Aztec - Wikipedia, the free encyclopediawildehistory.weebly.com/uploads/1/6/7/0/16706304/aztec... · 2019-12-05 · The Aztec Pyramid at St. Cecilia Acatitlan, State of Mexico Aztec

The Aztec Pyramid at St. CeciliaAcatitlan, State of Mexico

Aztec wood mask

AztecFrom Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia

The Aztec /ˈæztɛk/[1] people were certain ethnic groups ofcentral Mexico, particularly those groups who spoke the Nahuatllanguage and who dominated large parts of Mesoamerica fromthe 14th to 16th centuries. The Nahuatl words aztecatl /asˈtekat͡ɬ/(singular)[2] and aztecah /asˈtekaʔ/ (plural)[2] mean "people fromAztlan",[3] a mythological place for the Nahuatl-speaking cultureof the time, and later adopted as the word to define the Mexicapeople. Often the term "Aztec" refers exclusively to the Mexicapeople of Tenochtitlan (now the location of Mexico City),situated on an island in Lake Texcoco, who referred tothemselves as Mēxihcah Tenochcah /meːˈʃiʔkaʔ teˈnot͡ʃkaʔ/ orCōlhuah Mexihcah /ˈkoːlwaʔ meːˈʃiʔkaʔ/.

Sometimes the term also includes the inhabitants ofTenochtitlan's two principal allied city-states, the Acolhuas ofTexcoco and the Tepanecs of Tlacopan, who together with theMexica formed the Aztec Triple Alliance which controlled whatis often known as the "Aztec Empire". In other contexts, Aztecmay refer to all the various city states and their peoples, whoshared large parts of their ethnic history and cultural traits withthe Mexica, Acolhua and Tepanecs, and who often also used theNahuatl language as a lingua franca. In this meaning it ispossible to talk about an Aztec civilization including all theparticular cultural patterns common for most of the peoplesinhabiting Central Mexico in the late postclassic period.

From the 13th century, the Valley of Mexico was the heart ofAztec civilization: here the capital of the Aztec Triple Alliance,the city of Tenochtitlan, was built upon raised islets in LakeTexcoco. The Triple Alliance formed a tributary empireexpanding its political hegemony far beyond the Valley ofMexico, conquering other city states throughout Mesoamerica.At its pinnacle, Aztec culture had rich and complex mythologicaland religious traditions, as well as reaching remarkable architectural and artistic accomplishments. In1521 Hernán Cortés, along with a large number of Nahuatl speaking indigenous allies, conqueredTenochtitlan and defeated the Aztec Triple Alliance under the leadership of Hueyi Tlatoani MoctezumaII. Subsequently the Spanish founded the new settlement of Mexico City on the site of the ruined Azteccapital, from where they proceeded with the process of colonizing Central America.

Aztec culture and history is primarily known through archaeological evidence found in excavations suchas that of the renowned Templo Mayor in Mexico City; from indigenous bark paper codices; fromeyewitness accounts by Spanish conquistadors such as Hernán Cortés and Bernal Díaz del Castillo; and

Aztec - Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Aztec

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Large ceramic statue of an AztecEagle Warrior

Aztec cosmogram in the pre-HispanicCodex Fejérváry-Mayer—the fire godXiuhtecuhtli is in the center

especially from 16th and 17th century descriptions of Aztecculture and history written by Spanish clergymen and literateAztecs in the Spanish or Nahuatl language, such as the famousFlorentine Codex compiled by the Franciscan monk Bernardinode Sahagún with the help of indigenous Aztec informants.

Contents

1 Definitions1.1 Aztec people1.2 Aztec culture1.3 Aztec Empire

2 History2.1 Migrational period2.2 Rise of the Triple Alliance2.3 Spanish conquest2.4 Colonial period population decline

3 Cultural patterns3.1 Government3.2 Tribute and trade3.3 Economy3.4 Transportation3.5 Mythology and religion3.6 Human sacrifice3.7 Social structures3.8 Class structure3.9 Education3.10 Arts3.11 City-building and architecture

4 Agriculture5 Relationship to other Mesoamerican cultures6 Legacy7 Historiography

7.1 Aztec codices7.2 The conquistadors


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7.3 Priests and scholars7.4 Native authors

8 See also9 Notes10 Footnotes11 References12 External links

DefinitionsAztec people

When used about ethnic groups the term "Aztec" refers to several Nahuatl speaking peoples of centralMexico in the postclassic period of Mesoamerican chronology, especially the ethnic group that had aleading role in establishing the hegemonic empire based at Tenochtitlan, the Mexica. Other ethnicgroups associated with the Aztec empire are the Acolhua and Tepanec ethnic groups and some of theethnic groups that were incorporated into the empire, and the term is also sometimes used about them. Inolder usage the term was commonly used about modern Nahuatl speaking ethnic groups, as Nahuatl waspreviously referred to as the "Aztec language". In recent usage these ethnic groups are rather referred toas the Nahua peoples.[4][5] Linguistically the term "Aztecan" is still used about the branch of theUto-Aztecan languages (also sometimes called the yuto-nahuan languages) that includes the Nahuatllanguage and its closest relatives Pochutec and Pipil.[6]

To the Aztecs themselves the word "aztec" was not an endonym for any particular ethnic group. Rather itwas an umbrella term used to refer to several ethnic groups, not all of them Nahuatl speaking, thatclaimed heritage from the mythic place of origin, Aztlan. In the Nahuatl language "aztecatl" means"person from Aztlan". In 1810 Alexander von Humboldt originated the modern usage of "Aztec" as acollective term applied to all the people linked by trade, custom, religion, and language to the Mexicastate and the Triple Alliance. In 1843, with the publication of the work of William H. Prescott, it wasadopted by most of the world, including 19th century Mexican scholars who saw it as a way todistinguish present-day Mexicans from pre-conquest Mexicans. This usage has been the subject ofdebate in more recent years, but the term "Aztec" is still more common.[7]

Aztec culture

Aztec culture is the culture of the people referred to as Aztecs, but since all ethnic groups of centralMexico in the postclassic period shared most basic cultural traits, many of the basic traits of Aztecculture cannot be said to be exclusive for the Aztecs. For the same reason the notion of "Azteccivilization" is best understood as a particular horizon of a general Mesoamerican civilization.

The culture of central Mexico includes maize cultivation, the social division between noble pipiltin and


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macehualli commoners, a pantheon (featuring Tezcatlipoca, Tlaloc and Quetzalcoatl), and the calendricsystem of a xiuhpohualli of 365 days intercalated with a tonalpohualli of 260 days. Particular to theAztecs of Tenochtitlan was the Mexica patron God Huitzilopochtli, twin pyramids, and the ceramic wareknown as Aztec I to III.[8]

Aztec Empire

The Aztec Empire was a tribute empire based in Tenochtitlan, which extended its power throughoutMesoamerica in the late postclassic period.[9] It originated in 1427 as a triple-alliance between thecity-states Tenochtitlan, Texcoco and Tlacopan who allied to defeat the Tepanec state of Azcapotzalco,that had previously dominated the Basin of Mexico. Soon Texcoco and Tlacopan became junior partnersin the alliance which was de facto led by the Mexica of Tenochtitlan.[10] The empire extended its powerby a combination of trade and military conquest. It was never a true territorial empire controlling aterritory by large military garrisons in conquered provinces, but rather controlled its client statesprimarily by installing friendly rulers in conquered cities, by constructing marriage alliances between theruling dynasties, and by extending an imperial ideology to its client states.[11] Client states paid tribute tothe Aztec emperor, the Huey Tlatoani, in an economic strategy limiting communication and tradebetween outlying polities making them depend on the imperial center for the acquisition of luxurygoods.[12] The political clout of the empire reached far south into Mesoamerica conquering cities as farsouth as Chiapas and Guatemala and spanning from the Pacific to the Atlantic oceans. The empirereached its maximal extent in 1519 just prior to the arrival of the Spanish conquistadors led by Cortéswho managed to topple the Aztec empire by allying with some of the traditional enemies of the Aztecs,the Nahuatl speaking Tlaxcalteca.

HistoryMigrational period

The Nahua peoples began to migrate into Mesoamerica from northern Mexico in the 6th century. Theypopulated central Mexico dislocating speakers of Oto-Manguean languages as they spread their politicalinfluence south. As the former nomadic hunter-gatherer peoples mixed with the complex civilizations ofMesoamerica, adopting religious and cultural practices, the foundation for later Aztec culture was laid.During the Postclassic period they rose to power at such sites as Tula, Hidalgo. In the 12th century theNahua power center was in Azcapotzalco, from where the Tepanecs dominated the valley of Mexico.Around this time the Mexica tribe arrived in central Mexico.

Rise of the Triple Alliance

The true origin of the Mexicas is uncertain. According to their legends, the Mexica tribe place of originwas Aztlán. It is generally thought that Aztlán was somewhere to the north of the Valley of Mexico;some experts have placed it as far north as the Southwestern United States.

Based on these codices as well as other histories, it appears that the Mexicas arrived at Chapultepec in oraround the year 1248.[13]


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The Valley of Mexico at the time ofthe Spanish Conquest.

The action that originates the founding of Tenochtitlan according to a legend as depictedon Mexico's two of its national symbols

At the time of their arrival, the Valley of Mexico had manycity-states, the most powerful of which were Culhuacan to thesouth and Azcapotzalco to the west. The Tepanecs ofAzcapotzalco soon expelled the Mexicas from Chapultepec. In1299, Culhuacan ruler Cocoxtli gave them permission to settle inthe empty barrens of Tizapan, where they were eventuallyassimilated into Culhuacan culture.

According to Aztec legend, in 1323, the Mexicas were shown avision of an eagle perched on a prickly pear cactus, eating asnake.[14] This vision indicated that this was the location wherethey were to build their home. In any event, the Mexicaseventually arrived on a small swampy island in Lake Texcocowhere they founded the town of Tenochtitlan in 1325. In 1376,the Mexicas elected their first Huey Tlatoani, Acamapichtli, whowas living in Texcoco at the time.

For the next 50 years, until 1427, the Mexica were a tributary ofAzcapotzalco, which had become a regional power, perhaps the

most powerful sincethe Toltecs,centuries earlier.Maxtla, son ofTezozomoc,assassinatedChimalpopoca, theMexica ruler. In aneffort to defeatMaxtla,Chimalpopoca'ssuccessor, Itzcoatl,allied with theexiled ruler ofTexcoco,Nezahualcoyotl.

This coalition was the foundation of the Aztec Triple Alliance, which defeated Azcapotzalco in 1428.

The triple-alliance of Tenochtitlan, Texcoco, and Tlacopan would, in the next 100 years, come todominate the Valley of Mexico and extend its power to both the Gulf of Mexico and the Pacific shore.Over this period, Tenochtitlan gradually became the dominant power in the alliance.

Two of the primary architects of the Aztec empire were the half-brothers Tlacaelel and Montezuma I,nephews of Itzcoatl. Moctezuma I succeeded Itzcoatl as Hueyi Tlatoani in 1440. Although he was alsooffered the opportunity to be tlatoani, Tlacaelel preferred to operate as the power behind the throne.Tlacaelel reformed the Aztec state and religion. According to some sources, he ordered the burning of


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Jaguar warrior, from the CodexMagliabechiano.

Cristóbal de Olid leads Spanishsoldiers with Tlaxcalan allies in theconquest of Jalisco, 1522

most of the extant Aztec books claiming that they contained lies.He thereupon rewrote the history of the Aztec people, thuscreating a common awareness of history for the Aztecs. Thisrewriting led directly to the curriculum taught to scholars andpromoted the belief that the Aztecs were always a powerful andmythic nation; forgetting forever a possible true history ofmodest origins. One component of this reform was the institutionof ritual war (the flower wars) as a way to have trained warriors,and created the necessity of constant sacrifices to keep the Sunmoving.

Spanish conquest

The empire reached its height during Ahuitzotl's reign in1486–1502. His successor, Motehcuzōma Xocoyotzin (betterknown as Moctezuma II or Moctezuma, or Montezuma), hadbeen Hueyi Tlatoani for 17 years when the Spaniards, led byHernándo Cortés, landed on the Gulf Coast in the spring of 1519.

Despite some early battles between the two, Cortés allied himself with the Aztecs’ long-time enemy, theConfederacy of Tlaxcala, and arrived at the gates of Tenochtitlan on November 8, 1519.

The Spaniards and their Tlaxcallan allies became increasinglydangerous and unwelcome guests in the capital city. In June1520, hostilities broke out, culminating in the massacre in theGreat Temple and the death of Moctezuma II. The Spaniards fledthe town on July 1, an episode later characterized as La NocheTriste (the Sad Night). They and their native allies returned in thespring of 1521 to lay siege to Tenochtitlan, a battle that ended onAugust 13 with the destruction of the city. During this period thenow crumbling empire went through a rapid line of rulersuccession. After the death of Moctezuma II, the empire fell intothe hands of severely weakened emperors, such as Cuitláhuac,before eventually being ruled by puppet rulers, such as Andrésde Tapia Motelchiuh, installed by the Spanish.

Despite the decline of the Aztec empire, most of theMesoamerican cultures were intact after the fall of Tenochtitlan. Indeed, the freedom from Aztecdomination may have been considered a positive development by most of the other cultures. The upperclasses of the Aztec empire were considered noblemen by the Spaniards and generally treated as suchinitially. All this changed rapidly and the native population were soon forbidden to study by law, and hadthe status of minors.

The Tlaxcalans remained loyal to their Spanish friends and were allowed to come on other conquestswith Cortés and his men.


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Sixteenth-century Aztec drawings ofvictims of smallpox.

The maximal extent of the Aztec Empire

Colonial period population decline

In 1520–1521, an outbreak of smallpox swept through thepopulation of Tenochtitlan and was decisive in the fall of the city.It is estimated that between 10% and 50% of the population fellvictim to this epidemic.

Subsequently, the Valley of Mexico was hit with two moreepidemics, smallpox (1545–1548), and typhus (1576–1581). TheSpaniards, to consolidate the diminishing population, merged thesurvivors from small towns in the Valley of Mexico into biggerones. This broke the power of the upper classes, but did notdissolve the coherence of the indigenous society in greaterMexico.

The population before the time of the conquest is unknown and hotly contested,[nb 1] but disease isknown to have ravaged the region; thus, the indigenous population of the Valley of Mexico is estimatedto have declined by more than 80% in the course of about 60 years.[15]

Cultural patternsGovernment

The Aztec Empire was an example of an empire thatruled by indirect means. Like most Europeanempires, it was ethnically very diverse, but unlikemost European empires, it was more of a system oftribute than a single system of government. In thetheoretical framework of imperial systems positedby Alexander J. Motyl,[16] the Aztec empire was aninformal or hegemonic empire because it did notexert supreme authority over the conquered lands; itmerely expected tributes to be paid. It was also adiscontinuous empire because not all dominatedterritories were connected; for example, the southernperipheral zones of Xoconochco were not in directcontact with the center. The hegemonic nature of theAztec empire can be seen in the fact that generallylocal rulers were restored to their positions once their city-state was conquered and the Aztecs did notinterfere in local affairs, as long as the tribute payments were made.[17]

Although the form of government is often referred to as an empire, in fact most areas within the empirewere organized as city-states, known as altepetl in Nahuatl. These were small polities ruled by a king(tlatoani) from a legitimate dynasty. The Early Aztec period was a time of growth and competitionamong altepetl. Even after the empire was formed (1428) and began its program of expansion through


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Aztec feather headdress, oftendescribed as the crown of MoctezumaII. Its actual owner is unknown, butthe feathers must have been broughtfrom tropical rainforest areas faraway from the Aztec capital.

conquest, the altepetl remained the dominant form of organization at the local level. The efficient role ofthe altepetl as a regional political unit was largely responsible for the success of the empire's hegemonicform of control.[18]

Tribute and trade

Several pages from the Codex Mendoza list tributary townsalong with the goods they supplied, which included not onlyluxuries such as feathers, adorned suits, and greenstone beads,but more practical goods such as cloth, firewood, and food.Tribute was usually paid twice or four times a year at differingtimes.[19]

Archaeological excavations in the Aztec-ruled provinces showthat incorporation into the empire had both costs and benefits forprovincial peoples. On the positive side, the empire promotedcommerce and trade, and exotic goods from obsidian to bronzemanaged to reach the houses of both commoners and nobles.Trade partners included the enemy Tarascan, a source of bronzetools and jewelry. On the negative side, imperial tribute imposeda burden on commoner households, who had to increase theirwork to pay their share of tribute. Nobles, on the other hand,often made out well under imperial rule because of the indirect nature of imperial organization. Theempire had to rely on local kings and nobles and offered them privileges for their help in maintainingorder and keeping the tribute flowing.[20]

Economy

The Aztec economy can be divided into a political sector, under the control of nobles and kings, and acommercial sector that operated independently of the political sector. The political sector of theeconomy centered on the control of land and labor by kings and nobles. Nobles owned all land, andcommoners got access to farmland and other fields through a variety of arrangements, from rentalthrough sharecropping to serf-like labor and slavery. These payments from commoners to noblessupported both the lavish lifestyles of the high nobility and the finances of city-states. Many luxurygoods were produced for consumption by nobles. The producers of featherwork, sculptures, jewelry, andother luxury items were full-time commoner specialists who worked for noble patrons.

In the commercial sector of the economy several types of money were in regular use. Small purchaseswere made with cacao beans, which had to be imported from lowland areas. In Aztec marketplaces, asmall rabbit was worth 30 beans, a turkey egg cost 3 beans, and a tamal cost a single bean. For largerpurchases, standardized lengths of cotton cloth called quachtli were used. There were different grades ofquachtli, ranging in value from 65 to 300 cacao beans. One source stated that 20 quachtli could support acommoner for one year in Tenochtitlan. A man could also sell his own daughter as a sexual slave orfuture religious sacrifice, generally for around 500 to 700 beans. A small gold statue approximately0.62 kg (1.37 lb) cost 250 beans. Money was used primarily in the many periodic markets that were held


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Tlahuizcalpantecuhtli, considered adangerous and malevolent god,wounding a woman, in the CodexBorgia.

in each town. A typical town would have a weekly market (every 5 days), while larger cities heldmarkets every day. Cortés reported that the central market of Tlatelolco, Tenochtitlan's sister city, wasvisited by 60,000 people daily. Some sellers in the markets were petty vendors; farmers might sell someof their produce, potters sold their vessels, and so on. Other vendors were professional merchants whotraveled from market to market seeking profits. The pochteca were specialized merchants organized intoexclusive guilds. They made long expeditions to all parts of Mesoamerica, and they served as the judgesand supervisors of the Tlatelolco market. Although the economy of Aztec Mexico was commercialized(in its use of money, markets, and merchants) land and labor were not commodities for sale.[21]

Transportation

The main contribution of the Aztec rule was a system of communications between the conquered cities.In Mesoamerica, without draft animals for transport (nor, as a result, wheeled vehicles), the roads weredesigned for travel on foot. Usually these roads were maintained through tribute, and travelers hadplaces to rest and eat and even latrines to use at regular intervals, roughly every 10 to 15 kilometres (6 to9 mi). Couriers (paynani) were constantly travelling along those ways, keeping the Aztecs informed ofevents, and helping to monitor the integrity of the roads.

Mythology and religion

The Mexica made reference to at least two manifestations of thesupernatural: tēōtl and tēixiptla. Tēōtl, which the Spaniards andEuropean scholars routinely mistranslated as "god" or "demon",referred rather to an impersonal force that permeated the world.Tēixiptla, by contrast, denoted the physical representations("idols", statues and figurines) of the tēōtl as well as the humancultic activity surrounding this physical representation. TheMexica "gods" themselves had no existence as distinct entitiesapart from these tēixiptla representations of tēōtl.[22]

Veneration of Huitzilopochtli, the personification of the sun andof war, was central to the religious, social and political practicesof the Mexicas. Huitzilopochtli attained this central position afterthe founding of Tenochtitlan and the formation of the Mexicacity-state society in the 14th century. Prior to this,Huitzilopochtli was associated primarily with hunting,presumably one of the important subsistence activities of theitinerant bands that would eventually become the Mexica.

According to myth, Huitzilopochtli directed the wanderers to found a city on the site where they wouldsee an eagle devouring a snake perched on a fruit-bearing nopal cactus. (It was said that Huitzilopochtlikilled his nephew, Cópil, and threw his heart on the lake. Huitzilopochtli honoured Cópil by causing acactus to grow over Cópil's heart.) Legend has it that this is the site on which the Mexicas built theircapital city of Tenochtitlan. This legendary vision is pictured on the Coat of arms of Mexico.

According to their own history, when the Mexicas arrived in the Anahuac valley (Valley of Mexico)


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The Aztec Sun Stone, also known asthe Aztec Calendar Stone, at NationalMuseum of Anthropology, MexicoCity.

The Aztec goddess of Coatlicue,mother of earth. National Museum ofAnthropology.

around Lake Texcoco, the groups living there considered themuncivilized. The Mexicas borrowed much of their culture fromthe ancient Toltec whom they seem to have at least partiallyconfused with the more ancient civilization of Teotihuacan. Tothe Mexicas, the Toltecs were the originators of all culture;"Toltecayōtl" was a synonym for culture. Mexica legendsidentify the Toltecs and the cult of Quetzalcoatl with themythical city of Tollan, which they also identified with the moreancient Teotihuacan.

As all other Mesoamerican cultures, the Aztecs played a variantof the Mesoamerican ballgame, named tlachtli or ollamaliztli inNahuatl. The game was played with a ball of solid rubber, calledan olli, whence derives the Spanish word for rubber, hule. Theplayers hit the ball with their hips, knees, and elbows and had topass the ball through a stone ring to automatically win. Thepractice of the ballgame carried religious and mythologicalmeanings and also served as sport.

Human sacrifice

While human sacrifice was practiced throughout Mesoamerica,the Aztecs, if their own accounts are to be believed, brought thispractice to an unprecedented level. For example, for thereconsecration of the Great Pyramid of Tenochtitlan in 1487, theAztecs reported that they sacrificed 80,400 prisoners over thecourse of four days, reportedly by Ahuitzotl, the Great Speakerhimself. This number, however, is not universally accepted.

Accounts by the Tlaxcaltecas, the primary enemy of the Aztecsat the time of the Spanish Conquest, show that at least some ofthem considered it an honor to be sacrificed. In one legend, thewarrior Tlahuicole was freed by the Aztecs but eventuallyreturned of his own volition to die in ritual sacrifice. Tlaxcalaalso practiced the human sacrifice of captured Aztec Citizens.

Social structures

Class structure

The highest class were the pīpiltin or nobility.[nb 2] Originally this status was not hereditary, although thesons of pillis had access to better resources and education, so it was easier for them to become pillis.Later the class system took on hereditary aspects.

The second class were the mācehualtin, originally peasants. Eduardo Noguera[23] estimates that in laterstages only 20% of the population was dedicated to agriculture and food production. The other 80% of


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Human sacrifice as shown in theCodex Magliabechiano

A painting from Codex Mendozashowing elder Aztecs being givenintoxicants.

society were warriors, artisans and traders. Eventually, most ofthe mācehuallis were dedicated to arts and crafts. Their workswere an important source of income for the city.[24]

Slaves or tlacotin also constituted an important class. Aztecscould become slaves because of debts, as a criminal punishmentor as war captives. A slave could have possessions and even ownother slaves. However, upon becoming a slave, all of the slave'sanimals and excess money would go to his purchaser. Slavescould buy their liberty, and slaves could be set free if they hadchildren with or were married to their masters. Typically, uponthe death of the master, slaves who had performed outstandingservices were freed. The rest of the slaves were passed on as partof an inheritance.

Traveling merchants called pochtecah were a small, butimportant class as they not only facilitated commerce, but alsocommunicated vital information across the empire and beyondits borders. They were often employed as spies.

Education

Until the age of fourteen, the mandatory universal education ofchildren was in the hands of their parents, but supervised by theauthorities of their calpōlli. Part of this education involvedlearning a collection of sayings, called huēhuetlàtolli ("sayingsof the old"), that embodied the Aztecs' ideals.

There were two types of schools: the telpochcalli, for practicaland military studies, and the calmecac, for advanced learning inwriting, astronomy, statesmanship, theology, and other areas.

Arts

Song and poetry were highly regarded; there were presentations and poetry contests at most of the Aztecfestivals. There were also dramatic presentations that included players, musicians and acrobats.

A remarkable amount of this poetry survives, having been collected during the era of the conquest. Insome cases poetry is attributed to individual authors, such as Nezahualcoyotl, tlatoani of Texcoco, andCuacuauhtzin, Lord of Tepechpan, but whether these attributions reflect actual authorship is a matter ofopinion. Miguel León-Portilla, a well-respected Aztec scholar of Mexico, has stated that it is in thispoetry where we can find the real thought of the Aztecs, independent of "official" Aztec ideology.[25]

"Poetry" was in xochitl in cuicatl a dual term meaning "the flower and the song" and was divided intodifferent genres. Yaocuicatl was devoted to war and the god(s) of war, Teocuicatl to the gods andcreation myths and to adoration of said figures, xochicuicatl to flowers (a symbol of poetry itself and


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Huastec. Life-Death Figure,900-1250.This sculpture of a mancarrying a human skeleton on hisback exemplifies the dualism of lifeand death that permeates Huastec andMexica (Aztec) art. Representing life,the human figure is the Aztec windgod, Ehecatl-Quetzalcoatl, whocreated humankind and is identifiableby his J-shaped ear pendants.Representing death, the skeletal figurewith a protruding heart wears a collarand skirt decorated with a half-circlemotif that was associated with the sunand the planet Venus. BrooklynMuseum

This ornament features a turquoisemosaic on a carved wooden base,with red and white shells used for themouths. Probably worn across thechest, this ornament measures 20 by43 cm (8 by 17 in). It was likelycreated by Mixtec artisans from anAztec tributary state. 1400–1521,from the British Museum [2](http://www.bmimages.com/preview.asp?image=00034381001&imagex=6&searchnum=0001).

Turquoise mask. Mixtec-Aztec.1400–1521.

indicative of the highlymetaphorical nature of apoetry that often utilizedduality to conveymultiple layers ofmeaning). "Prose" wastlahtolli, also with itsdifferent categories anddivisions (Garganigo etal.).

The most importantcollection of these poemsis Romances de losseñores de la NuevaEspaña, collected(Tezcoco 1582), probablyby Juan Bautista dePomar.[nb 3] Bautista dePomar was the great-grandson ofNetzahualcoyotl. Hespoke Nahuatl, but wasraised a Christian and wrote in Latin characters. (See also: "Is ItYou?", a short poem attributed to Netzahualcoyotl, and "Lamenton the Fall of Tenochtitlan", a short poem contained within the"Anales de Tlatelolco" manuscript.)

City-building and architecture

The capital city of the Aztec empire was Tenochtitlan, now thesite of modern-day Mexico City. Built on a series of islets inLake Texcoco, the city plan was based on a symmetrical layoutthat was divided into four city sections called campans. The citywas interlaced with canals which were useful for transportation.

Tenochtitlan was built according to a fixed plan and centered onthe ritual precinct, where the Great Pyramid of Tenochtitlan rose50 m (164.04 ft) above the city. Houses were made of wood andloam, roofs were made of reed,[26] although pyramids, templesand palaces were generally made of stone.

Around the island, chinampa beds were used to grow foods aswell as, over time, to increase the size of the island. Chinampas,misnamed "floating gardens", were long raised plant beds setupon the shallow lake bottom. They were a very efficient


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Storing maize. Illustrationfrom the Florentine Codex

agricultural system and could provide up to seven crops a year. On the basis of current chinampa yields,it has been estimated that 1 hectare of chinampa would feed 20 individuals and 9,000 hectares ofchinampas could feed 180,000.[27]

Anthropologist Eduardo Noguera estimates the population at 200,000 based in the house count andmerging the population of Tlatelolco (once an independent city, but later became a suburb ofTenochtitlan). If one includes the surrounding islets and shores surrounding Lake Texcoco, estimatesrange from 300,000 to 700,000 inhabitants.[27]

AgricultureThe pre-conquest Aztecs were a society that had four main methods ofagriculture. The earliest, most basic form of agriculture implementedby the Aztecs is known as “rainfall cultivation.” The Aztecs alsoimplemented terrace agriculture in hilly areas, or areas that could notbe used for level ground farming. In the valleys irrigation farming wasused. Dams diverted water from natural springs to the fields. Thisallowed for harvests on a regular basis. The Aztecs built canal systemsthat were longer and much more elaborate than previous irrigationsystems. They managed to divert a large portion of the CuauhtitlanRiver to provide irrigation to large areas of fields. The network ofcanals was a very complex and intricate system.

In the swampy regions along Lake Xochimilco, the Aztecsimplemented yet another method of crop cultivation. They built whatare called chinampas. Chinampas are areas of raised land, created fromalternating layers of mud from the bottom of the lake, and plantmatter/other vegetation. These “raised beds” were separated by narrowcanals, which allowed farmers to move between them by canoe. The chinampas were extremely fertilepieces of land, and yielded, on average, seven crops annually. In order to plant on them, farmers firstcreated “seedbeds,” or reed rafts, where they planted seeds and allowed them to germinate. Once theyhad, they were re-planted in the chinampas. This cut the growing time down considerably.

The Aztecs are credited with domestication of the subspecies of wild turkey, Meleagris gallopavo,which is native to this region.[28]

While most of the farming occurred outside the densely populated areas, within the cities there wasanother method of (small scale) farming. Each family had their own garden plot where they grew maize,fruits, herbs, medicines and other important plants.

Of the various crops grown by the Aztecs, maize was the most important. Aztec diets centered on it.Maize was grown across the entire empire, in the highland terraces, valley farms and also on thechinampas. Women ground maize into a coarse meal by rubbing it with a grinding stone called a manosagainst a flat stone called a metate. The Aztecs made tortillas from the corn meal. Other crops that theAztecs relied upon were avocados, beans, squashes, sweet potatoes, tomatoes, chia, amaranth andchilies. These crops were also grown everywhere. Crops that were specific to the lowland regions were


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Xochipilli was patron of bothhomosexuals and male prostitutes, arole possibly resulting from his beingabsorbed from the Toltec civilisation.

cotton, fruits, cacao beans and rubber trees.

Relationship to other Mesoamerican culturesAztecs admired Mixtec craftsmanship so much that theyimported artisans to Tenochtitlan and requested work to be donein certain Mixtec styles. The Aztecs also admired the Mixteccodices, so some of them were made to order by Mixteca for theAztecs. In the later days, high society Aztec women started towear Mixtec clothing, specifically the quexquemetl. It was wornover their traditional huipil, and much coveted by the womenwho could not afford such imported goods.

The situation was analogous in many ways to the Phoenicianculture which imported and duplicated art from other culturesthat they encountered.

Archaeologists usually do not have a problem differentiatingbetween Mixtec and Aztec artifacts. However, the Mixtec madesome products for "export" and that makes classification moreproblematic. In addition, the production of craft was an important part of the Mexica economy, and theyalso made pieces for "export".

LegacyMost modern-day Mexicans (and people of Mexican descent in other countries) are mestizos, of mixedindigenous and European ancestry. During the 16th century the racial composition of Mexico began tochange from one that featured distinct indigenous (Mexicas and members of the many other Mexicanindigenous groups) and immigrant (mostly Spanish) populations, to the population composed primarilyof mestizos that is found in modern day Mexico.

The Nahuatl language is today spoken by 1.5 million people, mostly in mountainous areas in the statesof central Mexico. Local dialects of Spanish, Mexican Spanish generally, and the Spanish languageworldwide have all been influenced, in varying degrees, by Nahuatl. Some Nahuatl words (most notablychocolate, derived from the Nahuatl word xocolatl, and tomato) have been borrowed through Spanishinto other languages around the world.

Mexico City was built on the ruins of Tenochtitlan, making it one of the oldest living cities of theAmericas. Many of its districts and natural landmarks retain their original Nahuatl names. Many othercities and towns in Mexico and Central America have also retained their Nahuatl names (whether or notthey were originally Mexica or even Nahuatl-speaking towns). A number of town names are hybrids ofNahuatl and Spanish.

Mexican cuisine continues to be based on and flavored by agricultural products contributed by theMexicas/Aztecs and Mesoamerica, most of which retain some form of their original Nahuatl names. Thecuisine has also become a popular part of the cuisine of the United States and other countries around the


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A painting of Tlaloc, as shown onpage 20R of Codex Rios

world, typically altered to suit various national tastes.

The modern Mexican flag bears the emblem of the Mexica migration story.

HistoriographyBefore the development of archaeology in Mexico in the 19th century, the historians mainly interpretedthe ancient written sources to reconstitute Aztec history. Archaeology allowed to reconsider and criticizesome of those interpretations and contradictions between the primary sources. Now, the scholar study ofaztec civilization is most often based on scientific and multidisciplinary methodologies.

Aztec codices

There are few extant Aztec codices created before the conquestand these are largely ritual texts. Post-conquest codices, likeCodex Mendoza or Codex Ríos, were painted by Aztec tlacuilos(codex creators), but under the control of Spanish authorities.The possibility of Spanish influence poses potential problems forthose studying the post-conquest codices. Itzcoatl had the oldesthieroglyphics destroyed for political-religious reasons andBishop Zumarraga of Mexico (1528–48) had all available textsburned for missionary reasons.[29]

The conquistadors

The accounts of the conquistadors are those of men confrontedwith a new civilization, which they tried to interpret according totheir own culture. Cortés was the most educated, and his lettersto Charles V are a valuable firsthand account. Unfortunately, oneof his letters is lost and replaced by a posterior text and the others were censored prior to theirpublication. In any case, Cortés was not writing a dispassionate account, but letters justifying his actionsand to some extent exaggerating his successes and downplaying his failures.

Bernal Díaz del Castillo accompanied Cortes, and he later wrote a book named: The Discovery andConquest of Mexico.[nb 4] In his book, Capitan Bernal Díaz del Castillo provides his account of theConquest of Mexico, in which he describes the events leading up to the conquest of Mexico, includingaccounts of the human sacrifices and cannibalism that he witnessed first hand. However, Bernal Díazwrote several decades after the fact, never learned the native languages, and did not take notes. Hisaccount is colorful, but his work is considered by historians to be erratic and exaggerated.

Although Francisco López de Gómara was Cortes' chaplain, friend, and confidant, he never visited theNew World so his account is based on hearsay.

Priests and scholars


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The accounts of the first priests and scholars, while reflecting their faith and their culture, are importantsources. Fathers Diego Durán, Motolinia, and Mendieta wrote with their own religion in mind, FatherDuran wrote trying to prove that the Aztec were one of the lost tribes of Israel. Bartolomé de las Casaswrote apologetically about the Indians, accusing the Spanish conquistadors of committing unspeakableatrocities in their subjugation of the Aztecs and other indigenous groups. Some authors tried to make asynthesis of the pre-Hispanic cultures, like "Oviedo y Herrera", Jose de Acosta, and Pedro Mártir deAnghiera.

The most significant source about the Aztec are doubtless the manuscripts of Bernardino de Sahagún,who worked with the surviving Aztec wise men. He taught Aztec tlacuilos to write the original Nahuatlaccounts using the Latin alphabet. Because of fear of the Spanish authorities, he maintained theanonymity of his informants, and wrote a heavily censored version in Spanish. Unfortunately theNahuatl original was not fully translated until the 20th century, thus realising the extent of the censorshipof the Spanish version. The original Nahuatl manuscript is known as the Florentine Codex.

Native authors

Other important sources are the work of native and mestizo authors, descendants of the upper classes.These authors include Don Fernando Alvarado Tezozómoc, Chimalpahin Cuauhtlehuanitzin, JuanBautista de Pomar, and Fernando de Alva Cortés Ixtlilxochitl. Ixtlixochitl, for example, wrote a historyof Texcoco from a Christian point of view. His account of Netzahualcoyotl, an ancestor of Ixtlilxochitl's,has a strong resemblance to the story of King Solomon and portrays Netzahualcoyotl as a monotheistand a critic of human sacrifice.

Diego Muñoz Camargo (1521 – c. 1612), a Tlaxcalan mestizo, wrote the History of Tlaxcala six decadesafter the Spanish conquest. Some parts of his work have a strong Tlaxcala bias.

See also

History of MexicoList of Mexico-Tenochtitlan rulersMaya civilizationMixtec people

Notes

^ By one series of estimates, the population before the time of the conquest is estimated at 19 million; by1550, the estimated population was 4 million and by 1581 less than two million

1.

^ singular form pilli2. ^ This volume was later translated into Spanish by Ángel María Garibay K., teacher of León-Portilla, and itexists in English translation by John Bierhorst

3.

^ Historia Verdadera de la Conquista de la Nueva España, Escrita por el Capitan Bernal Diaz del Castillo,4.


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uno de sus conquistadores — Published in the Spanish language by Fernandez, Editores S.A. Mexico City,(Published in the English language by Farrar, Straus and Cudahy in 1956 Library of Congress CatalogNumber 56-5758)

Footnotes

^ Aztec. (2012). Dictionary.com. Retrieved January 1, 2102, from link (http://dictionary.reference.com/browse/aztec?s=t)

1.

^ a b Náhuatl: AR-Z. (n.d.). Vocabulario.com.mx. Retrieved August 30, 2012, form [1](http://www.vocabulario.com.mx/nahuatl/diccionario_nahuatl_a4.html)

2.

^ etymonline.com: Aztec (http://www.etymonline.com/index.php?term=Aztec)3. ^ Lockhart 19924. ^ Smith 1997, p. 25. ^ Campbell 19976. ^ Miguel Leon Portilla (2000). "Aztecas, disquisiciones sobre un gentilicio". Estudios de la cultura nahuatl(http://www.ejournal.unam.mx/ecn/ecnahuatl31/ECN03113.pdf). p. 6.

7.

^ Smith 1997, pp. 4–78. ^ Smith 2001, pp. 250–2529. ^ Smith 1997, pp. 49–5810. ^ Smith 1997, pp. 174–17511. ^ Smith 1997, pp. 176–18212. ^ Smith 1984, p. 17313. ^ Allan, Tony. Voyages of Discovery. p. 142. ISBN 0-7054-0981-3.14. ^ Silent Killers of the New World (http://web.archive.org/web/20071102074155rn_1/www.millersville.edu/~columbus/papers/orlow-e.html)

15.

^ Motyl, Alexander J. (2001). Imperial Ends: The Decay, Collapse, and Revival of Empires. New York:Columbia University Press. pp. 13, 19–21, 32–36. ISBN 0-231-12110-5.

16.

^ Berdan, et al. (1996), Aztec Imperial Strategies. Dumbarton Oaks, Washington, DC17. ^ Smith, Michael E. (2000), Aztec City-States. In A Comparative Study of Thirty City-State Cultures, editedby Mogens Herman Hansen, pp. 581–595. The Royal Danish Academy of Sciences and Letters, Copenhagen.

18.

^ The Codex Mendoza, edited by F. Berdan and P. Anawalt, University of California Press, 199219. ^ Smith, Life in the Provinces of the Aztec empire, Scientific American, September 199720. ^ (Smith, The Aztecs, 2nd edition, chapter 5)21. ^ Boone, 198922. ^ Annals of Anthropology, UNAM, Vol. xi, 1974, p. 5623. ^ Sanders, William T., Settlement Patterns in Central Mexico. Handbook of Middle American Indians, 1971,vol. 3, p. 3–44.

24.


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^ León-Portilla, Broken Spears.25. ^ "Azteken". Winkler Prins encyclopedia (8th ed. ed.). 1975.26. ^ a b Eduardo Noguera (1974). "Sitios de Ocupacion de la periferia de Tenochtitlan". Anales deAntropologia,UNAM (XI ed. ed.).

27.

^ C. Michael Hogan. 2008. Wild turkey: Meleagris gallopavo, GlobalTwitcher.com, ed. N. Stromberg(http://www.globaltwitcher.com/artspec_information.asp?thingid=2199)

28.

^ Holtker, George," Studies in Comparative Religion, Vol 1/5, "The Religions of Mexico and Peru", CatholicTruth Society.

29.

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Soustelle, Jacques (1961). Daily Life of theAztecs:On the Eve of the SpanishConquest. Patrick O’Brian (Trans.).London: Phoenix Press.ISBN 1-84212-508-7. OCLC 50217224(https://www.worldcat.org/oclc/50217224).

Taube, Karl A. (1993). Aztec and Maya Myths (4thUniversity of Texas printing ed.). Austin:University of Texas Press.ISBN 0-292-78130-X. OCLC 29124568(https://www.worldcat.org/oclc/29124568).

Townsend, Richard F. (2000). The Aztecs (2ndedition, revised ed.). London: Thames &Hudson. ISBN 0-500-28132-7.OCLC 43337963(https://www.worldcat.org/oclc/43337963).

Zantwijk,Rudolph van (1985). The AztecArrangement: The Social History ofPre-Spanish Mexico. Norman: Universityof Oklahoma Press. ISBN 0-8061-1677-3.OCLC 11261299(https://www.worldcat.org/oclc/11261299).

Primary sources, available in EnglishBerdan, Frances F. and Patricia Reiff Anawalt

(1997) The Essential Codex Mendoza.University of California Press, Berkeley.ISBN 0-520-20454-9.

Cortés, Hernan (1987) Letters from Mexico. NewEd. edition. Translated by AnthonyPagden. Yale University Press, NewHaven. ISBN 0-300-03724-4.

Díaz del Castillo, Bernal (1963) The Conquest ofNew Spain. Translated by J. M. Cohen.Penguin, New York. ISBN 0-14-044123-9.

Díaz, Gisele and Alan Rogers (1993) The CodexBorgia: A Full-Color Restoration of theAncient Mexican Manuscript. DoverPublications, New York. ISBN0-486-27569-8.

Durán, Fray Diego (1971) Book of the Gods andRites and The Ancient Calendar.Translated by Fernando Horcasitas andDoris Heyden. University of OklahomaPress, Norman. ASIN B000M4OVSG.ISBN 0-8061-1201-8 (1977 Ed. edition).

Durán, Fray Diego (1994) The History of theIndies of New Spain. Translated by DorisHeyden. University of Oklahoma Press,Norman. ISBN 0-8061-2649-3.

Garganigo et al., (2008) Huellas de las LiteraturasHispanoamerica. 3 edition. Prentice Hall,New Jersey. (Note, this source in Spanish).ISBN 0-13-195846-1.

Zorita, Alonso de (1963) Life and Labor inAncient Mexico: The Brief and SummaryRelation of the Lords of New Spain.Translated by Benjamin Keen. RutgersUniversity Press, New Brunswick. ASINB000INWUNE. ISBN 0-8061-2679-5(1994 paperback).


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Wikisource has the text ofthe 1911 EncyclopædiaBritannica article Aztecs.

Wikimedia Commons hasmedia related to Aztec.

External links

Aztecs at Mexicolore (http://mexicolore.co.uk/aztecs/):constantly updated educational site specifically on theAztecs, for serious students of all ages.Aztec Architecture (http://web.archive.org/web/20091027042348/http://geocities.com/architecture_aztec_america)Aztecs / Nahuatl / Tenochtitlan (http://www.d.umn.edu/cla/faculty/troufs/anth3618/maaztec.html):Ancient Mesoamerica resources at University of Minnesota DuluthAztec history, culture and religion (http://www.history-aztec.com) B. Diaz del Castillo, TheDiscovery and Conquest of Mexico (tr. by A. P. Maudsley, 1928, repr. 1965)Demographic Disaster in Mexico 1519-1595 (http://www.hist.umn.edu/~rmccaa/mxpoprev/table2.htm) at the Department of History at the University of MinnesotaMichael E. Smith's student bibliography on the Aztecs (http://www.public.asu.edu/~mesmith9/azbib.html).Article: "Life in the Provinces of the Aztec Empire (http://www.public.asu.edu/~mesmith9/MES-05-SciAm-.pdf) PDF (538 KiB)

Tlahuica Culture Home Page (an Aztec group from Morelos, Mexico) (http://www.public.asu.edu/~mesmith9/tlahuica.html)"The Aztecs-looking behind the myths" (http://www.bbc.co.uk/radio4/history/inourtime/inourtime_20030227.shtml) on BBC Radio 4’s In Our Time featuring Alan Knight, Adrian Lockeand Elizabeth GrahamPre-columbian Aztec Collection (http://worldmuseumofman.org/aztecartifacts1.htm): photographsof Aztec tools and weapons

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Categories: Aztec Mesoamerican cultures Post-Classic period in the AmericasPre-Columbian cultures of Mexico States and territories established in 13251521 disestablishments Former monarchies of North America Civilizations

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Aztec - Wikipedia, the free encyclopediawildehistory.weebly.com/uploads/1/6/7/0/16706304/aztec... · 2019-12-05 · The Aztec Pyramid at St. Cecilia Acatitlan, State of Mexico Aztec