Back Country Safety

7/29/2019 Back Country Safety

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Charley ShimanskiMountain Rescue Association

www.mra.org

General

A resource for all backcountry users

BackcounTrySafety


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GGEENNEERRAALLBBAACCKKCCOOUUNNTTRRYY

SSAAFFEETTYYA resource for all backcountry users

Charley Shimanski

Mountain Rescue Associationwww.mra.org

2008, Charley Shimanski/Mountain Rescue Association all rights reserved

COVER PHOTO: The Maroon Bells near Aspen Colorado. Photo by Char ley Sh iman ski
http://www.mra.org/http://www.mra.org/http://www.mra.org/


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Introduction.....................................................................................................1Part 1 Backcountry Equipment and Clothing ..............................................1

The "Ten Essentials"...................................................................................................................... 1Clothing..........................................................................................................................................3Five Methods of Heat Loss ............................................................................................................4Map and Compass .........................................................................................................................5

Part 2 Backcountry Preparedness and Accident Avoidance....................... 6Planning Your Trip ........................................................................................................................6Let Others Know............................................................................................................................6Plan Your Route.............................................................................................................................6Know Your Physical Limitations ...................................................................................................7Think "Before" ...............................................................................................................................8Test your equipment under controlled conditions prior to actual use........................................9Protect against Giardia ..................................................................................................................9Keep the Team Together at All Times......................................................................................... 10"If You Don't Like the Weather, Wait Ten Minutes." ................................................................. 10

Part 3 What to do if You Get Lost ..............................................................12STOP! ........................................................................................................................................... 12

YELL!!! ......................................................................................................................................... 12Stay Put ........................................................................................................................................ 13

What if You REALLY Blew It?..................................................................................................... 13Determine Magnetic Orientation ................................................................................................ 13Utilize Other Clues....................................................................................................................... 14Shelter .......................................................................................................................................... 15Leave Clues! Clues! More Clues! ................................................................................................. 15Fire Building - Can You Build a Blazing Fire with Damp Wood and One Match?.................... 15

What to do When a Team Member is Lost ................................................................................. 16Part 4 Avoiding the Hazards of Nature..................................................... 18

Introduction................................................................................................................................. 18When Lightning Strikes............................................................................................................... 18Hypothermia...The Most Common Killer of Backcountry Users...............................................20Frostnip and Frostbite.................................................................................................................23Dehydration .................................................................................................................................23Snow Blindness/Sun Blindness ..................................................................................................24Altitude-Related Illnesses ...........................................................................................................24Hyperthermia and Heat-Related Illnesses .................................................................................25

Conclusion .................................................................................................... 26


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The Mountain Rescue Association, a national nonprofit association of membership teamsdedicated to saving lives through rescue and mountain safety education, has developed thisprogram to be used by any person who will spend time in the backcountry. At the conclusion ofthis program, the reader will have an understanding of:

Backcountry preparedness Clothing for backcountry travel What to do when lost The hazards of nature and how to avoid them

This training material is not a complete instructional manual. It is not intended to replace fieldtraining by persons qualified and competent in the area of avalanche. The author, the publisher

and the Mountain Rescue Association take no responsibility for use of this material or anyinformation contained herein.

Charley Shimanski is President and Education Director for the Mountain Rescue Association, anational organization of rescue mountaineers. A 20-year veteran of ColoradosAlp ine RescueTeam, Charley has participated as a field member and Incident Commander for hundreds ofrescues among Colorados highest peaks.

The author of the Mountain Rescue AssociationsHelicopters in Mounta in Rescue Operation smanuals and co-author of theAv alanche Rescue Operation s manual, Charley has consulted

rescue mountaineers, mountain guides, and climbers throughout the world, from Israel toChina, from Kilimanjaro to Aconcogua. Charley is a frequent speaker at meetings of theInternational Technical Rescue Symposium, The National Association of Search and Rescue, the

Wilderness Medical Society, and the Mountain Rescue Association.


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Part 1 Backcountry Equipment andClothing

GENERAL BACKCOUNTRYSAFETY

1

While the topography of the world'sbackcountry has not changed much in thepast several centuries, the way we explorethem has changed dramatically. In the1700's, covered wagons and horseback trailsdotted the American landscape as pioneersscouted and settled in the pristine remotehills. In the 1800's, prospectors discoveredthe rich resources of the mountains whilemining communities sprouted likesagebrush. During the last few decadeshuman ingenuity has resulted in rubberrafts, fiberglass kayaks, and titanium

mountain bikes as we explore new ways torecreate in the backcountry.

In the past few decades, the number ofbackcountry recreationalists has growncontinually. With that increase, the numberof mountain search and rescue missions hasescalated as well. Mountain Rescue

Association teams currently respond to wellover a thousand search and rescue missionseach year. An alarming percentage of thosemissions are searches for persons lost in the

backcountry. What is most distressing isthat many of those searches could have beenavoided if the victims had taken somesimple precautions. Unfortunately, toomany search and rescue missions result in

victims with serious medical complicationssuch as hypothermia, frostbite, dehydration,shock or severe trauma.

Despite these disturbing facts, basicbackcountry use can be risk-free if the useris knowledgeable and prepared. Knowing

what could go wrong and preparing for it inadvance can often mean the difference

between an enjoyable day in thebackcountry and disaster.

In this program, we will discuss the mostcommon hazards of backcountry use andoffer some simple guidelines designed tohelp the user reduce the associated dangers.

The first and most important element thatevery backcountry user must consider is theequipment needed for any adventure.

The "Ten Essentials"The first and most obvious rule of safe

backcountry use is to always carryequipment that might become necessary in

emergencies. Every backcountry user, evenon seemingly insignificant day hikes, shouldcarry the most basic equipment; commonlyreferred to as the Ten Essentials, The key

word is "essentials." The survivalequipment, clothing and other resources

you carry will increase your chances ofsurviving an emergency.

Even backcountry users on shortday trips should carry and knowhow to use the Ten Essentials.

Photo: Charley Shimanski

Technically skilled and highly experiencedrescue rs never go into the field on search orrescue missions without these tenessentials. Carefully selected, these itemscan easily fit within a small backpack.

Mountain Rescue Association www.mra.org


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1. To p o g r a p h i c m a p a n d m a g n e t icc o m p a s sToo often, backcountry users venture deepinto the backcountry without a map and

compass. The fact that they are able tosafely venture back out is usually pure dumbluck. With a map and compass, it is mucheasier to identify your location and directionof travel. This is especially important in theevent that you become lost.

To learn to use these items, see the chapterentitled "Map and Compass".

2 . Fl a s h l igh t o r h ead lam p (wi t h ex tr ab a t t e r i e s a n d b u lb )

How far do you suppose you could safelytravel at night in the backcountry without aflashlight? Could you signal others, if yousaw a campsite far away? A flashlight orheadlamp makes travel at night possible andaids in signaling when lost.

3 . Ext r a c lo t h i ng ( i nc l ud i ng m i t t en s ,h a t , ja c k e t a n d r a i n g e a r )Hypothermia is the most common killer of

backcountry users. Inability to maintainbody heat can quickly rob an unsuspecting

victim of all energy and common sense.Since severe weather may present itself veryquickly in the backcountry, extra clothingshould be carried to help maintain bodyheat.

4 . Sun g las s es Especially in the winter, ultraviolet glarefrom the sun can cause blindness. Worst ofall, the backcountry user may not realizethis is happening until it is too late. A goodpair of sunglasses, designed to limit

ultraviolet light, will eliminate this risk.

5 . Ex tr a food and w a t e r These items will maintain energy levels inthe case of an emergency and help maintain

body temperature in cold weather. Whileyou can survive three days without waterand three weeks without food, your energylevels will be seriously depleted withoutthese.

6 . W a t e r p r o o f m a t c h e s i n w a t e r p r o o f c o n t a i n e r

Waterproof matches, available from mostbackcountry supply stores, are capable of

igniting in high winds and/or blinding rain.Building a fire may be impossible withoutthese. Fires are critical since they not onlyprovide heat, but also make the job ofsearch and rescue teams easier by providinga visible signal.

7. Can d l e / F i r e s t a r t e r A candle burns much longer than does amatch. This is helpful when trying to start afire, especially if your firewood is wet.

8 . Pocke t kn i feThere are a multitude of applications for apocketknife in emergencies. The commonSwiss Army Knife is so-called because it isstandard issue for the Swiss Army, whichhas devised 246 uses for their standard7-instrument knife.

9 . F i r s t a i d k i tProper first aid care is difficult, if notimpossible, without a good first aid kit.Backcountry shops carry several brands of

small, lightweight first aid kits includingsmall first-aid manuals.

10 . Space b l anke t o r t wo l a rge h eavy-

d u t y t r a s h b a gsThese items can help provide shelter in anemergency situation and can be used as araincoat or a windbreak. The additional

warmth they provide far outweighs theirminimal weight.

This list of "Ten Essentials" assumes your

trip is a summer excursion. At any othertime of the year, be sure to bring more of theright kind of clothes. When choosing yourequipment, remember that the body's abilityto maintain its core temperature is criticalto your survival in the backcountry.



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Unfortunately, a large percentage of searchfatalities would have probably survived hadthey carried and used the ten essentials.

When you venture into the backcountry, you

are often many miles away from civilization.Emergencies often present themselves attimes when qualified help is many hoursaway. This simple fact underscores the needto carry emergency equipment.

Clothing

The Backcountry is No Placefor Calvin Klein

Since hypothermia is the most commoncause of accidental death in thebackcountry, proper clothing is essential toevery backcountry user from novice toprofessional. Hypothermia results when the

body loses more heat than it can generate.Effective dressing is the simplest way toavoid hypothermia in the diverse weather ofthe backcountry.

Effective dressing means more than simplyowning the most expensive parka and thefanciest rain gear. World-classmountaineers have long known the value ofspecialized techniques in mountaineeringdress.

LayeringAt any time of the year, the most effectiveway to dress is by "layering". This methodhas been proven, not only on Mount Everest

but in the cold northern regions ofMinnesota as well.

Layering simply means wearing one thinlayer of clothing over another over another.Many experienced winter mountaineers donot carry a heavy down parka into the

backcountry and for good reason. If theybecome warm underneath a down parka,removing the parka leaves them extremelyexposed. Rather, they will carry numerouslightweight layers.

The advantage of layering is that one canadd and remove protection from theelements in small increments, thus

balancing heat generation with heat loss. Inaddition, layering traps dead air foradditional weight-free insulation.

Layering enables backcountry usersto add and remove clothes in small

increments. Photo: CharleyShimanski

Composition of LayersThe body is a source of heat, which you wantto retain within your clothing. It is also a

source of moisture, in the form ofperspiration that, in many situations, must

be kept away from the skin due to thecooling effect of evaporation. For thisreason, the layers of clothing near your bodyshould be thin and porous to hold in heatand wick away perspiration. Middle layersshould be thicker in insulating quality tohold in more heat, yet be able to dissipatethe moisture further away from the body.Finally, the outer layers should be thickenough to prevent heat loss and still protect

the inner layers from the external elements.The most effective outer layer is completely

waterproof, yet allows water vapor(perspiration) to escape. Most conventionalrain-gear does not allow water vapor to

breathe, thus the body's perspiration is heldwithin the layers of clothing, increasingevaporative heat loss and saturating clothes.



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The key to mastering the layering system isto add or remove layers of clothing at justthe right times. Remove a layer before you

begin sweating; add a layer before you get

cold. By doing so, you can balance theamount of your body's heat generation withheat loss. Conserve your sweat, not your

water!

Extra ClothingIn discussing the "ten essentials," we havesuggested carrying additional clothes. Thissimple suggestion should not be overlooked,since a warm, balmy morning at thetrailhead often ends in a cool, windy chill onthe summit.

Five Methods of HeatLossJust as the body constantly produces heat, itconstantly loses it.

There is a simple reason why we wearclothes, besides to preserve our own simplemodesty. Since human beings are warm

blooded, we must rely on our own bodies for

internal heat. Most warm-bloodedcreatures are protected from the elements

by a coat of fur. This fur helps preservewarmth by trapping air and providing alayer of insulation. Humans, on the otherhand, have no such coat of fur. This means,quite simply, that we must maintain asuitable artificial environment close to ourskin that allows for the retention of the bodyheat that we create internally.

There are five mechanisms through which

body heat may be lost: Conduction,convection, evaporation, radiation andrespiration.

Conduction is the transfer of heat throughdirect contact. If you were to sit on a slab ofice, your body heat would move through

your clothes to the ice below. Wet clothingrobs your body of heat through conduction

as well. In fact, wet clothing will do soMANY times faster than dry clothing. Thisis why we should remove a layer of clothing

before we begin sweating.

Convection is the transfer of heat throughthe movement of air. The body tries tocreate its own insulating layer. This meansthat the body warms the air close to theskin. If this thin layer of warm air were toremain intact, our bodies would maintaintheir own insulating layer and clothes would

be unnecessary. Unfortunately, windbrushes this warm air aside with little effort.The body must then generate another warmlayer of air. In even moderate winds, the

body doesn't have a chance to keep up withthis loss of heat.

Evaporation occurs when we sweat and thetiny droplets of liquid are converted into

vapor. This conversion from liquid to vaporresults in a net heat loss. That is, thesurface on which evaporation occurs willlose heat (which explains why you feel a bitcold when you step out of the shower, beforedrying off). The body sweats because itsinternal temperature is too high and it

wants to cool down. Sweating will occureven in winter, if the backcountry user doesa poor job maintaining ventilation throughclothing. When the clothes become wet

with sweat, further heat is lost throughconduction.

Radiation is the movement of rays of heatfrom a warm object to a colder one. Attemperatures as warm as 40 degreesFahrenheit, fully one half of the body's heatcan be lost by radiation from an uncovered

head, since blood vessels in the head lieclose to the skin. Hats and balaclavas(facemasks) are essential to prevent this lossof body heat.

We lose our body heat naturally, simplythrough respiration. Furthermore, we may

burn over 50% more energy in winter thanwe would in summer. This is partiallyexplained by the fact that we are breathing



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GENERAL BACKCOUNTRYSAFET

Part 1 Backcountry Equipment andClothin

5gY

extremely cold air, warming it andsaturating it with water vapor. As much asone-third of our body-heat loss can occurthrough breathing. Breathing through a

scarf or balaclava helps by "pre-heating" theinspired air.

The invention of the Global PositioningSystem (GPS) has worsened this problem

because many backcountry users think aGPS unit replaces the need for a map and/or

compass. A GPS will tell you where you are,but might not get you to where you want togo.

As much as we often want to retain our bodyheat, there are times we want to make sure

we dissipate body heat. Managing heatdissipation is important for hot summerdays in places like the Grand Canyon, semi-arid, and desert areas but can also beimportant in the high country as well.

Map and compass work is important forreasons beyond safety. Experiencedtopographic map-readers can determine themost picturesque backcountry campsite

while sitting at their kitchen table, simply bystudying the topography around theirproposed sites. Furthermore, accurate mapand compass work can reduce the amount of

time spent looking for campsites or parkinglots.

For more on the bodys reaction to

overheating, see the section onhyperthermia later in this guidebook.

Map and CompassAll experienced backcountry users knowhow to use a map and compass, right?

Wrong! Some do. Most don't. In fact, thenumber of search subjects found withouteither is startling.

Map and Compass skills areessential for all backcountry users.Photo: Silva web sitewww.Silva.comcourtesy of Johnson Outdoors, Inc.

Map and compass skills are important,even if a user has a Global PositioningSystem (GPS) to assist with navigation.Photo from Silva web site(www.Silva.com) courtesy of JohnsonOutdoors, Inc.

Users of this program should follow up witha local "Map and Compass" course. These

are often available through localbackcountry retailers or from your localMountain Rescue Association search andrescue team.
http://www.silva.com/http://www.silva.com/http://www.silva.com/http://www.silva.com/


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Part 2 Backcountry Preparednessand Accident Avoidance


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Planning Your TripOften, recreationalists venture into the

backcountry with little or no pre-planning.This occasionally results in catastrophe asthey do little to prepare for the severeconditions that they may encounter.

With even a seemingly insignificantday-hike, the time to plan a trip is beforeleaving home. There are numerous thingsthat should be done before starting out onthe road.

Let Others KnowOne important rule too often forgotten is tolet others know exactly where you are going,

with whom and when you can be expectedback. I hate to sound maternal, but searchand rescue teams often spend hours drivingaround on back roads looking for a subject's

vehicle before they know where to enter thefield to begin a search.

By letting someone know EXACTLY whereyou intend to go, when you expect to returnand where your vehicle will be parked, youcan eliminate the possibility of searchershaving no idea of where to look. Should

your plans change in route to yourdestination, stop and notify that person of

your new itinerary. In addition, if you leave

pertinent information on the dash of yourcar (e.g. name and phone number of yourcontact in town, location of travel/campsiteand so on) search teams will have a verytimely idea of your plans. Otherwise, searchteams can be of little assistance when allthat is known is that you "went campingsomewhere in the Gore Range."

Whenever possible, utilize trailhead andsummit check-in logs. These generally existat most popular National Forest trailheadsand atop many popular mountain summits.

Plan Your RouteBefore Sir Edmund Hillary became the firstman to stand atop Mt. Everest in 1953 (at29,035 ft., the highest mountain in the

world), many climbers had tried usingvarious routes. A few of these mountaineersdied trying. To this day, the South Col routeon Mt. Everest remains the most commonroute up the mountain.

Careful planning based on earlier attemptscombined with detailed study of the risks of

various routes led the 1953 British EverestExpedition to choose the now famous SouthCol route. It is not by accident that this

route is so popular. Repeatedly, it has beenproven to be the safest and easiest route.

Planning your trip well in advance ofthe trip will enable you to advisefriends and family of your intendedroute. Photo by Charley Shimanski

Likewise, popular routes to the summits ofmountains in the United States are based onsimilar exhausting study by earlymountaineers. Detailed in mountaineering

books, as well as on many topographical andtrail maps, these trails should be closely



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followed. Any deviation by inexperiencedmountaineers can lead to disaster. Inaddition, backcountry users should stay onmaintained trails as part of the Leave No

Trace ethic of mountaineering.

Backcountry preparedness begins with priorknowledge of the anticipated route...types ofterrain, technical skills needed, length of theroute and amount of available shelter alongthe trail.

Know Your PhysicalLimitationsDisorientation results when the body is cold,oxygen deprived and/or fatigued. Know thephysical limitations of each member of yourteam, especially if any member has apredisposing medical condition that couldpossibly require immediate care while onthe trip (e.g. diabetics and persons withheart conditions).

Among your considerations should be thefollowing:

Altitude acclimatization ofeach party member

A mountain resident at 12,000 feet isaccustomed to 68% of the oxygen to whichsomeone living at sea level is accustomed.Since air density decreases as altitudeincreases, more work is required to breatheat higher elevations. The intercostalmuscles surrounding the lungs must workharder when the air density is lower.High-elevation residents have alreadystrengthened these muscles and changed

their blood chemistry to accommodateinspiring less oxygen. Mountaineers wholive at sea level would therefore experiencegreater difficulty catching their breath whenclimbing to 14,000 feet than would theresident of the mountains, even if theflatlander is in better physical condition.

Additional problems can develop as well,including Acute Mountain Sickness,

Pulmonary Edema and Cerebral Edema.These complications are serious and canresult in coma and death, and at elevationsfar lower than 14,000 feet.

Based on these facts, plan the difficulty ofyour route based on the knowledge thateach team member may be accustomed to adifferent concentration of oxygen.

Know your team members'comfort level near steepridges

Although most backcountry trails are nottechnically difficult, some may involve

hiking moderately close to a steep ridge withan imposing severe drop. This could createanxiety on the part of recreationalists whoare not accustomed to such relativelyunprotected slopes, even if the trail is fivefeet wide and perfectly flat.

In addition, the lack of a flat horizon onhigh peaks may make balance more difficultfor those who are not accustomed to suchterrain. This can lead to increased anxiety,panic and perhaps nausea on the part ofinexperienced backcountry users. Imagine

yourself standing on a five-foot wide ledgeat the top of a 30-story building. Scary, isn'tit, even if the ledge is five feet wide?

It is important to know the comfortlevel of all participants beforeattempting difficult terrain. PhotoHoward Paul



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The team's most experienced backcountryuser should stop and ask each of the teammembers whether or not they feel

comfortable with the exposure whenencountering severe pitches. If some teammembers do not feel comfortable they must

be given the option of turning back, or riskcleaning out the gene pool.

If team members do turn back, they shouldalways travel in groups of two or more andthe team leader must be certain that theyare equipped with a map, compass andsurvival equipment. This reduces the risk ofa lone hiker becoming disoriented and lost.

Maintain a chemical-freebodyNot surprisingly, many rescues areperformed each year on victims who havealtered their body chemistry with alcoholand/or other drugs. If these substances arean active part of your life, remain in thesafety of less severe terrain.

If you think going UP was

hard...Many inexperienced backcountry users

become intrigued by small, seeminglysimple pitches of technical rock and decideto challenge themselves by attempting toclimb them without technical equipment.

After all, if the first ten feet was THATeasy...

The startling surprise comes when theyreach a point at which they cannot continueup and realize that descending the same

pitch will be much more difficult than theascent they just completed. The reason issimple. In ascending a pitch, the footplacements are easily visible somewhere

between the feet and waist level and onenever HAS to look down. In descending, thefoot placements are now below the feet,perhaps 6-8 feet below the eyes and are noteasily discernable. What makes this

realization more alarming is that in order tofind those footholds, the climber must lookdown more often. At this point theinexperienced technical climber, without

any fall protection (such as ropes, anchors,and a belayer) is faced with the grim realitythat a fall would be very dangerous.

Adrenaline now overtakes the body and theleg and arm muscles that are holding theperson in place quickly become fatigued as aresult.

The moral, based on many seeminglyunnecessary rescue missions, is this: Unless

you're carrying technical rock hardware andare experienced at technical pitches, stay off

them and enjoy a safe hike. After all, ahelicopter ride back to the nearest hospitalis not worth the long and painful severalhour wait (with broken bones or rupturedinternal organs) for the rescue team andhelicopter to arrive. Believe me, traumacenter helicopters are a lousy way to see the

backcountry.

Not so surprisingly, a large percentage ofrock climbing accidents occur with noviceclimbers.

Think "Before""Prepare" is defined in Webster's Dictionaryas "to make ready beforehand for somepurpose, use or activity." The inclusion ofthe word "before" in this definition is not byaccident.

One way of assuring the success of your tripis to remember the "Rule of Befores". Listento a weather forecast befo re planning atrip. Tell people where you are going and

when you'll be backbefo re you leave.While on the trail, drinkbefo re you getthirsty, eat befo re you get hungry. Add alayer of clothes befo re you get cold; removea layer of clothes befo re you get hot. Makecamp befo re you need camp. Findprotection from foul weather befo re itarrives. By doing these things, you will find

yourself always thinking ahead. Think



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ahead at all times and you will rarely findyourself unprepared.

Test your equipmentunder controlledconditions prior toactual useDo not put yourself in a position in which

you discover that your equipment isinadequate while in the backcountry. If, forexample, you plan to use a three-seasonsleeping bag in conditions of extreme cold,

test the sleeping bag in a safe place, such asyour own back yard, in similar weatherconditions. This way, if the sleeping bagdoes not perform as expected, a warm bedoffers a safe alternative. Consider thisexample with all backcountry equipment to

be used.

Protect againstGiardiaGiardia is a microscopic parasite that exists

in water sources nearly everywhere on theplanet. It cannot be seen with the naked eyeand once ingested, its symptoms read like aWho's Who of digestive system ailments:abdominal cramps, diarrhea, loss ofappetite, nausea, flatulence, vomiting,

weakness and fever. One's digestive systemis never quite the same after a battle withGiardia.

The disease begins with fecallycontaminated surface water and the parasite

thrives in cool, clear water. Elk, deer,beaver, muskrat, dogs and humans are allknown carriers, which helps explain why ithas overtaken literally every water supplyon Earth. Once ingested, the microscopiccysts multiply in the intestines at aphenomenal rate. A victim of giardiasis mayexcrete billions of the tiny parasites in asingle day.

Carriers of the disease may be"asymptomatic; that is, they show no signsof the disease themselves, but can spread itto less tolerant individuals. Since humans

are known carriers, human waste shouldALWAYS be disposed away from watersources to reduce possible futurecontamination of those water supplies.

To reduce the risk of infection, all water tobe consumed should be drawn through awater filter system, or boiled for severalminutes (increasing boiling time at altitudesabove 10,000 feet). If boiling is impractical,chemical treatments or portable filtersystems (available at backcountry outfitters)should be used. The Giardia parasite is sosmall, it is possible to contract the disease

from a toothbrush dipped in a stream orfrom bottle cap threads. For that reason,you must be meticulous with your watertreatment.

All water should be treated or drawnthrough a water filtering system to

protect against Giardia. Photo MSRandwww.Backcountry.com web site

Though giardiasis may not present itself forfive to seven weeks after ingestion of theparasite, it has been known to occur muchmore quickly. The only treatment in the

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field for a victim showing signs andsymptoms of giardiasis is to quicklytransport the individual to a medical facility.Because of diarrhea and vomiting,

hypovolemia (reduced level of body fluids)can be a serious complication, so periodicintake of treated fluids should beencouraged. Sometimes victims ofgiardiasis may be so incapacitated that theyare unable to walk. In this case, a rescueteam should be sought to assist inevacuation.

Keep the Team

Together at All TimesThroughout this program, we refer to everygroup of backcountry travelers as a "team".The word "team" implies a group of people

working together for the benefit of thewhole. If you consider yourself part of ateam and constantly stay aware of the otherteam members throughout your trip,especially in cases of extreme weather,accidents can be easily avoided.

As with any team, a "team leader" should be

chosen for all backcountry trips. Your teamleader must be perceptive of the individualabilities and experience of each teammember. This person must know that theonly real goal for a backcountry adventure isthe safe return of each party member. Theteam leader need not be the most skilledmountaineer, but rather the most trustedand most respected backcountry user.

Of the hundreds of searches performed inthe United States by mountain search andrescue teams each year, most are conductedfor subjects who have been separated from agroup of people and usually from shelterand survival equipment. The rule is simple:do not wander away from the team! InKansas, for example, roads are easily found

just about everywhere. Fly over westernColorado just once and you'll realize this isnot true of mountainous states. In the

words of a now infamous young girl trying

to find her way home, "Toto, I don't thinkwe're in Kansas anymore."

If team members must separate from the

rest of the team, they should always do so ingroups of two or more. In addition, theyshould carry and be skilled in the use of amap and compass. This will reduce the riskof any individual becoming lost. Also, makecertain to mark on the map the preciselocation of the team.

"If You Don't Like theWeather, Wait Ten

Minutes.""Today's forecast calls for clear skies in themorning. Highs will be in the mid- toupper-seventies. Increasing clouds withlocalized thunderstorms by late afternoon inthe mountains." God only knows how manyhundreds of times we hear this mountain

weather forecast in the summer. Day afterday it's the same story. And day after daysome percentage of the mountain peaks and

valleys experience severe thunderstorms inthe late afternoon.

Backcountry weather in specific valleys orranges is relatively difficult to predict fromdistant Weather Service offices using eventhe most modern instruments. It isgenerally easier for the backcountry travelerto predict the weather from the particular

valley.

When hiking in the mountains, constantlywatch the sky and take note of the size,height, form and movement of clouds.

Changes in these characteristics aremeaningful. With relative ease one canpredict local storms in the mountainsthrough basic observations. This isimportant so that your team can be quicklyguided off the mountain to a place of safety.

In the winter, cyclonic storms usually arrivewith substantial warning. They are not as



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local and can be more easily predicted bythe Weather Services. Still, and particularly

because of the time of year, one shouldalways be prepared for the worst possible

weather. In winter storms, the imminentdangers of lightning are replaced byfrostbite, hypothermia, lack of visibility andthe inability to travel as quickly, due to thesnow cover.


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Part 3 What to do if You Get LostGENERAL BACKCOUNTRYSAFETY

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Imagine... it's a beautiful day. You've takenyour camera and headed out for a short hikeaway from your campsite. The wild flowersare compelling and you wander aboutaimlessly for a few hours. Two rolls of filmlater, you begin to head back for camp.Suddenly, nothing looks familiar. You lookaround for a while, trying to find something,anything, that looks familiar. As duskapproaches, your heart beats faster and you

become very anxious. You have nothing but

your camera and two spent rolls of film andwithout a flashlight, it will be impossible tofind your way back. Your head sweats and

your heart pounds feverishly as you begin tofeel the panic associated with being lost.

Discovering you are lost in the backcountrycan be a frightening experience. Thisfeeling can be compounded by the five basicfears: that of being alone, darkness,animals, suffering and of course death.

STOP!At the moment you realize you are lost, themost important thing you can do is S.T.O.P.

(Sit, Think, Observe and Plan). Do not runoff frantically looking for a way out. Rather,stop and assess your situation! Use yourhead, not your feet. At this point your brainis your most important piece of survivalgear. The first ten minutes of being lost are

when most search fatalities make theirdeadly mistake.

Whatever you do, don't panic. In mostsituations you can survive 3 days without

water and 3 weeks without food. Force

yourself to breathe deeply and slowly. Restassured that by remaining calm and relaxed,

your chances of survival, which are quitegood already, have increased by 50 percent.

Your primary goal now should be to stayalive, not to find your way out. Help will beon the way soon after you are reportedmissing. Sheltering the body andconserving energy is your greatest concernright now.

Once you determine you are lost, youractions during the first few minutescould play a significant role in yoursurvival. Photo: Charley Shimanski

YELL!!!When you first discover that you are lost,stay where you are. Yell or blow a whistle 3times to signal your party or any others

within earshot (a whistle will carry fartherthan your voice and requires less energy).

Wait several seconds, then turn 90 degreesand try again. Do so several times in everydirection. If you have no whistle, yell"HELP" rather than a friend's name. Doingso will help assure that your distress call isnot ignored.

If someone yells back, let h im o r h e r cometo yo u . Rock walls and valleys play strangetricks with echoes and you may lose yourpotential rescuers by attempting to locatethem. In addition, your rescuers are mostlikely a group of people, so they will have a

better chance of finding you than vice-versa.



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If you do hear someone yell back. Nomatter how faint his or her yell may be, stayput and keep yelling. They may sound faraway only because they are facing away

from you and have not yet ascertained fromwhere you are yelling.

If you are near a loud stream, move awaybefore yelling or whistling for help. Becertain to mark your way back to thestream, however, as you may want to followthat stream later if your calls gounanswered. The same is true for windyareas where a howling gust can be quiteloud. Remember, someone may hear yourcall at times when you cannot hear his or

her reply, especially in windy areas. Do notgive up yelling or whistling simply because areply is not heard.

Stay PutWhen setting up a search, mountain rescueteams follow certain priorities and makecertain assumptions about their subjects.These assumptions are based on behaviorpatterns of lost subjects. An understandingof these assumptions may help guide you to

a place that is searched early.

The first members of a search party arequickly dispatched to the point at which thesubject was last seen (strangely enough,referred to as the "point last seen "). Theyfollow trails and streams near this last seenpoint, yelling the subject's name and

blowing whistles. This simple fact is reasonenough to just sit still and wait for rescuersto find you. Unfortunately, nobody does.Less than 30% of lost persons are found

within one mile of the last seen point.

Additional rescuers search areas of highprobability near the last seen point.Statistics on behavioral patterns of losthikers have shown that 88% walk downhill

when lost, 73% find and follow a trail orpath and 82% are found in open areas.Based on these facts, field teams oftensearch downhill from the last seen point

before spreading the search out in otherdirections.

Air searchers are generally used soon after

you are reported missing and weatherpermits flying. Plan to stay near open areasand be ready with signals.

What if You REALLYBlew It?In the unfortunate circumstance in which

you were hiking alone and forgot to tellanyone where you were going, you would be

well advised to try to find your own way out.

After all, search teams can't look for you ifnobody knows you are lost or, for thatmatter, where you went. In this case,consider the following:

Assuming you are still at the point whereyou first discovered you were lost and you'vetried whistling or yelling numerous times inall directions, look around for anymemorable landmarks which may help youdiscern the direction in which you weretraveling. Your goal is to SLOWLY retrace

your steps. Listed below are some clues tohelp in this effort:

Determine MagneticOrientationDo you have a map and compass? If so, tryto identify your exact location and the bestdirection of travel to return to a nearby roador trail. You may recall that the first itemson the list of ten essentials are a map andcompass. Right now that $10-$15 expense

looks like a bargain, doesn't it?

If you don't have a compass, there are stillseveral methods you can use to helpdetermine magnetic orientation. The mostaccurate method can only be done during asunny day: Place a 3-foot long object (stick,ski pole, etc.) in the ground, upright, in acleared area. Place a marker in the ground



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at the end of the stick's shadow line. Wait15 minutes and place another marker at theend of the shadow line. Repeat this processuntil you have 5 markers in the ground.

Now lay another stick alongside themarkers. This stick points west in thedirection of the first marker, east in thedirection of the last marker. Granted, thistakes over an hour, but it may be time wellspent. And besides, by the time you'vefinished, someone may have found you. Ifso, simply tell them you're studying theeffects of solar radiation on vertical sticks!

If you don't have a compass and the sun isNOT visible, you may still be able to

determine magnetic orientation. Tree barkmay be moist on the north side, dry on thesouth side (determine this by looking atmany trees, not just one!). The limbs oftrees may be heavier on the south side as

well.

Is the direction of shadows any help indetermining your magnetic orientation?During the mid-winter in most UnitedStates backcountry, the sun comes up fromthe east/southeast horizon and takes a more

southerly path across the sky before settingin the west/southwest. This means yourshadow points to the west-northwest in theearly morning, towards the north at noonand towards the east-northeast in the lateafternoon and evening. At the vernal andautumnal equinox (March 21 andSeptember 21) the sun rises due east andsets due west.

Is the presence of hills, slopes, peaks orvalleys any help in determining your earlier

direction of travel? Can you rememberwhat you saw the last time you had apanoramic view before becoming lost?

Utilize Other CluesCan you find your own footprints and

back-track? (Make a footprint and study it.)

Do you remember any clouds you faced asyou hiked before you became lost? Can youfind them again? They may help youdetermine the direction in which you were

traveling.

One of the most successful methods ofself-rescue is called the "wagon-wheel"approach. Starting at your present location,follow a given compass bearing for abouttwo hundred steps. If along the way youfind no clues to help you identify yourlocation, turn 180 degrees and walk the twohundred steps back to your initial location.Then, take a compass bearing 45 degreesfrom the first bearing and repeat this

process over and over. Your goal is toalways stay as close to your original positionas possible. Walking aimlessly may take youfurther and further from any recognizablelandmarks.

Once you've determined that you arecompletely lost and have no idea of yourearlier direction of travel, do whateverpossible to find a trail or stream. Keep inmind that if followed downhill, trails andstreams generally lead to civilization at

some point. If a road is encountered,regardless of its condition, follow itdownhill. Even if the road appears to be anabandoned wagon trail, it will likely leadsomewhere. If, for any reason, you do leavea road you encountered, mark the pointfrom which you left the road with sticks,stones, strips of clothing or perhaps a noteindicating the date and time and yourdirection of travel. At some point, asearcher will probably cover that road.

Throughout your ordeal, periodicallywhistle 3 times or yell for help, especially inplaces where rock walls or hills may helpcarry the sound.



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ShelterWhen lost in the backcountry, you mustprepare for darkness well in advance of

nightfall. If you must spend the night,utilize whatever is available for shelter.

When doing so, keep in mind that what isunderneath your body is often moreimportant than what is above it. At night,the ground is usually colder than thesurrounding air. Shelter yourself from theground with additional clothes, tree

branches, brush, wood or anything thathelps trap air.

Leave Clues! Clues!More Clues!Throughout your ordeal of being lost, pauseevery few minutes and contemplate how tomake yourself "bigger" by signalingmethods and by leaving clues. You cansignal your distress in a variety of ways.Stamp SOS in large open areas such assnowfields or grassy meadows (Be sure notto spell it backwards or upside-down, as thiseasily confuses rescuers). Pile downed tree

branches in rows or place boughs intramped snow. Create "arrows" fromdowned wood to indicate your direction oftravel. Anything unnatural (such as piles of

wood or rocks) will act as a clue tosearchers. If a helicopter or airplane passesoverhead, signal it using the bottom of a canor a mirror.

The truth is that searchers are looking morefor clues than for the lost subject. There arealways more clues than subjects and onceclues are found, the size of the search area is

reduced. To make the job of searcherseasier, leave clues such as clear footprints,arrows drawn with sticks, notes attached totrees or anything you can think of to signalrescuers. If you spent all your time leavingclues and less time trying to hike out (when

you probably don't know which way to hikeanyway), you would probably decrease yourtime lost significantly.

Searchers are looking more for clues

than for the lost subject. Clues helpreduce the overall search area.Photo: Charley Shimanski

Fire Building - CanYou Build a BlazingFire with DampWood and OneMatch?The ability to build a fire when lost isextremely helpful for reasons beyond theobvious warmth it provides. The light fromthe fire helps search teams at night whentheir task is much more difficult. During theday, a smoky fire will attract searchers as

well.

The key to fire-building is to assume that nomatter how many matches you actually

have, you will need some later to startanother fire. With practice, you can learnthe skill of building a roaring fire with ONEmatch, ONLY one and ALWAYS one. To doso, follow these simple guidelines:

Always carry wind resistant and waterproofmatches (you may recall that item 6 of the"Ten Essentials" is waterproof



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matches...another cheap investment at thispoint, isn't it?).

First of all, collect your firewood and start to

build your fire BEFORE darkness andBEFORE you get cold.

Choosing a SiteChoose a site well protected from the wind.Clear the ground down to the soil and dig asmall pit. This pit helps protect your firefrom wind, aids in positioning the twigs andcollects red coals as the fire continues.

Now gather rocks and surround the pit withthem. The rocks offer additional windprotection, but more important, they absorbheat from the fire and increase the radiativeheat.

Collecting WoodAs you collect wood, keep in mind that notwig is too small when attempting to start afire. Break the wood down to manageablepieces, some as small as toothpicks. YouMUST have very small twigs to start a fireefficiently with only one match. Andremember, YOU MUST TRY TO DO THIS

WITH ONLY ONE MATCH! (If small twigsare unavailable, pieces of torn clothing orlint from pockets may be substituted.)Gather enough wood for a long-lasting fire.

If the ground is wet, dried pine needlesunderneath the top layer of needles might

be available. If it is raining, look UP fordried firewood. Most trees have dead lower

branches that remain dry during the earlystages of a rainfall. Never try to start a fire

with fresh, green pine needles, however.

You will simply waste your matches. Andremember; use your matches as if your lifedepends on them. IT MAY! (A candle, item7 of the "Ten Essentials", is extremely usefulin starting a fire and conserving matches.)

Until you have a large bed of red-hot coals,do not rest secure in the belief that you have

built a successful fire. Monitor the fire,

blowing on it whenever necessary, addingmore twigs and logs and protecting your

wood pile (and marshmallows!) from futurerain by covering them with branches.

Build a Visible FireSince searchers often utilize airplanes andhelicopters, you should try to create a visiblefire. At night, add as much wood as isreasonably safe to create a big fire. Duringthe day, add items that create smoke.Rubber items work well for this, as do fresh

branches of green pine needles. A smokyfire can be visible for many miles.

Practice this skill on your next camping trip,or for that matter in your fireplace at home.This valuable skill may help you avoid acold, wet evening spent staring at a book ofused matches and a lifeless pile of firewood.

Several years ago, two snowmobilers whosurvived four days in a blizzard with nomatches, yet they were found next to aroaring fire. How did they do it? Simply byingenuity. After gathering firewood, theytore up long strips from the snowmobilemanual, dipped them in the gas tank and

held them next to the spark plugs as theystarted the snowmobiles...instant fire!!!

What to do When aTeam Member is LostIf the team has lost a member of the party,the team must evaluate the need foradditional support based on the weatherconditions as well as the health andpreparedness (e.g. ten essentials) of the lost

party. Keep in mind it may be a matter ofhours before a search and rescue team canbe assembled and dispatched into the field.

Mountain search and rescue teams in theUnited States are generally volunteerorganizations and do not charge for theservices they provide. Cost should not be



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GENERAL BACKCOUNTRYSAFET

17Part 3 What to do if You Get LostY

considered when assessing the need for asearch party.

If additional support is necessary, be certain

to clearly indicate on a topographic map theexact location of the "last seen point" beforeleaving this location. This is essential. Inaddition, mark the actual location with apiece of clothing and, if possible, encircle asample of the victim's footprint with rocks,twigs, rope, etc. Unless the team is quitelarge, dispatch the ENTIRE remainder ofthe team to the nearest public road, leavingmarkers along the way, such as strips of

brightly colored clothes or unnaturallyplaced logs or rocks. These markers will

help search teams find the last seen pointand may help the lost party find their own

way out.

Once at the road, send one or two people tofind a phone and call the sheriff's officeimmediately. The rest of the team shouldremain on the road, near the trailhead(s), inthe event that the lost member hikes out.They should stay there until search teamsarrive so the search teams can interview

them to learn as much as possible about thesubject of their search.

Mountain rescue teams in the UnitedStates generally do not charge fortheir services, so cost should not be aconsideration when determiningwhether or not to call for help.Photo: Charley Shimanski


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Part 4 Avoiding the Hazards ofNature


18

IntroductionYear after year, many unsuspectingbackcountry users are injured or killed inaccidents that are the direct result ofnature-related problems. Lightning andavalanches as well as heat and cold-relatedproblems result in many deaths each year.Unfortunately, many of these accidentscould have been avoided if the backcountryusers had been knowledgeable andprepared.

When LightningStrikes

Although we hear more on the news aboutsuch weather disasters as hurricanes,tornadoes and flash floods, no element ofthe weather takes more lives each year thanlightning. Over one hundred Americans arekilled each year by lightning. Of all the

weather hazards in the backcountry, thisphenomenon is the most significant.

The National Weather Service has estimatedthat roughly 2,000 thunderstorms areoccurring on earth at any given moment,producing 100 lightning strikes per second.

Lightning is a very dangerous yet somewhatavoidable hazard of backcountry use. Witha small degree of understanding of theelectrical energy of a lightning strike, the

backcountry user can better reduce the riskof death or injury.

Lightning almost always occurs inconjunction with a thunderstorm. In fact,the frequency of the lightning can usually bedetermined by the intensity of the

thunderstorm. In a well-developedthunderstorm, strong updrafts anddowndrafts create an intense electrical field.The upper section of the storm builds up astrong positive charge, while the lowersection develops a negative charge.

Whereas the ground is normally negativelycharged, the strong negative charge of thestorm induces a positive charge on theground as the storm passes overhead.Electrical current begins to flow up

buildings, trees and other tall objects as the

opposite charges attract each other. Whenthe difference between the charges is greatenough, the insulating atmosphere betweenthe cloud and ground is insufficient and anelectrical connection is made. The result...alightning strike.

Over 100 Americans are killed eachyear by lightning. Photo by CharleyShimanski

The current in a bolt of lightning averages30,000 amperes. Normal householdcurrent is 20 amperes. An impressivedifference, wouldn't you say?

Due to this imposing power, the basicdangers of lightning are not only that ofbeing the subject of a direct strike, but ofbeing in the path of ground currents as theelectrons flow to the location of a nearbystrike.



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Lightning and the HumanBodySecond only to metal objects, the human

body is an excellent conductor of electricity- better than natural substances such asrocks, trees and soil (nearly ALL objects areconductors, however, given the extremeamperage found in lightning).

With few exceptions, a direct lightningstrike is fatal. Ground currents, or "indirectstrikes", can also be fatal (though notalways) and require more knowledge tounderstand avoidance.

The Lightning ProcessLightning is usually a ground to cloudprocess. The cloud induces a charge in theground that "pulls" the electrons toward the

base of the cloud. The base of the cloud ispositively charged, which induces a negativecharge to be attracted below it. Electronsflow along the ground and dischargeupward when the strike occurs.

Lightning is generally pulled from the mostconductive object closest to the source

cloud. In the plains states, strikes aregenerally vertical. In mountainous terrain,however, a diagonal or horizontal strike mayreach to a nearby peak.

The danger of a lightning strike is asfollows: When lightning occurs, the intenseelectrical charge (100 billion electrons) isdrawn quickly from many directions. As ittravels across the ground, the charge passesthrough any conductive object in its path,including a human body. If this happens,

both an entry and exit point resultsomewhere in the body. The unusually highcurrent will flow through the body in thesame way an electrical charge passesthrough a wire - in through an entry pointand out through an exit point. When thesepoints of entry and exit are at oppositeextremes (e.g. entry at a hand and exit at afoot) the vital organs of the midsection aresubject to extreme electrical shock. If,

however, the current passes from one foot toanother, the organs are usually not as proneto damage. In either case, severe thirddegree burns at the entry and exit points or

fourth degree burns of the intermediatemuscles and bones can result, depending onthe victim's proximity to the strike.

Positioning YourselfThe key to safety during a potentialthunderstorm is to know the most likelypoint where lightning might strike and toanticipate the path of travel of the chargethat is drawn from it. Anticipate the hill on

which you are standing will sustain a strikeand work to avoid key places on that hill.

What places are safer than others? Thegeneral rules are as follows:

Stay away from the isolated or largest trees,nearer the dense, shorter ones. Also, stayfarther from isolated trees than the height ofthe tree. When on an exposed talus or screefield (rock fields with no tree protection)stay nearer the smaller rocks. In openareas, seek a low place such as a ravine or

valley, but be alert for flash floods.

In all cases, stay away from sources of water(e.g. streams, lakes, puddles or even smallpools of water collected on rocks). Water isan excellent conductor of electricity.

The optimal location would be sheltered bysmall trees in a ravine, away from water androck overhangs. As an electrical chargetraveling along the ground reaches anoverhang, it will very likely arc across to

your body and travel through it rather than

along the rock.

If your team is a large group of people,spread out as much as possible to reduce therisk of multiple casualties. If you takeshelter in a cave, stay away from theentrance. As the lightning passes throughthe ground, it will travel near the opening ofthe cave and will use a body as a bridge to



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pass from one side of the entrance to theother. When camping, don't take shelter in

your tent if it is out in the open or under oneof the larger trees in the area. Tents provide

no additional insulation.

Body PositionBody position is simple. Avoid positionsthat would allow the charge to pass throughthe body. Whenever possible, drop to theposition of a baseball catcher croucheddown, on your feet. Try not to place yourhands on the ground, as this would increasethe chance of entry and exit points resultingat opposite extremes. NEVER lie flat on theground. At all times, wear shoes and stay onsomething insulated such as dry clothing,packs, ropes or tree branches. Occupy thesmallest area possible.

When there is a hazard of lightening,remove all exposed metal objects from yourclothes. These objects become hazardousnot only because they present a possibletarget for a direct strike but also becausethey will heat up significantly and fuseclothing or flesh as the current passesthrough the body on an indirect strike.

When you see a bolt of lightning, count howlong it takes for you to hear the thunder anddivide by 5. The result is your distance, inmiles, from the lightning. If a thunderclapis heard fifteen seconds after the lightning,

you are three miles away from the storm. Ifboth the thunderclap and lightning aresimultaneous (and generally extremelyloud), you are directly below the storm. If atany time you feel your hair stand on end,lightning is imminent.

Hypothermia...TheMost Common Killerof Backcountry UsersOn February 1, 1989, the temperature inButte, Montana dropped from 42 degrees to

-4 in one hour. Regardless of the season, atemperature drop of 30-40 degreesFahrenheit in one hour is not uncommon inthe mountains. Add cold rain and wind and

nature has mixed the perfect recipe forhypothermia.

What is Hypothermia?Hypothermia is the rapid, progressivemental and physical collapse accompanyingthe chilling of the inner core of the body. Itis caused by exposure to cold, aggravated by

wet, wind and exhaustion. Hypothermia haskilled more unprepared backcountry usersthan any other malady. In fact, the state

with the most reported cases ofhypothermia is, believe it or not, Florida!The reason is simple. Floridians aregenerally unprepared for cold weather.

Hypothermia is the most commonkiller of backcountry enthusiasts.Photo: Howard Paul

There are a number of ways to avoid

hypothermia. The trick to staying warm isto gain more calories than you lose. The

body can burn as little as 50 calories perhour while sleeping or more than 1,000 anhour during heavy work. Just as the bodyconstantly produces heat, it constantly losesit.



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Your body may burn over 50% more fuel inwinter than it would in summer. This isbecause you are inhaling cold air, warmingit and saturating it with water vapor. In

fact, as much as one-third of your body-heatloss can occur through breathing. Breathingthrough a scarf or balaclava may help by"pre-heating" the inspired air.

The body also loses heat by perspiration andits subsequent evaporation from the skin.In addition, 75% of the body heat can beradiated from an unprotected head, sincethe blood vessels in the scalp lie close to theskin.

Creating Body HeatClothing and shelter can only conserve

body-heat, they can't create it. Liquids andfood are the only "internal" source of heatcreation for the body. This is because heatis produced in the body by chemicalreactions through the metabolism of food,mainly oxidation of carbohydrates.Muscular activity is a second source of heat,

but uses food energy to generate the heat.

The Body's Reaction to ColdThe body's first reaction to cold is to shiver.Shivering is the first sign of hypothermiaand is the body's way of forcing an isometriccontraction and triggering a stored glycogen"dump" from the liver. It is the body'sattempt to generate heat by rapidly andrhythmically contracting muscles. Despitethe fact that shivering is fatiguing, itgenerally helps keep us warm. It diminishes

with oxygen deficiency, breathing of carbonmonoxide or the taking of aspirin or alcohol.The body's ability to maintain warmth is

depressed by the lack of water, lack of food,fatigue and shock. After shivering stops,hypothermic victims are confused intothinking they are feeling warmer. THEY

ARE NOT. They are dying.

Problems Which IncreaseHypothermia DangersConstipation retards efficient metabolism of

food and reduces energy levels. This is adangerous situation in the winter, as the

body can no longer take advantage of theenergy provided by the "fuel" ingested.

Despite what grandmother told you onthose cold Wisconsin evenings, alcoholreduces the body's ability to fight cold. Itdilates peripheral blood vessels, blocking

vasoconstriction and allowing warm bloodto exit the body's core. In addition, thealcohol may actually make the victim feel

warm and more competent. The lowtemperatures will increase the intoxicationbecause brain cell membranes are morefluid as a result of the increasedmetabolism.

Smoking or chewing tobacco constrictsperipheral vessels, reducing circulationnecessary to keep the skin warm. Aspirinalso dilates the vessels. Such conditions areconducive to frostbite and hypothermia.

In addition, sedatives, antidepressants andneurological problems common in theelderly will all increase the risk ofhypothermia.

Hypothermia is a killer in summer as well aswinter. It is more often triggered by acombination of wind, wet and cold than bycold alone. In fact, just plain dry cold, evenat extremes of -30 degrees, is far moremanageable and far more pleasant than 20-degree weather with wet snow and rainfalling and a harsh wind blowing. I'll take

the 30 below any day.

The Hypothermia Lab in Duluth Minnesotahas studied this phenomenon for over adecade. The lab discovered that the human

body can adjust its metabolism to adapt tothe cold. Studies showed that Eskimosrespond to cooling with an almost instantmetabolic leap and with skin temperatures



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that remain remarkably high. The "Ama",Korean pearl divers who once dived nakedinto icy waters in search of treasure, hadhigh basal metabolic rates, more efficient

tissue insulation and a higher threshold oftolerance before the onset of shivering. Onegeneration after they had started using

wet-suits, they had completely lost theirspecialized responses to the cold.

Hypothermia and the MindThe Hypothermia Lab also found thatcirculation can be increased by mind-power.Subjects of experiments who thought abouthow much they wanted to get out of the coldsuffered rapidly falling body temperatures.On the other hand, shivering subjects,directed to perform a mental arithmetictask, stopped shivering for short periods. Inaddition, when people get anxious, theyhave more problems with temperatureregulation.

One of hypothermia's strangestmanifestations is "paradoxical undressing."People suffering severe hypothermia areoften observed throwing off their clothes, asif they felt they were burning up. This is

believed to be because the hypothermicvictim's body, which has beenvasoconstricted to maintain core heat, mayabruptly vasodilate, allowing warm blood topump briefly through the body's peripheralareas. To the hypothermic victim, who isalready mentally foggy, the vasodilationmay produce a sense of extreme warmth.

In addition, chemical changes occur in thebody that can make the situation moredangerous. First, epinephrine (adrenaline)

is released into the bloodstream, whichincreases the heart rate. This is healthy,since it increases the metabolism. Otherchemical changes, however, can causehypothermic victims to experience vividhallucinations very similar to those reported

by schizophrenics. This is believed to becaused by increased dopamine in the blood.In addition, researchers have found that

spinal and cerebral neurons becomehypersensitive when they are cooled justthree or four degrees below normal. Thiscan lead to neural misfiring and to seeing

things that just aren't there.

Believe the signs, not the victim. Teammembers should monitor each othercarefully, even in temperatures of 50degrees. Any early sign of hypothermia is aserious warning. Take immediate action tocorrect the situation before it is too late.Most cases of hypothermia develop intemperatures between 30 and 50 degreesFahrenheit. Many novice backcountry userssimply don't believe such temperatures are

dangerous. They fatally underestimate thedangers of being wet and/or poorly clothedat such temperatures.

Environmental ConditionsContributing to Hypothermia

When the body is wet, the evaporation ofmoisture from the skin has a very rapidcooling effect that can be extremelydangerous. Water conducts heat 25 timesfaster than air. Therefore, heat is lost muchmore quickly if evaporation is occurring. A

wet backcountry user must always changequickly into extra dry clothing as soon aspossible. Staying wet is an open invitationto the dangers of hypothermia.

It is equally important to protect yourselffrom your own sweat. Working up a sweaton the trail will result in wet clothes by thetime a final destination or resting place isreached. Wet clothes will chill the bodysignificantly, especially in conditions of high

wind where evaporation takes place much

more quickly.

The Body's Reaction toHypothermiaMother often said and (for once) she wasright: "If you want to keep your feet warm,

wear a hat." Up to 75% of heat loss isthrough your head and neck, since the blood



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vessels are close to the surface. If the head,or any other body part, is exposed to cold,the body chills and "shunting" can result.

When this happens, circulation to the

extremities is sacrificed to assure that theremaining body heat is reserved for vitalinternal organs. The result is that the handsand feet receive less warm blood.

Shunting occurs as a result ofvasoconstriction. Vasoconstriction cranksup your blood pressure as you chill. As aresult, cold can be dangerous for people

with heart disease.

The key to avoiding this dangerous situation

is to be brave (and smart) enough to give upreaching the peak when the first signs ofhypothermia present themselves.

Frostnip andFrostbiteThe less severe form of frostbite, called"frost-nip", is the classic white spot on thecheek or the nose. It occurs when the outerskin freezes and can generally be taken care

of with application of a warm hand.Frostnip stings, but generally causes nomore problem than a sunburn.

Frostbite, however, is the freezing of deeptissues. Vasoconstriction and cold air arenot the only factors leading to the problem.

Altitude also plays a part. The higher thealtitude, the thinner the atmospheric oxygen

becomes and the less there is for the body touse. Since the body's response is to send thelion's share of available oxygen to the brainand central core (shunting), the peripheralsare put on starvation rations. At highaltitudes cellular metabolism decreases inthe extremities due to lower levels ofoxygen.

When skin temperatures drop below 50degrees Fahrenheit, the sense of touch andpain are lost. Frostbite occurs when skintemperatures drop below freezing and

circulation to those areas ceases. The waterbetween the cells in the skin and capillariesfreezes resulting in tissue damage.

Prevention is the key word when discussingfrostbite. Keep the extremities warm andavoid restricting circulation withtight-fitting clothes or boots.

DehydrationDehydration occurs when the body hasinsufficient water to maintain suitableenergy levels. Water is as important to the

body as is oxygen.

The average person needs to replace twoquarts of water a day minimum. Heavyperspiration, exposure to extremely warmtemperatures, constipation and/or excessive

vomiting can easily double this amount. Toavoid dehydration, you should drink waterregularly, in small amounts, to replenishthis supply.

Eating snow for a short period is harmless,but if done to excess it can cause the mucouslining of the mouth to become inflamed and

painful. If you have no stove, find a runningwater source.

Dehydration hastens the onset of generalfatigue and enhances the possibility of

Keeping hydrated is very important,especially during long trips. PhotoCharley Shimanski



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constipation, which is a dangeroussituation.

Salt helps the retention of body fluids and

reduces muscle cramps, so salty foodsshould be used. Sport drinks often containsignificant amounts of sodium as well.

Snow Blindness/SunBlindnessThe eyes are especially sensitive to the

brilliance of sunshine, especially that whichis reflected from snow fields. Ifunprotected, the eyes can be burned and/or

permanently damaged. The burns are soexcruciatingly painful that, once a

backcountry user has suffered andrecovered from this malady, he may neveragain remove his sunglasses even whilesleeping.

The only way to preventsnow/sun-blindness is to wear polarizedsun-glasses, whether you feel you need themor not (radiative light penetrates evenclouds and/or fog). Snow blindness can

occur in as little as one half hour. Theremay be no sensation other than brightnessto warn the victim. The pain does not occuruntil well after the damage has been done.

Altitude-RelatedIllnessesSince the average body is accustomed to lifeat lower elevations, several problems canoccur at altitude that are cause for concern.These problems are listed below, ranging

from the not-so-dangerous to thelife-threatening.

Altitude Sickness (a.k.a. AcuteMountain Sickness)

Altitude sickness is the most common ofaltitude-related illnesses. It can affectindividuals at altitudes as low as 5,000 feet.

Altitude sickness is caused by the lack ofoxygen (which can be enhanced in the

winter) and can be aggravated by cold,fatigue, drinking alcohol, smoking or

chewing tobacco. It is also believed thatthere is a connection between a disruptionof the acid/base balance in the body andalcohol sickness.

Altitude sickness is dangerous only in that itsignifies a body's reaction to increasedaltitude. It can lead to significant

complications such as high altitudepulmonary and/or cerebral edema, both ofwhich can be fatal.

To avoid altitude sickness, climb tohigher altitudes at a gradual rate.Photo: Charley Shimanski

In its mild states, altitude sickness consistsof headaches and difficulty sleeping. Othercommon complaints include nausea,drowsiness and shortness of breath. Thesesymptoms could increase in severity leadingto violent headaches, vomiting, vertigo andunconsciousness.

Some of the more common symptoms ofaltitude sickness include shortness of

breath, legs feeling heavy, dizziness,insomnia, blurred vision, lack of appetite,nausea, vomiting, diarrhea and headaches.For these reasons, altitude sickness is oftenconfused with the flu.

Sleep may be difficult during the first fewnights of your ascent. Regular periods of



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heavy breathing, separated by periods of nobreathing at all may wake the sleeper with asense of suffocation. Hyperventilation mayoccur, causing the light-headedness,

dizziness and tingling in the hands, feet andmouth. Again, avoid foods high in proteinfor the first few days and reintroduce themcautiously.

Fatigue and cold aggravate altitude sickness.Symptoms usually disappear as the bodyadjusts to the lower oxygen pressure.

To avoid altitude sickness, drink extraamounts of water, not just during ascents,

but several days beforehand. About one

week before your trip, eat more starches,more long chain carbohydrates and lessproteins. Reduce the intake of foods thatcause an acidic reaction in the body. Some

believe that the use of an antacid tabletwould be beneficial as well, though this isopen to debate, since antacid tablets aredesigned to alter the acid/base balance inthe stomach, not necessarily in the

bloodstream.

In addition, climb to higher altitudes at agradual rate. Your body will acclimatize to

altitude changes, but only at a rate of about500 feet per day.

Strangely enough, it has been shown that

residents of high altitudes can suffer fromreverse altitude sickness when they spendtime at sea level. High iron content andhigh blood viscosity cause thisphenomenon.

High Altitude PulmonaryEdemaHigh Altitude Pulmonary Edema (HAPE) isa severe illness whose symptoms are similar

to pneumonia with congestion and difficultyin breathing. The symptoms are oftenconfused with altitude sickness, except thatpulmonary problems exist. The symptoms

will increase in severity in a matter of days.HAPE is simply an accumulation of fluid inthe lungs. Symptoms develop in 6 to 36hours after arrival at high altitudes andconsist of shortness of breath, weakness,coughing and a feeling of tightness in thechest. The cough is constant and can beirritating. The pulse becomes rapid whilerespiration becomes rapid and constant.

Anxiety on the part of the victim onlyincreases these symptoms.

Altitude sickness can affect individuals

at altitudes as low as 5,000 feet roughly the altitude of BozemanMontana and Denver, Colorado. Photoby Charley Shimanski

Hyperthermia andHeat-RelatedIllnesses

While there are times when you want toretain as much of your body heat aspossible, there are times when the body

needs to release as much of it as possible inorder to avoid hyperthermia.

Hyperthermia is most often the result ofexcessive exposure to heat. The heat-regulating mechanisms of the body becomeunable to effectively deal with the heat,therefore the body temperature climbs



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uncontrollably. This is a medical emergencythat requires immediate medical attention.

Hyperthermia is the name given to a variety

of heat-related illnesses. For the purposesof this discussion, well focus on thehyperthermia that occurs when the body isunable to cool itself sufficiently whenchallenged by long periods of intense heatand/or activity.

Muscle cramps (a.k.a. "heat cramps") occurwhen the body's salt content is low. Thissalt content drops below normal whenexcessive sweating occurs. Though verypainful, cramps are not a dangerous

situation. They are, however, an indicationthat the backcountry user is doing a poor

job of monitoring fluid levels. Salt tablets,available at any pharmacy, should be takenon any trip that will involve excessiveexercise.

Heat exhaustion occurs when the body isunable to cool itself sufficiently. Thisgenerally occurs in warm climates, but canalso occur in the mountains.

A victim of heat exhaustion is a victim introuble. Heat exhaustion is generallycaused by too much exertion during hot

weather. Symptoms of heat exhaustioninclude moist, clammy skin, weakness,nausea and possible delirium.

Heat exhaustion can be treated in a numberof ways. First, the subject should beremoved from exposure to the sun, andexposed to a cool place, preferably one thatincludes air conditioning. Water or juice

should be administered to replenish fluids but alcohol, caffeine, and soda should beavoided.

The subject should also be encouraged toshower or bathe, or a cool sponge bath can

be considered.

Finally, the subject should lie down andrest, ideally in a cool place.

In its advanced state, hyperthermia presentsitself as heat stroke or sunstroke, the acutecondition which occurs when the body

produces or absorbs more heat than it candissipate.

Heat stoke occurs when heat exhaustion isnot treated. A victim of heat stroke is a

victim in a life-threatening situation. This istruly a medical emergency. The body has

become so over-heated that it is generallyno longer able to sweat. Without the abilityto sweat, the body cannot cool itself. If this

victim were an automobile's radiator, steamwould be shooting out of the mouth, nose,

ears and eyes.

Symptoms of a victim of heat stroke includedry skin, flushed face, nausea, weakness,delirium and eventually unconsciousness.This person's internal temperature isdangerously high and the possibility of

brain damage is introduced.

In this program we have discussed many of

the hazards of backcountry travel. The keyto safe backcountry travel lies in recognizingthese hazards and knowing, in advance, howto avoid them. Avoidance is the only way toassure that your day in the backcountry is asafe and memorable experience.

Happy trails to you. May the magnificenceof the backcountry stay with you forever.


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