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251© The Editor(s) (if applicable) and The Author(s) 2016G. Matias, Citizenship as a Human Right, DOI 10.1057/978-1-137-59384-9

INDEX

A Abbe Sieyès , 36 abuse of law , 121, 123, 124, 139 Accursius , 31, 33

naturalization , 30 administrative policies and procedures:

changes to , 201 adverse possession , 2–3, 214–21

applicability , 215–16 and jus nexi , 217 protection of , 216, 239

African Americans , 222 African Charter on Human and

Peoples’ Rights: Article 6 , 94 Article 12 , 94

AG of Hong Kong v Ng Yuen Shui , 198

aging populations , 8 Ahmadou Sadio Diallo case , 93–4 Algeria , 158 aliens:

automatic naturalization of resident , 208

categories of , 21 classifi cation as , 166–7, 172

diplomatic protection , 41 exclusion of , 82 legal treatment of , 41 levels of citizenship , 19–21 permanent , 89 political rights , 97, 181–3 protection of , 182 resident , 183 rights for , 169 and social benefi ts , 172

American Civil War , 117 American Convention on Human

Rights , 63–7 Article 20 , 63

American Law Institute , 42 amnesty , 179 Amnesty International , 98 Ancient Greece , 222 . See also Athens;

Attica citizenship and inclusion , 9–21, 22,

92, 97 and citizenship of foreigners , 19–21 defi nition of a citizen , 10–11 metics , 209

Ancient Rome: awarding citizenship , 24–8

252 INDEX

Antoninus Caracalla, Emperor , 26, 29 aphretor , 12 arbitrary treatment: freedom from ,

203 arcontes , 16 Arendt, Hannah , 80, 97 Argentina , 122 Aristotle , 9–10, 12, 14 Asian nationals , 154 assimilation:

forced , 105–6, 108 full , 106

Asylum and Immigration Tribunal (UK) , 141

asylum requests , 139 Athens , 209 . See also Ancient Greece;

Attica citizenship of , 15–19 development of citizenship , 9–10 social organization of , 9–13

Attica . See also Ancient Greece; Athens characteristics of the citizen , 10 citizenship of , 10–11 community of citizens , 17 unity of peoples , 21

attribution of citizenship , 206–7 attrition through enforcement , 178 Augustus, Emperor , 26 Australia , 158

qualifying time for citizenship , 218 Austria , 125–33, 141, 180, 218, 219

B Baden-Württemberg , 107 Baldus de Ubaldis , 30

naturalization , 30 Banks, Angela , 204 Barbados , 158 barbarians , 19–21, 26 Barcelona Traction Case , 93 Barker, J Craig , 42

Bartolus de Sassoferrato , 30 naturalization , 30

Bauböck, Rainer , 208 Bayerischer Verwaltungsgerichtsh of ,

126 Belgian Nationality Code: Article

10(1) , 134 Belgium , 134, 136, 180, 218, 219

nationality law , 139 belonging and participation , 12 Benhabib, Seyla , 88–90, 105–6, 147,

221–2, 223 birthright citizenship , 121

repealing , 124–5 Black, Charles , 92 black market economy , 165 bloc voting , 183 borders:

abolition of , 81 controls , 82–4, 90 failure to control , 80, 165–6 porosity , 86

Bosico, Violetta , 65 Bosico and Yean children , 64–6 Bosnia and Herzegovina , 73 Bosniak, Linda , 92, 96, 98–9, 100,

175, 187, 222 brain drain , 160 Brennan, Justice William , 172–3 Brownlie, Ian , 54 Bulgaria , 219 Bundesministerium für Inneres

(Austria) , 140, 142

C California: Proposition, 187 , 175–6 Canada , 73, 158 caput , 22 Carens, Joseph , 81, 84, 179–80, 209,

211 border controls , 82–4

INDEX 253

Carthaginian deserters , 25 centre of life , 210–11 Chan Kam Nga , 198 Chang, Howard F. , 85–6 changes to laws: impact on migrants ,

201 Charter of Fundamental Rights of the

EU: in Lisbon Treaty , 118 Chen, Catherine . See Zhu, Catherine Chen, Man Lavette , 121, 139 Chen case , 135–7, 231–2

abuse of law , 139 Chen decision , 121–5, 128, 130, 133

paragraph, 37 , 129 restrictions on scope , 139–40

Chicago: alien voting rights , 181 children:

Convention on the Rights of the Child , 155

and nationality cases , 142 right to education , 171–4 right to nationality , 162

China: second child policy , 121 Cholewinsky, Ryszard , 158–9 citizen-as-rights: theory critique , 96–7 citizen tourism , 232 citizens , 225–6

exclusive rights , 181 mass participation , 20–1 remuneration for participation , 20–1

citizens in waiting , 1, 3 and citizenship , 239 migrants as , 188 rights for , 186–7

citizenship , 228–33 . See also Chen case and adverse possession , 214–15,

216–21 applicable principles for acquisition ,

131–3 attribution of , 54–6, 173, 206–7,

208 benefi ts , 168

birthright , 121, 124–5, 212 and choice , 210 codifi cation , 57 collective granting of , 16 concentric circles , 35 confl icts about , 43 control of , 8, 45–6, 50–1, 58, 83,

84, 89, 125, 133 decline of , 88–91 in a democracy , 147 democratic and moral arguments ,

213 denationalization , 87–8 derivative acquisition , 56, 116–18,

206–7 devaluation of , 89 development in EU , 229 discretionary discrimination , 212 for documented and undocumented

migrants , 197, 202–3, 230 and effective link , 209–10 elements of , 79–81, 229 and equality , 33, 35 and EU law , 140 and exclusion , 92 and family , 23–4 federal , 115 and freedom , 11 as a fundamental right , 212 and human rights , 69–70 as identity/solidarity , 80–1 and inclusion , 9, 25 institutionalized , 16, 18, 24 and integration , 21, 22, 197 international dimension . See

citizenship law issues , 115–16 legal relationships , 139 as legal status , 80–1 legal status in Rome , 24 legalization over time , 216–21 and legitimacy for legal rules , 147

254 INDEX

citizenship (cont.) locus of , 97 loss or deprivation , 58, 143–4 meaning , 22, 33, 86, 96, 97, 98,

99, 116, 146–7, 232–3, 239–40

and migration , 229 monolithic reading of concept , 213 and multiculturalism , 104–9 national legislation , 44 by naturalization , 207–8 nineteen-twenties perspectives , 42–3 path for documented and

undocumented migrants , 226–7

time frame for entitlement , 214–21 and personhood , 153–4 and political activity , 80–1, 98–100,

104 procedures , 211 and proportionality , 206 purpose , 90–1 replacement of , 107 and residence , 30–1, 66–7, 139,

187, 207, 208, 212, 213 restoring , 133 reward for illegality , 202–3 right to , 49, 50–1, 84, 96, 132, 207 rights , 80–1, 89, 91–6, 117, 154,

187, 224 and safety , 30–1 and statelessness , 143–4 strengthening in Ancient Rome ,

21–2 through adverse possession , 217 through legal engineering , 135 time frame for entitlement , 217,

218–20 transnational , 100, 229, 230 and voting rights , 182–3 citizenship law , 54

citizenship goods: access to , 89

reserving , 167 citizenship law , 54

and cross-border migration , 144 harmonization of , 231 international , 41–76, 146, 213

citizenship rules: boundaries , 123 and EU law , 145 freedom to establish , 123

cives , 22 cives iure optimo , 28–9 cives optimo iure , 24 cives sine suffragio , 24, 28–9 Civil Rights: in US , 222 Civil War . See American Civil War civitas , 22 civitas libertasque , 22 civitas (Roman) , 21–4 civitates peregrini , 28–9 civitatis , 23 Cleisthenes , 9–10, 15, 19

reforms , 17–18 collective guilt , 15 collective happiness , 14–15 collective property , 82 collective responsibility , 14–15 collective right to self-determination ,

107 collective virtue , 14 Columbia , 136

civil war , 134 Columbian nationality , 134 Committee of Experts on Multiple

Nationality , 66 common good , 14–15 communitarianism , 14–15 community:

Athenian concept of , 14 maintaining and uniting , 27

concentric citizenship circles , 35 Congo, Democratic Republic of

(DRC) , 93–4 connection criteria (jus nexi) , 209–10

INDEX 255

Conseild’État (Belgium) , 134 Conseild’Etat (France) , 106 consilia , 29 Constitutio Antoniani , 26–9 constitutional democracies: and

protection of expectations , 202 constitutional law:

and full assimilation , 106 and migrants’ rights , 187

constitutionalists , 92 contradictory actions of the

administration , 200–2 Convention against Torture and Other

Cruel Inhuman or Degrading Treatment or Punishment , 155

Convention on Migrant Workers, 1975 (No. 143) , 156

Convention on Nationality of Married Women , 61

Convention on the Elimination of All Forms of Discrimination Against Women , 60, 155

Convention on the Elimination of All Forms of Racial Discrimination , 155

Convention on the Reduction of Statelessness , 56–9, 57–9, 64

Article 8(2) , 129 contracting states , 57–8

Convention on the Rights of the Child , 155

Convention on the Status of Refugees, 1951 (UNCHR) , 160

cosmopolitan citizens: expectations , 200–2

cosmopolitanism: economics of , 84–5 Costa Rica , 63 Council of Europe Recommendation 1081 , 66 Countries . See nation states Court of Justice of the European

Union (CJEU) , 54, 116, 121, 122, 130–1, 146, 203, 230, 232

Case C-13/08 , 125–33

citizenship case decisions , 143, 145 extension of competence on

citizenship , 128–9 and Janko Rottmann v Freistaat

Bayern , 126–33 judicial activism , 115 Mulder case , 198–9 Murat case , 142 and reserved domain doctrine , 130 review of legality , 198

criminal justice systems: European , 170–1

criminal law: proportionality , 204 Croatia , 219 cross-border migration , 86, 136, 140,

144 cultural integration , 105 cultural invasion , 108 Cyprus , 219 Czech Republic , 219

D Davos World Economic Forum , 98 De Groot, Gerard René , 73, 128, 130,

131, 144, 203–4 decision-makers: community

of , 10–11 dediticii , 26, 28–9 demes , 17 democracies:

paradox of legitimacy , 8–9, 99–100, 221–8

and protection of expectations , 202 democratic participation , 104 democratic principle , 2–3, 3–4, 69–70,

99–100, 104, 182, 227–8 growing importance of , 227 protection of , 239

Democratic Republic of Congo (DRC) , 93–4

democratic society , 182–3 legitimacy of the government , 223

256 INDEX

demos , 9, 13, 16, 79, 86, 222, 224–6 constitution of , 14 divergent concepts of , 228 and legal defi nition of the people ,

226–7 setting apart from the polity , 222–3 time necessary to join , 225

demota , 17 denaturalization , 102

consequences , 131–2 Denmark , 158, 180, 218, 219 deportation , 202

and proportionality principle , 204, 206

risk of , 174–5 use of , 205

Dereci, Murat , 141–2 derivative citizenship , 116–18, 139,

206–7 and federal citizenship , 146 right to , 140

deterritorialized citizenship . See post-national citizenship

developing countries: migration within , 154

Diallo, Ahmadou Sadio , 93–4 Diderot, Denis , 33 diplomatic protection , 41

foreign affairs ministers , 93 government offi cers , 93 heads of state , 93

diplomats: and the demos , 225 discriminable rights , 167 disloyalty , 183 documented migrants:

and adverse possession , 217 citizenship path , 226–7 expectations , 201–2 in liberal democracies , 217 naturalization policies , 217 protection of , 163–4 protection of expectations , 201–2

d’Oliveira, Jessurum , 127, 130, 131–2, 137, 145

domestic jurisdiction: defi ning , 44–5 doctrine of , 45 and nationality , 65, 66–7

domestic law: and principle of protection of legitimate expectations , 198

domestic reserved domain , 44–8, 115, 120

and genuine link theory , 54–5 and international law ,

121–2, 124 limits to , 54–5, 122–3 and nationality law , 130 theory of , 50

Domingo, Rafael , 96 Dominican Republic , 64–6 Donner, Ruth , 42, 43 Draft Articles on Nationality of

Natural Persons , 62–3 Article 1 , 62–3 Article 4 , 63

Draft Articles: Report of the International Law Commission , 61–4

dual citizenship , 41, 100–4 concept of , 25 in constitutional law , 103–4 in international law , 103–4 right to , 102 US model , 116–17

Dutch nationality law . See Netherlands

E eastern countries: drafting Migrant

Workers Convention , 158 Economic and Social Council (UN):

study on statelessness , 56–8 economic cosmopolitanism , 84–6

INDEX 257

economic inequality: between areas , 164–5

economic migrants , 154 education: social right to , 171–4 effective link . See genuine link Egypt , 158 11 September 2001 , 175 d’Entreves, Maurizio Passerin , 97 Equal Protection Clause (US law) ,

173 equality , 227

and citizenship , 33, 35 equality principle , 166 essentialist approach , 45 Estonia , 219 ethical territoriality , 187, 188, 222 etnos , 79 EU borders: immigration within , 118 EU citizenship , 99

acquisition and loss , 120–5, 126–33 autonomy of , 121–2 concept of , 143–7 debate about , 115–20 derivative form , 120 developments , 115 and EU law , 137 exclusions , 119–20 federalization of , 140, 142, 144,

146 and national citizenship , 124,

143–7, 144, 145, 146 peculiarity of , 138–9 proportionality principle , 138–9 provisions relating to , 136 purpose of , 116, 147 relationship to national citizenship ,

120–5 and reverse discrimination , 138–9 revolution in laws of , 125–33 rights , 118, 127–8, 137, 143, 181 seeking , 120–5 status of , 145

strength , 117 as transnational citizenship , 181

EU citizenship law: and cross-border disputes , 142–3 developments , 123 revolution in , 130, 133–40 specifi c principles , 203

EU Directive 2004/38 , 142 EU law:

and citizenship , 140 freedom from arbitrary treatment , 203 fundamental rights , 139 and legitimate expectations , 201–2 national applicability , 136 and post-national citizenship , 87 principle of proportionality , 131–2,

144, 146 and protection of expectations , 197,

201–2 EU rights: loss of , 132 Europe , 73

access to citizenship , 3 categories of foreigners , 21 courts , 45 legalization/regularization , 205 qualifying time for citizenship , 218 structure of society , 29

European Charter of Fundamental Rights , 95

Article 8 , 142 European Commission: and nationality

law , 130 European construction , 27–8 European Convention on Human

Rights , 95 European Convention on Nationality

(ECN) , 2, 66–8, 71–4, 87, 220 Article 4(c) , 129 Article 7(1) , 129 Article 7(3) , 129 and EU residence , 73–4 naturalization in EU , 67

258 INDEX

European Court of Justice . See Court of Justice of the European Union (CJEU)

European Economic and Social Committee: opinion on International Convention on the Protection of the Rights of All Migrant Workers and Members of Their Families , 157

European institutions: crisis of legitimacy , 147

European Ombudsman: right to address , 119–20

European Parliament: right to address , 119–20

European people , 116, 147 designing , 147

European Union (EU) , 27, 67, 229 and citizenship , 73, 230–1 de facto harmonization , 231–2 democratic defi cit , 227 democratic legitimacy , 118–19 evolution , 147 freedoms , 128 institutional basis , 230–1 integration , 231 non-citizen voting rights , 181 principles , 128 undocumented migrants , 176

European Union Observatory on Democracy (EUDO): citizenship , 218–19

European University Institute, Florence , 219

exclusion from benefi ts: fi nancial argument , 172

exclusive domestic jurisdiction . See domestic reserved domain

exclusive rights: of citizens , 181 expats , 186 expectations , 3–4, 203

and CJEU review of legality , 198 legitimacy of , 200–3

protection of legitimate , 197–203, 227

raised by state and its offi cials , 201 expulsion orders , 141–2

F Falk, Richard , 98 familiae , 23 family ties: and migration , 154–5 family unit , 23 federal citizenship , 115, 116–17

and derivative citizenship , 146 female genital mutilation , 106 feudal privileges , 82 feudalistic society , 29 fi nancial arguments:

costs to host countries , 168–9 exclusion from benefi ts , 172

Finland , 158, 218, 219 forced assimilation , 105–6, 108 foreign affairs ministers , 93 foreigners . See aliens France , 48, 108, 158, 180, 218, 219

Conseild’Etat , 106 fraud: and withdrawal of citizenship ,

125–33 free speech , 14 Freistaat Bayern , 126 French citizens , 33–4 French Revolution: and concept of

citizenship , 33–6 fundamental rights and freedoms , 14,

154 evolution of , 107–8

G G-7 , 98 gene (clans) , 10 general interest (non-particularist) , 13 genocide , 94–5 genuine link , 51–6, 124, 209–10

INDEX 259

application of , 54 connection criteria , 209–10 defi ning and establishing , 53 full extent of , 55–6 theory , 213

geographical contiguity , 15–16 German Constitutional Court , 107 German nationality: acquired through

fraud , 199–200 Germany , 51–4, 107, 108, 125–33,

158, 180, 198, 218, 219 and Polish Upper Silesia , 199

global citizenship , 92 global constitutionalism , 3 global law , 96, 116 global order:

legitimacy , 87 new , 86

Global State , 80 globalization , 88, 186

and national citizenship , 185 and national identity , 106

Gomez, Monica , 214, 215 good faith , 203 Good Friday Agreement , 231 Goodman, Sarah Wallace , 219 Graham v Richardson ,

166–7, 172 Grant, John P , 42 Graz (Austria) , 125–33 Great Britain . See United Kingdom Greece , 158, 180, 218, 219 Greece v Commission , 199 Greek citizens , 26 Greek heritage , 80 Greenpeace , 98 group of 77: drafting Migrant Workers

Convention , 158–9 Grundschule , 107 Guatemala , 51–4, 124, 175 Guatemalan nationals , 175 guest workers , 209 Guinea, Republic of , 93–4

H Habermas, Jürgen , 200, 223, 227,

232 Hague Conference , 47 Hague Convention (1930) , 44–9, 52,

60 Article 1 , 45–6 and citizenship law , 54

Hailbronner, Kay , 72 Haiti , 64–6 Handoll, J. , 232 Harvard Draft Convention , 42–3 Harvard project , 42–3 Hauptschule , 107 heads of state: status , 93 heightened liberty interest , 204 Heiml, Mrs. , 141–2 Hoang, Minh , 214, 215–16 Hong Kong Court , 198 honorary citizenship , 20 hospitality: right to , 81 hostis , 28–9 Hudson, Manley , 42 human dignity , 92

international protection of , 163 universalization of , 153–4

human rights , 90, 92 and citizenship , 69–70 core universal , 230 and EU charter , 118 and individual attachments , 100–1 international , 49, 90 international protection of , 80, 88,

94–5, 96, 155–6, 163 and personhood , 164, 167 regulatory framework , 156–7 right to citizenship , 102 to specifi c citizenships , 104 universal protection , 91–7 universalization of , 153–4

Human Rights Watch , 98 human virtue , 14 Hungary , 219

260 INDEX

I Iceland , 219 illegal aliens: required notifi cation ,

176–7 Illegal Immigration Reform and

Immigrant Responsibility Act , 176

illegal migration , 153 networks , 160, 165 control of , 166

immigrant rights: United States of America , 185

immigrants: and adverse possession , 214–15 integration of , 165 and taxation , 168–9 voting rights , 88–9

immigration , 8, 83 and adverse possession , 214–15 as citizenship path , 186–7 as contract , 84, 184–5 control of , 89 and host culture , 82 illegal networks , 153, 160, 165, 166 legal relationships , 139 magnets for , 169 reporting status , 175 right to control , 82 as transition , 184, 185, 187–8

immigration and citizenship discourses: and proportionality , 205–6

Immigration as a Democratic Challenge (Rubio-Marin, 2000) , 210

immigration law: criminalization of , 177, 204 and path to citizenship , 184 and proportionality , 206

imperialism: and citizenship , 24 inclusion:

and citizenship , 17 constitutional , 108

India , 158 individual removal orders , 141–2 individualism , 14–15 individuals:

and citizenship , 87 and collective virtue , 14–15 detachment from national polity ,

88–9 and international law , 79, 93–6 international relevance , 93 international rights , 94–5 law of , 42 rights and freedoms , 87, 107 and socio-political community , 22

industrialized countries: concerns about migrants’ rights , 158–9

information fl ow , 164–5 Institut de Droit International , 42 institutional transnational citizenship ,

115–47 integration: testing degree of , 211 integration policies , 104–5 Inter-American Commission on

Human Rights , 64–6 Inter-American Court of Human

Rights , 64, 65 Inter-American Instruments on

Human Rights , 63–7 International American Specialized

Conference on Human Rights , 63–6

international citizenship: developments in , 230

international citizenship law , 52 codifi cation , 73–4 early , 69 and national law , 56–9 non-discrimination of spouses , 66 reduction of statelessness , 66 regional , 63–7

International Convention on the Protection of the Rights of All

INDEX 261

Migrant Workers and Members of Their Families , 153, 155, 156–63, 174–5

aims , 157 applicability , 159–61 Article 1 , 162 Article 3 , 161 Article 4 , 161 Article 5 , 163 Article 29 , 162 Article 37 , 162 Article 38 , 162 Article 40 , 162 Article 41 , 162 Article 42 , 162 Article 43 , 162 Article 44 , 162 Article 46 , 162 Article 47 , 162 Article 49 , 162 Article 52 , 162 Article 54 , 162 Article 56 , 162 Article 79 , 162–3 Article 88 , 161 Articles 36–56 , 162 exclusively documented rights , 162 and family reunifi cation , 162 negotiating groups , 158–9 ratifi cation , 157, 159 rights protected by , 161–2 and undocumented migrants , 163–4 working group , 157–9

International Conventions on the Elimination of All Forms of Racial Discrimination , 59–61

Article 1(3) , 60 Article 5 , 60

International Conventions on the Protection of the Rights of All Migrant Workers and Members of Their Families , 101

International Court of Justice , 51, 52, 53, 93, 95, 124, 209–10

International Covenant on Civil and Political Rights , 59, 62, 95, 155

Article 9 , 94 Article 13 , 94 Article 24/3 , 59

International Criminal Court , 93–4 Statute of Rome , 95 international institutions: democratic

defi cit within , 227 International Labor Organization

(ILO) , 156 Convention on Migrant Workers,

1975 (No. 143) , 156 Migration for Employment

Convention, 1949 (No. 97) , 156 international law , 96, 116

admitting foreigners , 174 application of , 234 and citizenship , 210–11, 229 citizenship background to , 41–4 customary , 228 and the democratic principle , 227 and demos , 225 and domestic reserved domain ,

121–2, 124 equality principle , 166 and full assimilation , 106 human rights , 208 and legitimate expectations , 198,

201–2 and migrants’ admission criteria ,

164 and migrants’ rights , 187 obligations to refugees , 225–6 and principle of proportionality , 146 and rights of undocumented

migrants , 178–9 and withdrawal of citizenship , 129

International Law Commission (UN) , 57, 61–3, 158

262 INDEX

international law of citizenship , 41–76

compliance with , 44–5 customary , 46–7 and democratic principle , 69–70 effective nationality , 66 principles , 47

international legal community , 27 international legislative bodies:

democratic defi cit within , 227 international migrants: geographical

distribution of , 154–5 international organizations , 79 international practice , 229 international refugee law , 175 international law: trend in views on

citizenship , 218 international Conference of

Plenipotentiaries , 57–9 investors , 160–1 Ireland (Eire), Republic of , 219 Islamic terrorism , 84 Israel: qualifying time for citizenship ,

218 Italian peninsula: political unifi cation ,

22 Italy , 122, 158, 180, 218, 219 ius cogens , 227–8 ius conubium , 28–9, 167

attribution of , 206–7 ius domicilii , 2–3, 183, 188, 206–13,

212–13 automatic attribution , 213 protection of , 239

ius gentium , 28–9, 29, 95 ius hospitium , 28–9 ius sanguinis , 7, 16, 23, 25, 34, 47,

55–6, 100, 220 attribution of , 206–7

ius soli , 7, 25, 34, 47, 55–6, 64–6, 67, 100, 121, 220

ius testamenti factio , 28–9

J Jacobsen, David , 90, 180 Janko Rottmann v Freistaat Bayern ,

125–33 Japan , 158 jus domicilii , 232 jus nexi (connection criteria) , 204,

209–10, 232 and adverse possession , 217 criteria to fulfi ll , 212

justice: and virtue , 14

K Kant, Immanuel , 81 Karst, Kenneth , 92 Kaur decision: paragraph 19 , 129 Kennedy, John F. , 18 Kochenov, Dimitry , 130 Kokollari, Mr. , 141–2 Kokott, Advocate-General , 142 Kunz, Joseph , 53 Kymlicka, Will , 104–5 Kyrgyzstan , 73

L l’affaire du foulard/ scarf affair , 104,

106–7 Latvia , 219 law: Romanization , 28–9 laws: legitimacy of , 228 Lazio , 22 League of Nations , 42, 199

codifi cation Conference (1930) , 42–3

Lebanon , 48 legal certainty , 203, 227 legal engineering , 134 legal knowledge: in Middle Ages ,

29–30 legal order: person-centre , 96

INDEX 263

legal permanent residents , 215 legal persons , 62 legal pluralism , 3–4 legalization: adverse possession of ,

216–21 legitimate expectations , 2–3

formation of , 200–3 protection of , 239

Legomsky, Stephen , 100, 102, 168–9, 173, 177–8, 202–3, 211, 214

and proportionality principle , 204–5 Lex Julia (90BC) , 25 Lex Plautia Papiris (89 BC) , 25 liberal democracies , 182–3, 234

access to citizenship , 225–6 documented migrants in , 217 freedom from arbitrary treatment ,

203 legal mechanisms for naturalization ,

205–6 naturalization policies and processes ,

206–7, 217 and protection of expectations , 202

Libya: international intervention , 94 Lichtenstein , 51–4, 124 Lipman, Francine J , 168–9 Lisbon Treaty: Charter of Fundamental

Rights of the EU in , 118 Lithuania , 219 Lönnroth, Juhani , 160–1 Ludin, Freshta , 107 Lukes, Timothy , 214, 215–16 Luxembourg , 154, 218, 219

M Maastricht Treaty (1992) , 27, 116 Maduike, Mr , 141–2 Maduro, AG Miguel Poiares , 126–8,

132, 138, 203 opinion on Rottman , 144, 199–200

Malta , 219

Marshall, T H , 80, 92 Marsilius de Padua , 31 Maryland: alien voting rights , 181 McCarthy case: AG opinion , 142–3 McDonalds , 98 medieval cities: citizenship , 30 Mediterranean and Scandinavian

group (MESCA): drafting Migrant Workers Convention , 158–9

Meier, Christian , 12–13 members of the polity:

heightened liberty interest , 204 political participation , 182–3 as rulers , 182–3

Merkel, Angela , 104 Mesbah decision: paragraph 29 , 129 metics , 19–21, 209, 222

and citizenship , 89 Mexicans , 171–2 Mexico , 158

qualifying time for citizenship , 218 Micheletti, Mário Vicente , 122 Micheletti decision , 122, 125, 128,

130, 133, 144, 146 paragraph 10 , 129

Middle Ages: citizenship during , 29–33

migrants: admission of , 83–4, 162, 163–4 and adverse possession , 215–16 assimilating , 106 as citizens in waiting , 88–9, 184–8,

188 contribution to society at large , 201 defi nition , 159–60 and deportation , 206 exercise of rights , 208 expectations of resident , 201 and human rights , 186 integrating , 104–5, 182 naturalization of , 207, 208

264 INDEX

migrants (cont.) protections of , 89–90, 155–6, 161 relationship with police , 176–7 right to family reunifi cation , 155 rights protection , 153–6 and social contract , 84

migrants’ expectations , 197–203 migrants’ rights , 187–8

global protection , 153–6 legal framework for protection of ,

156 need for a specifi c convention ,

155–6 migration:

and citizenship , 232–3 within developing countries , 154 disadvantages of undocumented ,

165 economic effects , 84–6 effects on citizenship , 229 mass movements , 100 positive impacts , 84–5 reasons for , 154 regulating , 89, 163–4 and social benefi ts , 169

Migration for Employment Convention, 1949 (No. 97) , 156

migratory movements , 43, 100 development of legal protections ,

92–3 frequent , 186 geographical distribution of , 154–5 impact of , 82–3 and national sovereignty , 79–80, 83 reasons for , 154–5

military interventions , 228 military service , 101 minority rights , 107 Moldova , 219 moral cosmopolitanism , 81–6 Morjé-Howard, Marc , 218, 219,

231–2

Morocco , 158 Motomura, Hiroshi , 1, 84, 184–8 Mulder case , 198–9 multi-taxation , 101–2 multiculturalism:

and citizenship , 104–9 confl icts , 105–6

multiple citizenship , 43, 100–4 municipal citizenship law , 52 municipes , 25 municipia , 24, 29 Murat Dereci and Others v

BundesministeriumfürInneres , 140

N NATAC project , 218–19

recommendations , 218–20 nation-states:

challenging attributions of citizenship by , 213

and citizenship rights , 92, 97 disputes between , 96 interventions beyond , 94–5 and law enforcement , 5 layers of decision , 108–9 legitimacy , 87 raising undocumented migrants

expectations , 202 transforming , 90 waning of , 88 without a citizenship path , 222–3

national citizenship , 87–8 accepted interference in granting ,

124 concept of , 147 defi nition of people , 44 and EU citizenship , 115, 144, 145,

146 expectations , 200–2 in a globalized world , 186

INDEX 265

limitations on , 130, 228–30 and social cooperation , 186 supremacy in law , 120–5

national citizenship laws: and EU law , 203 harmonization , 120

national identity: and multiculturalism , 106

national law: and asylum requests , 139 on citizenship , 200 and international citizenship law ,

56–9 national self-determination , 90 nationality:

and children , 142 discrimination based on , 138 and domestic jurisdiction , 65, 66–7 effective , 66 general principles , 72–6 of natural persons , 61–3 obtained by deception , 125–33 recovering original , 126, 132 right to , 62–3 right to change , 50–1 withdrawal of , 132

Nationality Decrees: Morocco , 45 Tunis , 45

nationality laws: confl icts amongst , 44–8, 45–7 human rights approach , 68–9

nationhood , 86, 87 natural persons: nationality of , 61–3 naturalization , 34, 56, 102

Ancient Greece , 16 applicable principles , 131–3 barriers to , 211 based on residence , 220 and cultural integration , 105 ideological qualifi cations , 211 illegitimate obstacles to , 211

obstructive policies , 218–19 paths to , 89 policies and procedures , 2, 89, 108,

228 qualifying criteria , 30, 31, 73–4,

211–12, 218–20 qualifying times , 218–20 recommendations of the NATAC

project , 218–20 requirements , 30 residence criteria , 73–4, 211–12 surveys of , 219–20 undocumented migrants , 75–6 withdrawal of , 125–33

Nazi regime , 51, 52 offi cials , 95

Nazism , 84 Netherlands , 158, 180, 218, 219 nationality law , 144, 203–4 Netherlands Citizenship Act:

Article 15 (1) (d) , 203–4 Articles 14 , 203–4 nationality law , 144

Neuman, Gerald , 167, 170, 211 New Global Law, The , 96 New York City , 154

alien voting rights , 181 Ng Ka Ling , 198 Ng Yuen Shiu , 198 NGOs , 79 Nigeria , 141, 232 Nigerian national , 141 9/11 , 175 nine-eleven , 175 1951 Convention on the Status of

Refugees (UNCHR) , 90, 160 Ninth Circuit Court of Appeals (US) ,

176 NngSiu Tung , 198 Nobility: losing strength , 18 non-citizens: right to vote , 180–4 non-discrimination of spouses , 66

266 INDEX

non-Nordic countries , 218 non-refoulement , 81, 87, 134, 225–6 Nordic countries , 218 Northern Ireland , 121, 122, 125, 136,

232 . See also Ireland (Eire), Republic of; Northern Ireland

citizenship law , 124–5 and de facto naturalization , 231–2 law , 123

nationality law , 139 Norway , 158, 219 Nottebohm decision , 43, 51–6, 74,

122–4, 209, 230–2 and genuine link theory , 71 historical importance , 213

Nozick, Robert , 82 Nuremburg , 95 Nuremburg laws , 108–9 Nussbaum, Martha , 81, 84

O oikos (private) , 10

and women , 11–12 ‘Onassis’ , 161 Opel Austria v Council , 199 open borders ,

81–3, 174 and right to citizenship , 83

optimoiure , 25 Orentlicher, Diane , 69

P Pacta sunt servanda , 74 Pakistan , 158 pariahs: creating , 205 participative citizenship , 15 passive citizens , 34 pater familias , 22, 23 Peloponnesian war , 17, 19

role of citizenship , 18

people: concept of , 224–5 legal defi nition , 44

peregrini , 28–9 peregrini alicuius , 28–9 Pereira da Silva, Jorge , 27–8 Pericles , 9–10, 15, 18–19, 20 Permanent Court of International

Justice , 45, 199 permanent residency: and voting

rights , 183 personhood , 92, 107, 188

and citizenship , 153–4, 167 and human rights , 162, 164 rights relating to , 155, 166 universal , 86 and nationhood , 87

phratriai , 10, 12, 16 admission to , 12–13

phylai (tribes) , 10 Pickus, Noah , 83, 84, 209 Plato , 20 plural citizenship . See multiple

citizenship Plyler v Doe , 167, 171–4, 176, 188 Pnyx , 16 Poland , 219 police: relationship with migrants ,

176–7 polis , 9, 10, 12, 15, 17

aim , 14 Polish Upper Silesia: and Germany , 199 political activism: transnational ,

97–100 political community:

and integration , 70 legitimacy , 7

political participation: citizenship as , 13–15 elevation to , 11

political rights , 118–19, 181, 230 and citizenship , 104

INDEX 267

as human rights , 97 reserved for , 224

political structure: legitimating , 147 polity:

detachment from national , 88–9 identifying members of , 204 members of , 204 setting apart from , 122 tools of , 44

population: concept of , 224–5 Portugal , 158, 180, 218, 219 Portuguese nationals , 154 Portuguese-speaking world , 21 post-national citizenship , 81, 86–8, 92

and democracy , 99 movement supporting , 87 theories , 88

praetor peregrinus , 28–9 presence: and enjoyment of rights , 187 principle of effective connection , 25 principle of good faith , 199 principle of prohibition , 225–6 principle of proportionality , 2–3, 3–4,

130, 131, 138–9, 146, 203–6, 227

assessment of , 212 and citizenship cases , 131–2 in EU law , 144 and international law , 146 protection of , 239 and sovereignty over citizenship ,

128–9 test for , 131–3 and wrongdoing , 170–1

principle of protection of legitimate expectations , 132

case law , 198 Hong Kong , 198

principles and freedoms: and national citizenship rules , 131

private property , 82 private virtue , 10

proportionality . See principle of proportionality

Proposition 187 (California) , 175–6 protection of legitimate expectations ,

132 protection of trust , 198 public activities: payment for , 12 public life: participation in , 12 public transnational law , 228 public virtue , 10

R Rabio-Mario, Ruth , 208 racial discrimination , 222 ratione materiae , 138–9 Rawls, John , 82, 84 reduction of statelessness , 66 refugees , 160

claims , 142, 225–6 and international law , 175, 2255 legal relationships , 139 protections of , 89–90

regional international citizenship law , 63–7

regional organizations , 79 religious freedom , 14 Report of the International Law

Commission: Draft Articles , 61–4 Republic of Guinea , 93–4 required notifi cation: illegal aliens ,

176–7 residence:

and citizenship , 66–7, 173, 187

establishing , 74–5 and naturalization , 220 right of , 138 and rights , 188 and voting rights , 182–3

responsa , 29 reverse discrimination , 138–9

268 INDEX

review of legality: European Court of Justice (ECJ) , 198

Reynolds, Paul , 198 Riesenberg, Pieter , 30 rights:

to diplomatic protection , 119 to enter and remain , 181 to family reunifi cation , 118, 120,

155 for foreigners , 169 to free movement and

establishment , 118, 120, 121 to join movements , 89 to organize unions , 89 to remain , 204 residence , 138 to stand for elections , 119 to vote , 119

Robert Schuman Centre (European University Institute, Florence) , 218–19

Rodriguez, Cristina , 185–6 Roman Empire , 27

citizenship in , 21–9, 24 and integration , 22 treatment of foreigners , 28–9

Roman heritage , 80 Roman law , 216 Romania , 219 Romanization of Empire , 27, 29 Rosberg, Gerald , 182, 183 Rosenau, James , 86 Rottmann, Janko , 125–33

statelessness , 132–3 Rottmann case , 125–33, 130, 133,

137, 139 opinion , 144 reaquiring old nationality , 204

Rottmann decision , 142–3 impact on citizenship laws , 143–4 paragraph 42 , 136

Rubio-Marin, Ruth , 210, 212–13

Rushdie, Salman , 106 Russia: qualifying time for citizenship ,

218 Rwanda , 95

S Salvador , 175 Salvadorian nationals , 175 sanctuary:

challenges to cities , 176 cities , 175 laws , 175, 176 policy , 176–7

scarf affair/ l’affaire du foulard , 104, 106–7

Schaerbeek (Belgium) , 134 Schönberger, Christoph , 146 second-level citizenship . See derivative

citizenship Second World War , 52, 56, 95 self-control , 10 self-deportation , 179 self-determination , 107 Seling, Anja , 130, 144, 203–4 Serbia , 141 Serbian nationality , 141 Shachar, Ayelet , 207, 209–10, 211,

213, 214–15, 232 Shaffi r, Gershon , 13 Sharpston, AG: opinion on Zambrano ,

136–9 Shirley McCarthy v Secretary of State

for the Home Department , 140–1 sine suffragio , 25 Singer, Joseph , 216 Slaughter, Anne-Marie , 234 Slaves: in Ancient Greece , 11 Sloane, Robert , 213 Slovakia , 219 Slovenia , 219 Smith County (Texas) , 171–2

INDEX 269

social benefi ts: costs , 168–9 and fl oods of aliens , 172 and migration , 169

social contract , 83, 84, 168, 182–3 social rights , 118, 167–71

access to , 8 children , 171–4 education , 171–4

social security system: burdens on , 139–40

society: politicization of , 15 Socrates , 20 Solon , 9–10, 19

reforms of , 12, 15–17 Solon’s Constitution , 16–17 sovereignty:

argument , 82 and citizenship , 44, 45–6, 50–1, 58,

120, 125 and control of migration , 2, 83,

162, 163–4, 165–6, 174 election fever , 206–7 instruments of , 90 over naturalization , 207 and principle of proportionality , 128–9 and state legitimacy , 90

Soysal, Yasmin , 86, 87–8 Spain , 158, 180, 218, 219

law , 123 Spheres of Justice (Walzer, 1983) , 89,

209, 222–3 Spiro, Peter , 43, 68–9, 71, 100,

102–4, 211–12 Sri Lanka , 141 Sri Lankan national , 141 state legitimacy , 90 statelessness , 2, 12, 41, 43, 50–1,

52–3, 132–3, 142, 143–4 codifi cation , 57 as consequence of legal proceedings ,

126–33

creating , 205 defi nition , 57 in international law , 139 persons , 160 study on , 56–8

states . See nation states status:

and citizenship , 12 rights and duties , 22–3

status libertatis , 23 Statute of International Court of

Justice: Article 38 , 53–4 Statute of Rome: International

Criminal Court , 95 Stevic, Mrs. , 141–2 Strangers: duties and obligations

toward , 90 Students: and the demos , 225 Stuttgart: Higher School Authority ,

107 subditus , 31 subjects: and citizenship , 31–2 substantial and genuine connection ,

209–10 Succession of States , 62–3 supranational jurisdiction , 88 suspect categories: eliminating , 182 Sweden , 158, 180, 218, 219 Switzerland , 146, 219

federal model , 144

T taxes , 101–2 temporary workers , 8 territorial integrity: challenges to ,

79–80 territorial expansion: and integration ,

22 Texas, State of , 171–4 Texas Education Code , 171–3 thiasoi ( cult communities) , 10

270 INDEX

third country nationals , 118 time-passage theory: and acquisition of

citizenship , 214 Tokyo , 95 total integration , 105 tourists: and the demos , 225 transnational associations , 79 transnational citizenship , 4, 79–109,

146 developments in , 230 and elements of citizenship , 80 institutional , 99, 115–47 from institutional standpoint , 80 justifi cation for , 81–91 law , 2–3, 3–4, 116, 146 principles of , 239

transnationalism and fl uidity , 186 transparency of states , 4 travaux preparatoires , 48, 57, 58, 60,

68, 69 Treaty on the Functioning of the

European Union (TFEU) , 121, 122

Article 17 EC , 128 Article 18 EC , 128, 139 Article 19 , 181 Article 20 , 116, 136, 138 Article 21 , 139, 142 Articles 20–24 , 117–20 freedoms provided for , 127–8

Troper, Michel , 35 Turkey , 141, 158, 219 Turkish national , 141 Tyler Independent School , 172

U UN Charter: Article 2(7) , 44 UN core human rights protection

instruments , 155, 167, 174–5, 178 UN Resolution 34/172 , 157 UN Resolution 45/158 , 157, 159

UN Security Council , 228 underclass , 173–4 undocumented migrants , 141, 164–6,

168–71, 183, 206–7, 214, 226–7, 230

access to benefi ts , 169 access to rights , 164 and adverse possession , 215–17 amnesty , 179 attrition through enforcement , 178 and criminal activity , 169–71, 177 and deportation , 205–7 European Union (EU) , 176 exclusion from citizenship , 202 exercise of rights , 166, 174–5,

178–9 human rights , 239 legalization/regularization , 179, 205–6 legitimacy of expectations , 202 in liberal democracies , 174 naturalization policies , 75–6, 217 path to citizenship , 205–6 and proportionality principle , 204–5 protection of , 163–80 resident status , 173 rights , 166–80 rights over , 206–7 self-deportation , 179 social protections , 169 stripping of social rights , 171 threat of , 163 with ties to host country , 206 tolerance of in work force , 165

Union of Soviet Socialist Republics , 48, 154, 158

United Kingdom , 106, 108, 122, 139, 140, 141, 180, 218, 219

and Chen decision , 124–5 United Nations , 56–8

peace and human rights policies , 200–2 United States of America , 27, 49,

52–3, 73, 146, 158, 229

INDEX 271

access to citizenship , 3 alien voting rights , 181 equality under law , 173–4 federalist model of citizenship , 116–17 immigrant rights , 185 legitimacy of Constitution , 223 naturalization criteria , 211 non-citizen voting rights , 181 qualifying time for citizenship , 218 racial discrimination in , 222 resident aliens , 183 and right to remain , 204

Universal Declaration of Human Rights (UDHR) , 2, 52, 59, 64, 87, 92, 95

Article 15 , 48–51, 60, 62, 70–1 Article 15 (2) , 129 convention on statelessness , 56–9

universal human rights , 36 protection of , 86–7

unrealistic law: changing , 204–5 and heavier enforcement , 205

Uruguay , 48 US Constitution: 14th amendment ,

116–17 US District Court for the Eastern

District of Texas , 171–2 US Supreme Court , 171–4, 176, 188 usucapio , 216

V Van Panhuys, H F , 46–7 Vertrauensschutz , 198 Vienna Convention on Consular

Relations: Article 36, paragraph 1(b) , 94

Vienna Convention on the Law of Treaties (with annex). Concluded at Vienna on 23 May 1969: Article 18 , 199

Virtue: and freedom , 12 vita activa , 32 vita contemplativa , 32, 34 voluntary assimilation , 108 voting:

fraud , 183 lack of knowledge needed for

intelligent , 183 voting rights , 92

and citizenship , 182–4 and residency , 182–3

W Walzer, Michael , 2, 8, 9, 82, 88–90,

209, 222–3 war crimes , 95 Weiler, J.H.H. , 120 Weiler, Joseph , 7 Weiss, Paul , 220 Western and industrialized countries:

and drafting Migrant Workers Convention , 158–9

Westphalia , 5, 240 Wheatley, Steven , 227 women:

in Ancient Greece , 11–12 and citizenship , 11–12, 34 right to vote , 222

World State , 98 wrongdoing: and proportionality

principle , 170–1

X xenos , 20

Y Yean and Bosico children , 64–6 Yugoslavia , 95, 141, 158 Yugoslavian nationality , 141

272 INDEX

Z Zambrano, Diego ,

134, 137 Zambrano, Jessica ,

134, 137 Zambrano, Ruiz , 134

unemployment benefi ts , 140

Zambrano case , 144 decision , 133–40 opinion of AG Sharpston , 136–9,

142–3 Zhu, Catherine , 121, 137 Zhu and Chen case . See Chen case Zilbeshats, Yaffa , 209