural rangeland whereas Dube et al. (1993) found increased digestibility in

vitro of acacias and increased apparent digestibility in lambs receiving mopane bush

meal. The differences between laboratory/ indoor trials and mixed rangeland grazing

studies possibly reflect the varied intake of specific plants in the latter. Slow consumption

of PEG through licking of the PEG-containing blocks by animals has also been found to

increase production (Makkar et al., 2007). In a study in vitro, wood ash (freely available

in many households) deactivated tannins in Acacia nilotica and Dichrostachys cinerea

fruits, both of which being considered dry season protein supplements for goats (Smith et

al., 2005b). Wood ash has also been found to inactivate tannins in oak leaves (Makkar,

2003). Both Smith et al. (2005b) in Zimbabwe and Ben Salem et al. (2005a) in Tunisia

considered wood ash treatment as means of reducing the effects of tannin. Useful aspects

of tannins are also noted (Makkar, 2003; Ben Salem et al., 2005b): tannins complex with

proteins reducing the rate of protein breakdown in the rumen, thereby increasing by-pass

protein. This depends on the protein being available in the small intestine. This

mechanism may reduce the incidence of bloat. There is also some evidence that tannins

protect ruminants against internal parasites (Buttery et al., 2005).

28

2.16.2 Other antinutrients

Other anti-nutrients include amino acid analogues such as mimosine in Leucaena

leucocephala, oestrogenic compounds in some pasture plants and protease inhibitors

found in soyabeans (Buttery et al., 2005). Well-fed ruminants withstand these compounds

better than poorly-fed ruminants and non-ruminant species. Pfister (2004) lists the most

important anti-nutrients as alkaloids, haemagglutinins (lectins), phenolics, phyates,

phytooestrogens, saponins, tannins and trypsin inhibitors. Adult ruminants degrade the

inhibitors slowly so the effect is minimised but in calves and non-ruminants, including

poultry feed efficiency and growth rates are reduced (Pfister, 2004). Lectins are

carbohydrate binding proteins, again present in a wide range of plants and many of those

occurring in legume seeds are poisonous to livestock (Lee, 2004). Heat treatment of seeds

has been found to inactivate the trypsin inhibitor and lectins. Trugo et al. (2000) testing

germinated legume seeds (soybean, lupin and black bean) found heat treatment was

beneficial to all of them and with a supplement of methionine the three species were

equal in protein quality. Some of the plants containing secondary compounds (generally

classified as antinutrients) have bioactivities that could be exploited for enhancing

productivity, health and environmental sustainability of animal agriculture (Makkar et al.,

2007).

2.17 Essential amino acids and supplementation

Amino acids occur naturally although only about 20 are found as components of proteins.

Amino acids fall into three categories: dispensable - they can be synthesised at a rate to

meet the host’s requirements; conditionally indispensable - thereby needing a supply of

nitrogen from transamination; indispensable - must be supplied by the diet. This last

group include lysine and threonine (Benevenga, 2004). For non-ruminants and poultry the

diet will need balancing for both the conditionally indispensable and dispensable

(collectively referred to as essential) amino acids, the amounts depending on species, age

and level of production, thereby reducing the overall amounts of protein required.

29

Ruminants can synthesise most of their amino acid requirements in their digestive tracts

except for lysine and threonine. Intensive livestock production in developing countries

relies heavily on the use of maize grain which is lacking in lysine and threonine,

supplements of which can reduce the amount of soya bean meal needed to balance the

diet. In pigs, lysine levels are likely to be critical. With high yielding ruminants lysine

with high grain diets and methionine with grass silage-based diets may be limiting. In

Cambodia, methionine supplementation of a broken rice and water spinach for pigs was

found beneficial (Ly et al. 2002). Soffe (1995) gives two levels of methionine

requirement, the lower to optimise egg production, the higher to deepen the colour of the

yolk, important when selling to a selective market. Avian species need, but cannot

synthesise arginine (Benevenga, 2004). In situations of extreme weight loss, as can occur

in a prolonged dry season, breakdown of body reserves can result in amino acids being

used to maintain blood glucose levels (Soffe, 1995).

3. Specific points about this e-conference We encourage you to actively participate in the e-conference. We want the e-conferences

to provide opportunities for an open constructive exchange of views, ideas and

experiences.

3.1 Issues to be addressed in the e-conference and suggestions on the format for writing contributions For any one (or combination) of the practices and technologies described in Section 2 or

variants theirof, identify those that have generated significant impact in your region and

those that failed to do so considering its application at the field level in one of the

different livestock production systems and in any particular developing country;

For each identified technology/practice provide an overall assessment of the experience

of applying them and stating whether it a success or failure, partial or full.

30

Based on this, describe some of the key features that determined its partial or complete

success (or failure). For assessing a practice or technology a success or failure, the impact

(economical, environmental, social and/or on food security/biodiversity/natural

resources) generated through its application should be considered and presented in your

contribution (quantitative information on these impacts would be appreciated by readers).

Impact of applying a practice or technology on trade, equity, gender and food safety

could also be other parameters for defining success or failure.

Finally state the lessons that can be learnt from the experience, and how do you see the

future of the technology.

Technologies or practices that are being researched and have not been applied in the field

will not be covered in this conference.

3.2 How to submit a message Your contribution that discusses an animal nutrition technology/practice or your views or

comments on such contributions from others may be sent to:

Harinder.makkar@fao.org or FAO-AnimalFeeding-L@mailserv.fao.org

When submitting your first message, introduce yourself briefly by giving full name and

country of residence. Please capitalise the last name, so that the message could be

properly quoted. You should also provide your full address at the end of the message.

Please ensure that the subject header of the message is as descriptive as possible about its

content. While giving views and comments on a message, retain the original subject

heading.

31

The participants are assumed to be speaking in their personal capacity, unless they

explicitly state that their contribution represents the views of their organization.

3.3 How this e-conference will be run

The messages can be submitted at anytime of the day or night. There is no set sequence

for submitting a contribution on technologies/practices. Participants can select any

technology/practice from Section 2 for discussion. If you are making a contribution on a

technology/practice, please ensure to follows the format given in Section 3.1; however

comments and views on already posted technologies/practices can be provided in any

format that is clear and understandable.

Contributions on animal nutrition technologies/practices can be submitted before or

during the period of the conference. Contributions submitted before 31 August 2010 will

be posted after 1 September 2010.

The conference will be moderated. The Moderator will read all messages before they are

posted to ensure that they follow the basic rules and guidelines given above. The

Moderator can refuse to post any message that is in violation of the above rules and

guidelines, and he has the right to modify messages posted to ensure compliance with the

rules and guidelines. This is in no way to censor or limit the views expressed by

participants. We welcome and encourage a diversity of views and opinions, and we want

you to speak your mind.

We retain the right to make copies of the messages for archiving the discussions. After the conference, a ‘synthesis document’ summarising the main issues that were

discussed, based on the participants' messages will be prepared and sent to all the

registered participants. Due recognition will be given to the contributors in this

document. The ‘synthesis document’ and major contributions to the e-conference will be

published electronically.

32

3.4 A checklist before submitting a message Before submitting a message, participants are requested to ensure that:

a) the message considers the issues mentioned above in Section 3.1 and the technologies

and practices mentioned in Section 2;

b) the message, including contribution on an animal nutrition technology/practice should

be no longer than 600 words;

c) following basic rules and guidelines for participation in the e-conferences are

followed: i) each participant should include his/her name and country of residence in any

message sent for the discussion. A participant should never represent him/herself as

another person; ii) participants should not send unfounded, defamatory, obscene, violent,

abusive, commercial or promotional messages or materials, or links to such materials; iii)

each participant is legally responsible, and solely responsible, for any materials, or links

to any materials sent; and iv) participants will be courteous at all times and exercise

tolerance and respect toward other participants whose views may differ from their own. If

you want to have a personal discussion on any message, please send a message to the

individual only;

d) they have introduced themselves at the beginning of the message while submitting

their first message; they have capitalized their last name; they have provided full address

at the end of the message;

e) subject header of the message describes the content; and

f) technology/practice that is being discussed has been applied in the field.

4. References and Acknowledgements 4.1 References Aarts, G., Sansoucy, R. & Leviux, G.P. 1990. Guidelines for the manufacture and utilization of molasses-

urea blocks. Animal production and Health Division, FAO, Rome, Italy.

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Aboud, A.A., Owen, E., Reed, J.D., Said, A.N., Gill, M. & McAllan, A.B. 1993. Feeding sorghum stover to Ethiopian goats and sheep: effect of amount offered on intake, selection and performance. In M. Gill, E. Owen, G.E. Pollott & T.L.J. Lawrence, eds. Animal production in developing countries, pp. 202-203. British Society of Animal Production Occasional Publication no.16. 243 pp. (www.bsas.org.uk) Acamovic, T. 2002. Review nutritional standards for livestock: nutrient requirements and standards for poultry (available at www.bsas.org.uk). Acamovic, T. 2004. Enzymes as feed additives. In M.F. Fuller et al. eds. The encyclopaedia of farm animal

nutrition, pp. 186-188. CABI Publishing, Wallingford, UK. 606 pp. (www.cabi-publishing.org). AFRC. 1998. The nutrition of goats. AFRC Technical Committee on Responses to Nutrients Report No. 10. CAB International, Wallingford, UK. 118 pp. (www.cabi-publishing.org). Akbar, M.A., Islam, M.S., Barton, D. & Owen, E. 2005. Inter- and relay-cropping of legumes and rice for improved crop and livestock production in Bangladesh. Proceedings of Association of Applied Biologists

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Netherlands. Agricultural Research Reports 896. Pudoc. Centre for Agricultural Publishing and Documentation. 100 pp 4.2 Acknowledgements This document is prepared by Harinder Makkar and Simon Mack. The lead consultants for preparation of Section 2 of this document are Dr. Tim Smith and Prof. Emyr Owen and their contribution is gratefully appreciated.