,, '

Ott 1993]. I~twllel phytochemical studies which will. along with the echnophar­macognosy of ayahuasca, be summarized in d1is book, had meanwhile shown DMT

~nd the '')'11/~um~ctt-type natunJ enzyme-inhibitors (known technically as ~-carbo­ltnes). to ~e far from rare-indeed , there arc theoretically .~"evem! thousand possib!t• combmatl(ms or. nv~ ~la~t cxtract~,which could yield an.entheogenic pocion analo­gous to a_yalwa.~ctt. l hc~e are the ayahuttsctl analogues' of this book's tide, which have a~so bet·n ~ailed ttyahr~asur /Jorea/;s, or the "northern rty,r/masm..'' to distinguish thc.:~m hom deCidedly troptc~J A..mazonian tlyabruJsctl, which we would technically have co call ay,tlwa.rca tru.rtra/is [McKenna 1992]. As I researched 1~yabutlsta form;, recent book Phnrmtttot/;c(IIJ [Ott 1993], 1 realiz~d that there were scverallacunte i~ sciet~t~ flc knowledge of the pharmacognosy of rl.J'Ilhwrsca, and 1 embarked on ·an ambmous scric~ of p~ychonautic experiments designed ro elucidate the human ~harmacol~~' of t~is unique enthcogcnic potion. I endeavored not only to rep­liCate th~ dfects o{· ,~yrlbutlsm runtmlis with purt· ;Ktive compounds in "

11) ,

111

1un.rc't1

capsul~ (pbttrnllr.buasc,t), bu t to provoke such an eH~~ct using re:tdil)'-avaibble pl:mts from tl:e temperate :wne, some of which are actually more rational sourct~s ol '?'r.liJtMsca fn;~1~1 the chemist's p erspective. as they contain much higher concen­~ratJons ~fD~1 J and ~-~arbolines rhan do their Amazonian prototype.~. Thi.•; boo I< Is the ~:lllt o~ my field. library and bboratory research on the Am:nonian kvkeon.

~t rs ~ny fervenr_hope ~h~1t this hook will contribute to rhe d ~.:mise of try:tlmasta tOl.tr~sn~ l.ll Amaz~ma, wh1ch c:-tn only disrupt th1~ evanescent remnaut ofprditerate rehgt~sttyst~·ugglmgt? .make a pL~ce f<H itself in the modern world, while attracring :he v .. tong kmd of poht1ca.l attepuon to ,~y,r/lll.rtsc./1. Funhcrmore, inasmuch as I am tmpbcably opposed to ~rug prohibition, arid think that widespread contemporary use of l:~theogcm constitutes the be.st ecological hope for humankind on rhe thre­~old of a nc~v m illennium- a new millennium which could be rhe start ofa ne\.v C.oldcn Age, or the continuation and dreadful culmination of a catadv~;mic bio­lo~ical and ~:uln~ral Holocaust-- I hope the sirnple home technology d~scribed in rlus hook will d~·1ve th~ last nJil jnto the coffln of the evil and hypocritical, flfrcen­hundr~:d-~nd-~mcty-cight-ycar-old crusade ~o elimiaate this class of drugs trom t~e face~~: t~c Eanh .. May the .Endwogcnic Refi)f)nation prevail over the Pharmacra­uc InqtusJtJon, leading to the .~piritual rebirth of humankind at Our Lady Gxa'~<· br:t~ast.s , fro~n which may ever copiously flow tlw amrfll. the ambrositt, rhe a.yabut1i c

11 of eternal hfc! ·

[12]

Jonathan Ott, F.L.S. Ecuador- Mt:xico- Spai

AYAHUASCA ANALOGUES

AYAHUASCA ANALOGUES

AYAHUASCA ANALOGUES Pangt£an Entheogens

JONATHAN OTT

NATURAL PRODUCTS CO: K f.N:--.J L\VICK, \'0\ .

1994

AYAHUASCA ANALOGUES Pangt£an Entheogens

JONATHAN OTT

NATURAL PRODUCTS CO: K f.N:--.J L\VICK, \'0\ .

1994

Other books by }ontlthmt Ott : HALLUCI~O<~EN IC PLANTS OF NORTH AMI!RICA

(Wingbow Press. Berkeley. 1976.1979)

ThOI\'AN/iC.!\TL: H ALLUCINOGENIC

MUSHROOMS OF NORTH AMEI~ICI\ Co-Edited with J. Bigwood (Madrona Publishers. Seattle, 1978.1985)

1in; CACAHUATr. EATER: Rl!Ml NATIONs

OF AN UNAllASHED CHOCOLl\Tl' ADOICT

(Natural Products Co., V:1shon, WA. 1985)

Pcn~r.PHONE's QUEST: E~TIIWGENs AND THE 0RJCJN.S OF RELIGION

Co-Authored with R.G. \'«.1~.son. S. Kramrisch and C.A.P. Ruck (Y,llc University Pres.', New Haven, 1'>86)

PtMRMACOTHf.ON: E NTHEO<:f NIC

D Rt!GS, THr.IJt PLANT SouJtcE.s AND Hrsr o ttY (Natural Products Co., Kennewick, WA. 1993)

Forthcoming: Pl-IARMACOTHEON II: ENlHEOC:El'\IC

PLAI':TS AND THE ORIGI NS or Rni<;roNs

Copyright(<;) 19% by Jonathan Ott AU rights re~erved Printed in the United States of America USing recycled, ;lcid-frc<; paper

Desir,n by Pablo Moya. rypngr:lphy. by ]. Ott Obv~rsdSnfccovcr: Asl11l11illl~:~ Sl!itman f)·ef'm·ing fil'rhtz! Purgn rckr:ul) by P:tblo .Amaringo. 1.992; slide by Luis Eduardo Luna Yerso/S()ftcovcr: B. ClJt1jJi by c. ivfanucl 'IUrn.:s: .P.1•iridis by r. Ott Drawing:;: Title and col<>phon pages by Martin Vinaver; .. P:\gc 8 by Elmer'\{!: Smith: page 32 by Irene .lk tdy Kistler

ISBN 0-% l1iZJ4-4-7 (hardcover) $:30.00 'ISBN O-%H2J4 - 5-·5 (paperback) $15.00

Sales: JonatKm be~ Boob; RJSt OH!cc Box 12')1: O::cidemal, CA; USA 95465

TA_BLE OF CONTENTS

ExoRDIUM

The .A.mal.(mian.Amrttt :md the Entheogenic Reformation

CHAPTER O NE

Natural History ofAytliJUflSttt- A PJ.n-Amazoni~n Enthcogen C HAPTF.R 1\vo

Pharmacognosy of.AytthwtJCil Plants and Ibtions CHAPTER Ti-mm:

/~yahutlsc,t Analogues with Psychonautic .Repom C iV\l'TF.R FOUR

From P,ln- Amazonian to P.m-Ga.:an Entheogen

NOTES

Bmuo(;RAPHY

I ND£X

AcKNoWI.EDGEMEN1'S

TAULES

1. A. AyahurtJca 1\dditive Pbnrs

II. A. Rt~ported Analyses ofAyaluMSCil Pl:mts B. Reported Analyses ofAy,1huasm Leaf Ad.1nixnm.~

c. Reported Analyses ofA .. J'itbudsca Potidns

D. Structure~ of.Major l9iahuasmAlkaloids Ill. A. Human Pharnucology of.~yahuamr.AnalogtlC [?. lumnahJDMT]

n. Human Pharmacology ofAyabtttlsctt Capsules fHmnjnc-Vu-iable] IV. A. Plants Containi~g l'v1AO-l.nhibiting ~Carb~Jlind

B. Pbnts Containing EnthcogenicTryptamincs

9

13

33

51

7 1

91 101

119

127

27 38 10 ' 41 43 61 62 73 81

Other books by }ontlthmt Ott : HALLUCI~O<~EN IC PLANTS OF NORTH AMI!RICA

(Wingbow Press. Berkeley. 1976.1979)

ThOI\'AN/iC.!\TL: H ALLUCINOGENIC

MUSHROOMS OF NORTH AMEI~ICI\ Co-Edited with J. Bigwood (Madrona Publishers. Seattle, 1978.1985)

1in; CACAHUATr. EATER: Rl!Ml NATIONs

OF AN UNAllASHED CHOCOLl\Tl' ADOICT

(Natural Products Co., V:1shon, WA. 1985)

Pcn~r.PHONE's QUEST: E~TIIWGENs AND THE 0RJCJN.S OF RELIGION

Co-Authored with R.G. \'«.1~.son. S. Kramrisch and C.A.P. Ruck (Y,llc University Pres.', New Haven, 1'>86)

PtMRMACOTHf.ON: E NTHEO<:f NIC

D Rt!GS, THr.IJt PLANT SouJtcE.s AND Hrsr o ttY (Natural Products Co., Kennewick, WA. 1993)

Forthcoming: Pl-IARMACOTHEON II: ENlHEOC:El'\IC

PLAI':TS AND THE ORIGI NS or Rni<;roNs

Copyright(<;) 19% by Jonathan Ott AU rights re~erved Printed in the United States of America USing recycled, ;lcid-frc<; paper

Desir,n by Pablo Moya. rypngr:lphy. by ]. Ott Obv~rsdSnfccovcr: Asl11l11illl~:~ Sl!itman f)·ef'm·ing fil'rhtz! Purgn rckr:ul) by P:tblo .Amaringo. 1.992; slide by Luis Eduardo Luna Yerso/S()ftcovcr: B. ClJt1jJi by c. ivfanucl 'IUrn.:s: .P.1•iridis by r. Ott Drawing:;: Title and col<>phon pages by Martin Vinaver; .. P:\gc 8 by Elmer'\{!: Smith: page 32 by Irene .lk tdy Kistler

ISBN 0-% l1iZJ4-4-7 (hardcover) $:30.00 'ISBN O-%H2J4 - 5-·5 (paperback) $15.00

Sales: JonatKm be~ Boob; RJSt OH!cc Box 12')1: O::cidemal, CA; USA 95465

TA_BLE OF CONTENTS

ExoRDIUM

The .A.mal.(mian.Amrttt :md the Entheogenic Reformation

CHAPTER O NE

Natural History ofAytliJUflSttt- A PJ.n-Amazoni~n Enthcogen C HAPTF.R 1\vo

Pharmacognosy of.AytthwtJCil Plants and Ibtions CHAPTER Ti-mm:

/~yahutlsc,t Analogues with Psychonautic .Repom C iV\l'TF.R FOUR

From P,ln- Amazonian to P.m-Ga.:an Entheogen

NOTES

Bmuo(;RAPHY

I ND£X

AcKNoWI.EDGEMEN1'S

TAULES

1. A. AyahurtJca 1\dditive Pbnrs

II. A. Rt~ported Analyses ofAyaluMSCil Pl:mts B. Reported Analyses ofAy,1huasm Leaf Ad.1nixnm.~

c. Reported Analyses ofA .. J'itbudsca Potidns

D. Structure~ of.Major l9iahuasmAlkaloids Ill. A. Human Pharnucology of.~yahuamr.AnalogtlC [?. lumnahJDMT]

n. Human Pharmacology ofAyabtttlsctt Capsules fHmnjnc-Vu-iable] IV. A. Plants Containi~g l'v1AO-l.nhibiting ~Carb~Jlind

B. Pbnts Containing EnthcogenicTryptamincs

9

13

33

51

7 1

91 101

119

127

27 38 10 ' 41 43 61 62 73 81

I ' I

BANISTERIOPSIS Caapi ~ (Spruce ex G:rzseh) Mor-to-yv

' ,-t;wzs::.~z;!:_j

-------~-~----·-----~--l.--. --­·----------------1. Flowcr..ing branch; about half·size.

' 2. Flower: 2.5 times ma~;nif-lc:1 tion. 3. Samara [fruir]; just over half-size.

._J

EXORDIUM

The Amazonian Amrta and the Entheogenic Reformation

How do you know but ev 'ry Bird that curs the a•ryway, Is ;tn immense world of delight, dos'd. by your senses five?

WiUi.un Bbke Th f! Mflrrittgc of!:!em•m tlmll-!di (17<)3)

The rediscovery by R. Gordon Wasson of the traditional shamanic usc of entheo­genic1 mushrooms in .~outhern Me:x,ico in 1955, and Wasson's publication in Life magazine two years later of a popular article describing his "gn:at adventure" par­r;tking of the holy sacrament with Mazat:ec shaman Maria S. ... bina, engendered an a~tonishing rcviv:U of interest in shamanic inebriant.~ [W1sson 1957; \~Zv;son & Wasson 1957). The entheogcnic drug psilocybine, isolated from .Marla ·sabin;t's mushrooms by Albert Hofmann. together with LSD, a semi-synthetic mush roomie cntheogen discovered sercndipitously by Hofmann 12 years before W1sson lifted 1he veil of rhe holy mystery in Mexico, went on to become kt~y catalysts in an an­achronistic international revival of archaic religion, which was destined to shake western society to its core [Horowit7. 1991; Ott 1978]. The resulting '\:ourlt<~r­culmral'' movement of the "Psychelldic Sixties'' m;lfkcd an unprcceden ted departure from business as usual. setting the stage for a modern Entheogenic Rdormation, which prom ises to cvokt: more radical and far-reaching changes in western religion than did its predecessor, Indeed. M~trtin Luther's 95 theses of October 1517 packed far lcs_~ punch rhan did Gordon \X'asson's one thesis 440 yca1·s later-for \XIasson had peeled away the ossit)(~d accretion of many, many layers of symbol and dogma which enshrouded th<..~ (Ore my~;tery in impenetrable obfi.Hcation; had laid bare before the eyt~s of an astonished world, in all icsda.zzling quotidian humility. the bo(y sacrmncnt itself,' a sacrament which "carried its own conviction" and did not limp along encumbered by fl~th in an absurd Doctrine of'Ii:ansubsrantiation; a sacram­ent which oln•irttcd the necmity ojj{1ith itself,' allowing every communicant to at­test to "the miracle he ha,q experienced" [Ott 1990; W1s.son 19()1}.

Although Maria Sabina's mushrooms a.nd psilocybinc were the original inciters of this remarkable phenomenon, LSD was to emerge as the stand:ml-bearcr in the Entheogenic Reformation. For rcchnical and economic reasons. LSD came to be

[9]

I ' I

BANISTERIOPSIS Caapi ~ (Spruce ex G:rzseh) Mor-to-yv

' ,-t;wzs::.~z;!:_j

-------~-~----·-----~--l.--. --­·----------------1. Flowcr..ing branch; about half·size.

' 2. Flower: 2.5 times ma~;nif-lc:1 tion. 3. Samara [fruir]; just over half-size.

._J

EXORDIUM

The Amazonian Amrta and the Entheogenic Reformation

How do you know but ev 'ry Bird that curs the a•ryway, Is ;tn immense world of delight, dos'd. by your senses five?

WiUi.un Bbke Th f! Mflrrittgc of!:!em•m tlmll-!di (17<)3)

The rediscovery by R. Gordon Wasson of the traditional shamanic usc of entheo­genic1 mushrooms in .~outhern Me:x,ico in 1955, and Wasson's publication in Life magazine two years later of a popular article describing his "gn:at adventure" par­r;tking of the holy sacrament with Mazat:ec shaman Maria S. ... bina, engendered an a~tonishing rcviv:U of interest in shamanic inebriant.~ [W1sson 1957; \~Zv;son & Wasson 1957). The entheogcnic drug psilocybine, isolated from .Marla ·sabin;t's mushrooms by Albert Hofmann. together with LSD, a semi-synthetic mush roomie cntheogen discovered sercndipitously by Hofmann 12 years before W1sson lifted 1he veil of rhe holy mystery in Mexico, went on to become kt~y catalysts in an an­achronistic international revival of archaic religion, which was destined to shake western society to its core [Horowit7. 1991; Ott 1978]. The resulting '\:ourlt<~r­culmral'' movement of the "Psychelldic Sixties'' m;lfkcd an unprcceden ted departure from business as usual. setting the stage for a modern Entheogenic Rdormation, which prom ises to cvokt: more radical and far-reaching changes in western religion than did its predecessor, Indeed. M~trtin Luther's 95 theses of October 1517 packed far lcs_~ punch rhan did Gordon \X'asson's one thesis 440 yca1·s later-for \XIasson had peeled away the ossit)(~d accretion of many, many layers of symbol and dogma which enshrouded th<..~ (Ore my~;tery in impenetrable obfi.Hcation; had laid bare before the eyt~s of an astonished world, in all icsda.zzling quotidian humility. the bo(y sacrmncnt itself,' a sacrament which "carried its own conviction" and did not limp along encumbered by fl~th in an absurd Doctrine of'Ii:ansubsrantiation; a sacram­ent which oln•irttcd the necmity ojj{1ith itself,' allowing every communicant to at­test to "the miracle he ha,q experienced" [Ott 1990; W1s.son 19()1}.

Although Maria Sabina's mushrooms a.nd psilocybinc were the original inciters of this remarkable phenomenon, LSD was to emerge as the stand:ml-bearcr in the Entheogenic Reformation. For rcchnical and economic reasons. LSD came to be

[9]

w_idely manufilctured by the incipient: underground chemical network jerry-built aft~r the suspens ion oflegal LSD manufacture in 1965 and the subscq~cn; inter­!l:ltwnal proscr~ption of this unique pharmacothcon. Indeed, this drug could be

man_ufactured. for about a p enny" ;l dose. even wirh the grossly infb.ted prices f()r starnng matenah and reagents which prevailed under the black-marker conditions. 2

lny art O\~ing r:) a vigorou.~ propaganda campaign against LSD by the government!' of the Uu.Lted .States and other countrk:s, the drug's popubrignvaned as the s ixtie~ gan~ way to rhe seventies [Ott 1993]. Furthermore, as part of a «back-to -nature"

mo~emcnc. i r.~etf in lar~c measure :lnorhcr consc<ruencc of the Entheogenic Refor­mation, a hard-core of estahli.shed entheogen ll{icitm11dos bec;lme more interested in phytocntheogens than in purified prod~1ds ~>f the chemic:~! industry, however countcrcultural, and LSD W;ls wrongly stig matized a~ a "svnrhetic" (chat i~. ar­tificial") "chemical." This hct, combined with the iritroduc~ion in 1975-1978 of

rdiah!e,_ low- technology merhodology for small-scale cultivation of psiloty bine­conr:unmg mushr?oms [H1rris l 976; Os.s & Ocric 1975; On & Bigwood 1978] ~a used die fi)cus of ~~rrcnc ion to shift bad< to psilocyhine as the prim ary entheogen

111 coun~crcultu~·:~l c1rclcs [Ott 1993] .Thu.s psilocybian mushrooms',• especially p,.i­Locybt f Strophrma] cu/Jam.r. hccanw the entheogen ofchoict: in the late seventies and early eig hties, :md LSD hecune ever more ditlicult to procure.

"ft">~'Vard. rhe end. of th~ 1?80!', as a K~~uure of rhe intwnatioua'] ecological move­ment favonn~ trop ic ! I ram forest conservation, a movement which also had its roors in the Enthcoge1iic ~dormation. the continuing inrcrest in emheogcnic drugs began ro hKll!> ewr more o n t~ytl!1fltrscrt, a pan-.Ama:wnian entheogenic potion made from

tropical rainforest plants [Ott 199?]. As the ~ighties hecame tht; nin~ties, ay.tlmasm w:~s thrust .ever more into the limelight as the tlt';'YI'. modern, ''hip" enrheogcn of the C()grwscmtt. Ry 1980 the phenomenon of '~~yrthu,ts(,·dtourism" beg:~n to appear [On 199.3]. lllttch as ''mushroomic. tourism'' had folli:l\vcd Wlas~;on 's a~tonishing dis­

co:'~~k·s _in ~{cxico [Ott 1975, 1976]. Few fragiJ,~ surviving rhrcads of prdi;eratc spmt:ua.lay •n Amazonia, a1!d the ephemeral "p harmacratic peace" [Escohotado 1989J \\:hi~:h •h a.d ~el.!tl •rry,.-hur:st.-1 o verlookt'd in' rhc contemporary crusade ap inst

shama~1JC .melrn ;~.nts, were ? ravdy j~Of~ardil;ed hy tlH! sudden arrival .in Amazonia of pcrfcrv1d comm~cn~.s of co:;mot:olitan' ·~1'•1/Jtttl.lt;t tourists [Ott 1993]. Contemp~~rar_y l~th1wbor~~ny. of ~~va!iumerz is •complicated by the Etcr d1:~t th is

s,ham anic i.tH~ br~am,~~nri.re ~o th~n. ~':Y ~)ther cmh,eog'cn we'l{now, had managed to

fmd :1 plac~ fo~· mdl; m ·the modern world lo,ng:bd(>rc its ie~cnt rediscovery by tbe entheog·~n~c counterculturc .. Mestizo t{y.-d~twsqu<'ros had continued ro usc the Ama­zonian al,~brosia in urban ;;~cas ofPehi and Colombia. even as their Ind ian forebear~

' I .

,., Hlfinw.:d. in ever decreasing; measure, to commune with Sacha R:ma (the _"jungle

111;m") and other "plant spirits" in ever-diminishing is.bnds of pnmary ramfore~t

1 hrotwho utAmazonia [Do bkin de Rlos 1970a, 1970b,l972.1973, 1992; Lamb 197'i; 1 .una J984a.1984b, 1986c.1991; Luna & Amaringo 199.1 ]. Furt~~·r~n~rc. rh~ ~ast ~ i x d~:cades have seen the growth of a remarkable syncrettc Neo-Chnsttan .rdtg1on with 11y,r/nursc1tas the sacrament. Following humble beginnings in the. stare_of ~ere in B r:~'ilian Amazoni;i, these contempo rary religious groups communm~w1th .X~n-111 IJ.r.ime or c:hrt Hoa.sca ( 3S OJt1httfiJCt1 is known to them) h ave grown IntO m aJOr imt·rnational religious movement:; with rhousands of mem?crs [C~ntro 1989; H~n­man 1986; Lowy 1987: M ;KRac 1992: Pra nce 1970]." ~ar ~n:m hemg an :~berratwn or amchronism, these churches. and the African Bw1t1 reltgwn centered ':n t~lc.en­rheogenic sacrament r:bol:a [Samorin~ 1992]', rather represent the futu.re of Chnst~an­it:y. stripped of its Doctrine of 1i·ansubstantiarion by. the EnrhcogenK Reformation, :1nd with one or another gynui11t: enthcogcn rcpbctng the placcbo sa~ramcnt! .

The "mushroomic tourism., which followed on the hed s ofW.1sson s pencrran.on

of rhe ,1rcammz arc.momm in M exico profaned the wondrous mush~ooms. w~Kh hccame ordinary article!~ of the tourist trade. Self-stykd shamans staged spurwus mushroom ceremonies for the e;:~ger tourists; the mushrooms themsdves ~am~ to

he widely and conspicuously sold like so many trinkets and souvenirs. contnb~1tmg ro the accdcntcd dcmi~e of the archaic cult [O tt 1975; W:1sson 197l1?80]. Some ~:hamans. like l'v1ada Sabin;t, even served jail sentences in Oa.,xaca Ci~y for all_cg:edly pandering ro the mushroomic rourist trade [Estrada 1977]-rathcr Ilk~ put~mg ~he Pope in jail for dispensing wafers and witH:! Evet~tually, the popular ~~~s~emm~n.<~n of information on the abundance of the ps1locyb1~n mushroon:~ outs1de o~Mc;IC~ l (~ r·l 9,..,1 ·-r. G_,, . ..., 1993 · Haard& Haard 197); Menser 1917; Ott 19;(),1 97 8, .. oope . ' , ~ .... v, . . • ' . . d Ott & Bigwood 197~ . I 985; Stamets 1978]. combined_ wi.th the .above-~ennone. introduction of home technology for the cultivation ~t pstlocyb1an Sft~~tcs l~a;1:1s 1976; Oss & Oeric 1975; Ott & Bigwood 1978.198);_ StaJ~let<; & Lht~ton LM~i] conspired to put an end to this unwelcome imrusion o~ out:adcr~, al!o\:1ng t b.e vil­lages dlU~' influenced to return to approximate nonnahty, and dtstractmg unwan-

fl:d official attention away from the fungal pharmacotheon. . Ethnobotanical. pharmacognostical and pharmacological studies of r~vahuasca

commenced midway thro ugh the nineteenth cet'ltury, and by the late. 19(~()s had

I · 1 f 1 · I · · · )10""' of the J. un1•le rum·t11 " whtc:h was more o r less e un< ate< t 1c umque p 1,umacc 5 ! r~· . • . . . .

fo und to be an ingenious kykeon :; or am algam of o ne plant in~u~1on conrau~mghar­mine and related emyme-inhibitors with a second contammg .N,N-dLmcthyl-

, • • • • 1(DM.T) a~ enrheogren ordinarily inactive orally [McKenna et .tL 1984a; try pt.untno..: ~ , . .

f 11]

w_idely manufilctured by the incipient: underground chemical network jerry-built aft~r the suspens ion oflegal LSD manufacture in 1965 and the subscq~cn; inter­!l:ltwnal proscr~ption of this unique pharmacothcon. Indeed, this drug could be

man_ufactured. for about a p enny" ;l dose. even wirh the grossly infb.ted prices f()r starnng matenah and reagents which prevailed under the black-marker conditions. 2

lny art O\~ing r:) a vigorou.~ propaganda campaign against LSD by the government!' of the Uu.Lted .States and other countrk:s, the drug's popubrignvaned as the s ixtie~ gan~ way to rhe seventies [Ott 1993]. Furthermore, as part of a «back-to -nature"

mo~emcnc. i r.~etf in lar~c measure :lnorhcr consc<ruencc of the Entheogenic Refor­mation, a hard-core of estahli.shed entheogen ll{icitm11dos bec;lme more interested in phytocntheogens than in purified prod~1ds ~>f the chemic:~! industry, however countcrcultural, and LSD W;ls wrongly stig matized a~ a "svnrhetic" (chat i~. ar­tificial") "chemical." This hct, combined with the iritroduc~ion in 1975-1978 of

rdiah!e,_ low- technology merhodology for small-scale cultivation of psiloty bine­conr:unmg mushr?oms [H1rris l 976; Os.s & Ocric 1975; On & Bigwood 1978] ~a used die fi)cus of ~~rrcnc ion to shift bad< to psilocyhine as the prim ary entheogen

111 coun~crcultu~·:~l c1rclcs [Ott 1993] .Thu.s psilocybian mushrooms',• especially p,.i­Locybt f Strophrma] cu/Jam.r. hccanw the entheogen ofchoict: in the late seventies and early eig hties, :md LSD hecune ever more ditlicult to procure.

"ft">~'Vard. rhe end. of th~ 1?80!', as a K~~uure of rhe intwnatioua'] ecological move­ment favonn~ trop ic ! I ram forest conservation, a movement which also had its roors in the Enthcoge1iic ~dormation. the continuing inrcrest in emheogcnic drugs began ro hKll!> ewr more o n t~ytl!1fltrscrt, a pan-.Ama:wnian entheogenic potion made from

tropical rainforest plants [Ott 199?]. As the ~ighties hecame tht; nin~ties, ay.tlmasm w:~s thrust .ever more into the limelight as the tlt';'YI'. modern, ''hip" enrheogcn of the C()grwscmtt. Ry 1980 the phenomenon of '~~yrthu,ts(,·dtourism" beg:~n to appear [On 199.3]. lllttch as ''mushroomic. tourism'' had folli:l\vcd Wlas~;on 's a~tonishing dis­

co:'~~k·s _in ~{cxico [Ott 1975, 1976]. Few fragiJ,~ surviving rhrcads of prdi;eratc spmt:ua.lay •n Amazonia, a1!d the ephemeral "p harmacratic peace" [Escohotado 1989J \\:hi~:h •h a.d ~el.!tl •rry,.-hur:st.-1 o verlookt'd in' rhc contemporary crusade ap inst

shama~1JC .melrn ;~.nts, were ? ravdy j~Of~ardil;ed hy tlH! sudden arrival .in Amazonia of pcrfcrv1d comm~cn~.s of co:;mot:olitan' ·~1'•1/Jtttl.lt;t tourists [Ott 1993]. Contemp~~rar_y l~th1wbor~~ny. of ~~va!iumerz is •complicated by the Etcr d1:~t th is

s,ham anic i.tH~ br~am,~~nri.re ~o th~n. ~':Y ~)ther cmh,eog'cn we'l{now, had managed to

fmd :1 plac~ fo~· mdl; m ·the modern world lo,ng:bd(>rc its ie~cnt rediscovery by tbe entheog·~n~c counterculturc .. Mestizo t{y.-d~twsqu<'ros had continued ro usc the Ama­zonian al,~brosia in urban ;;~cas ofPehi and Colombia. even as their Ind ian forebear~

' I .

,., Hlfinw.:d. in ever decreasing; measure, to commune with Sacha R:ma (the _"jungle

111;m") and other "plant spirits" in ever-diminishing is.bnds of pnmary ramfore~t

1 hrotwho utAmazonia [Do bkin de Rlos 1970a, 1970b,l972.1973, 1992; Lamb 197'i; 1 .una J984a.1984b, 1986c.1991; Luna & Amaringo 199.1 ]. Furt~~·r~n~rc. rh~ ~ast ~ i x d~:cades have seen the growth of a remarkable syncrettc Neo-Chnsttan .rdtg1on with 11y,r/nursc1tas the sacrament. Following humble beginnings in the. stare_of ~ere in B r:~'ilian Amazoni;i, these contempo rary religious groups communm~w1th .X~n-111 IJ.r.ime or c:hrt Hoa.sca ( 3S OJt1httfiJCt1 is known to them) h ave grown IntO m aJOr imt·rnational religious movement:; with rhousands of mem?crs [C~ntro 1989; H~n­man 1986; Lowy 1987: M ;KRac 1992: Pra nce 1970]." ~ar ~n:m hemg an :~berratwn or amchronism, these churches. and the African Bw1t1 reltgwn centered ':n t~lc.en­rheogenic sacrament r:bol:a [Samorin~ 1992]', rather represent the futu.re of Chnst~an­it:y. stripped of its Doctrine of 1i·ansubstantiarion by. the EnrhcogenK Reformation, :1nd with one or another gynui11t: enthcogcn rcpbctng the placcbo sa~ramcnt! .

The "mushroomic tourism., which followed on the hed s ofW.1sson s pencrran.on

of rhe ,1rcammz arc.momm in M exico profaned the wondrous mush~ooms. w~Kh hccame ordinary article!~ of the tourist trade. Self-stykd shamans staged spurwus mushroom ceremonies for the e;:~ger tourists; the mushrooms themsdves ~am~ to

he widely and conspicuously sold like so many trinkets and souvenirs. contnb~1tmg ro the accdcntcd dcmi~e of the archaic cult [O tt 1975; W:1sson 197l1?80]. Some ~:hamans. like l'v1ada Sabin;t, even served jail sentences in Oa.,xaca Ci~y for all_cg:edly pandering ro the mushroomic rourist trade [Estrada 1977]-rathcr Ilk~ put~mg ~he Pope in jail for dispensing wafers and witH:! Evet~tually, the popular ~~~s~emm~n.<~n of information on the abundance of the ps1locyb1~n mushroon:~ outs1de o~Mc;IC~ l (~ r·l 9,..,1 ·-r. G_,, . ..., 1993 · Haard& Haard 197); Menser 1917; Ott 19;(),1 97 8, .. oope . ' , ~ .... v, . . • ' . . d Ott & Bigwood 197~ . I 985; Stamets 1978]. combined_ wi.th the .above-~ennone. introduction of home technology for the cultivation ~t pstlocyb1an Sft~~tcs l~a;1:1s 1976; Oss & Oeric 1975; Ott & Bigwood 1978.198);_ StaJ~let<; & Lht~ton LM~i] conspired to put an end to this unwelcome imrusion o~ out:adcr~, al!o\:1ng t b.e vil­lages dlU~' influenced to return to approximate nonnahty, and dtstractmg unwan-

fl:d official attention away from the fungal pharmacotheon. . Ethnobotanical. pharmacognostical and pharmacological studies of r~vahuasca

commenced midway thro ugh the nineteenth cet'ltury, and by the late. 19(~()s had

I · 1 f 1 · I · · · )10""' of the J. un1•le rum·t11 " whtc:h was more o r less e un< ate< t 1c umque p 1,umacc 5 ! r~· . • . . . .

fo und to be an ingenious kykeon :; or am algam of o ne plant in~u~1on conrau~mghar­mine and related emyme-inhibitors with a second contammg .N,N-dLmcthyl-

, • • • • 1(DM.T) a~ enrheogren ordinarily inactive orally [McKenna et .tL 1984a; try pt.untno..: ~ , . .

f 11]

,, '

Ott 1993]. I~twllel phytochemical studies which will. along with the echnophar­macognosy of ayahuasca, be summarized in d1is book, had meanwhile shown DMT

~nd the '')'11/~um~ctt-type natunJ enzyme-inhibitors (known technically as ~-carbo­ltnes). to ~e far from rare-indeed , there arc theoretically .~"evem! thousand possib!t• combmatl(ms or. nv~ ~la~t cxtract~,which could yield an.entheogenic pocion analo­gous to a_yalwa.~ctt. l hc~e are the ayahuttsctl analogues' of this book's tide, which have a~so bet·n ~ailed ttyahr~asur /Jorea/;s, or the "northern rty,r/masm..'' to distinguish thc.:~m hom deCidedly troptc~J A..mazonian tlyabruJsctl, which we would technically have co call ay,tlwa.rca tru.rtra/is [McKenna 1992]. As I researched 1~yabutlsta form;, recent book Phnrmtttot/;c(IIJ [Ott 1993], 1 realiz~d that there were scverallacunte i~ sciet~t~ flc knowledge of the pharmacognosy of rl.J'Ilhwrsca, and 1 embarked on ·an ambmous scric~ of p~ychonautic experiments designed ro elucidate the human ~harmacol~~' of t~is unique enthcogcnic potion. I endeavored not only to rep­liCate th~ dfects o{· ,~yrlbutlsm runtmlis with purt· ;Ktive compounds in "

11) ,

111

1un.rc't1

capsul~ (pbttrnllr.buasc,t), bu t to provoke such an eH~~ct using re:tdil)'-avaibble pl:mts from tl:e temperate :wne, some of which are actually more rational sourct~s ol '?'r.liJtMsca fn;~1~1 the chemist's p erspective. as they contain much higher concen­~ratJons ~fD~1 J and ~-~arbolines rhan do their Amazonian prototype.~. Thi.•; boo I< Is the ~:lllt o~ my field. library and bboratory research on the Am:nonian kvkeon.

~t rs ~ny fervenr_hope ~h~1t this hook will contribute to rhe d ~.:mise of try:tlmasta tOl.tr~sn~ l.ll Amaz~ma, wh1ch c:-tn only disrupt th1~ evanescent remnaut ofprditerate rehgt~sttyst~·ugglmgt? .make a pL~ce f<H itself in the modern world, while attracring :he v .. tong kmd of poht1ca.l attepuon to ,~y,r/lll.rtsc./1. Funhcrmore, inasmuch as I am tmpbcably opposed to ~rug prohibition, arid think that widespread contemporary use of l:~theogcm constitutes the be.st ecological hope for humankind on rhe thre­~old of a nc~v m illennium- a new millennium which could be rhe start ofa ne\.v C.oldcn Age, or the continuation and dreadful culmination of a catadv~;mic bio­lo~ical and ~:uln~ral Holocaust-- I hope the sirnple home technology d~scribed in rlus hook will d~·1ve th~ last nJil jnto the coffln of the evil and hypocritical, flfrcen­hundr~:d-~nd-~mcty-cight-ycar-old crusade ~o elimiaate this class of drugs trom t~e face~~: t~c Eanh .. May the .Endwogcnic Refi)f)nation prevail over the Pharmacra­uc InqtusJtJon, leading to the .~piritual rebirth of humankind at Our Lady Gxa'~<· br:t~ast.s , fro~n which may ever copiously flow tlw amrfll. the ambrositt, rhe a.yabut1i c

11 of eternal hfc! ·

[12]

Jonathan Ott, F.L.S. Ecuador- Mt:xico- Spai n

Spring 1992-Winter 1994

CHAPTER ONE

Ntuural History ofAyahuasctl A Pan-Anulzonian Entheogen

In 1851 a young botanist narned Richard Spruct· was conducting hot:mical stu?ies on the lower Rfo Vaupc~> in Amazonian Brnil. when a group of1l1kanoan lmhans from Urubu-co;ira, "The Place of the Buzzard," invited him to participate in a rbtb­omri feast, at which his host~ partook libcully of a "nauseous beverage" which they said provoked vi~ions . T he drink, catlpi, was m<lde from a vine, and Spruce .drank a small cup of it, apparently insufficient to evoke much of an effect. Bur Spruce documented its t-ffect on his lndi:J.n friends, and questioned them carefully about the (to him) 1~ovel t~ntheogcn. He was permitted to see the plant from which the t:t.lapi porion had be1~n prepared, :-tnd he found it in full flower, enabling him to

coll.ecr good voucher specimens, which he sent ro 1\ew Garden.~ .in England. Al­rhough ._there were scattered early mentions of this "diabolical br~w" ~)'Jesuit mis­sionaries and others, Spruce was the first botanist to collect and 1denufy the plant, which h e had previously heard about from Brazilian mestizos, under the name _v,~jl He pro;ciendy colkc tcd material tor cvcntu~tl chemi~al an~Iysi s, and named tl:e plant BanistairT Cltttpi [Anon. 1 R5 5; Reichel-Dolmatoff 197) ]. Scve~1. ye~r~ later, m the Ecuadorian Amazon drainage area of rhc Rio Napo, the Ecuadorwn ctvrl servant Manuel Villavicencio de~cribed tlu: pcculiareflectsof rL_J'tT-Imasca, a. potion prepared from ;t vine by the Angatero, M:wfln and Z:l.paro Indians. Villavicencio appears to have b~:·cn th~ first our:;ider to describe personally the full effects of the potion and how he "seemed to enter on an at.:rial voyage . . . " in which he saw "rhe most: char­

ming landscapes, great cities, lofty towers, beautiful ~arks , and och:r d<:lighd1~ 1 things." Villavicencio puhlishn1 his account in 1 R58. hf~een. year~ before S~ruce s first paper on t.he.Amazonian "narcotics" 7 [Spruce 1873; Vtll:lVIcenCio 1858]. Spruce, meanwhile, had observed in 1854 th~: usc of car~pi chewed "as some people do tob;1cco" bv itinerJnt G uahibo Indians close to the Maipures Falls in the Orinoco River'basix; of VenczuCla, and in 1859 encountered Villavicencio's ttyrthuascain usc

[13]

,, '

Ott 1993]. I~twllel phytochemical studies which will. along with the echnophar­macognosy of ayahuasca, be summarized in d1is book, had meanwhile shown DMT

~nd the '')'11/~um~ctt-type natunJ enzyme-inhibitors (known technically as ~-carbo­ltnes). to ~e far from rare-indeed , there arc theoretically .~"evem! thousand possib!t• combmatl(ms or. nv~ ~la~t cxtract~,which could yield an.entheogenic pocion analo­gous to a_yalwa.~ctt. l hc~e are the ayahuttsctl analogues' of this book's tide, which have a~so bet·n ~ailed ttyahr~asur /Jorea/;s, or the "northern rty,r/masm..'' to distinguish thc.:~m hom deCidedly troptc~J A..mazonian tlyabruJsctl, which we would technically have co call ay,tlwa.rca tru.rtra/is [McKenna 1992]. As I researched 1~yabutlsta form;, recent book Phnrmtttot/;c(IIJ [Ott 1993], 1 realiz~d that there were scverallacunte i~ sciet~t~ flc knowledge of the pharmacognosy of rl.J'Ilhwrsca, and 1 embarked on ·an ambmous scric~ of p~ychonautic experiments designed ro elucidate the human ~harmacol~~' of t~is unique enthcogcnic potion. I endeavored not only to rep­liCate th~ dfects o{· ,~yrlbutlsm runtmlis with purt· ;Ktive compounds in "

11) ,

111

1un.rc't1

capsul~ (pbttrnllr.buasc,t), bu t to provoke such an eH~~ct using re:tdil)'-avaibble pl:mts from tl:e temperate :wne, some of which are actually more rational sourct~s ol '?'r.liJtMsca fn;~1~1 the chemist's p erspective. as they contain much higher concen­~ratJons ~fD~1 J and ~-~arbolines rhan do their Amazonian prototype.~. Thi.•; boo I< Is the ~:lllt o~ my field. library and bboratory research on the Am:nonian kvkeon.

~t rs ~ny fervenr_hope ~h~1t this hook will contribute to rhe d ~.:mise of try:tlmasta tOl.tr~sn~ l.ll Amaz~ma, wh1ch c:-tn only disrupt th1~ evanescent remnaut ofprditerate rehgt~sttyst~·ugglmgt? .make a pL~ce f<H itself in the modern world, while attracring :he v .. tong kmd of poht1ca.l attepuon to ,~y,r/lll.rtsc./1. Funhcrmore, inasmuch as I am tmpbcably opposed to ~rug prohibition, arid think that widespread contemporary use of l:~theogcm constitutes the be.st ecological hope for humankind on rhe thre­~old of a nc~v m illennium- a new millennium which could be rhe start ofa ne\.v C.oldcn Age, or the continuation and dreadful culmination of a catadv~;mic bio­lo~ical and ~:uln~ral Holocaust-- I hope the sirnple home technology d~scribed in rlus hook will d~·1ve th~ last nJil jnto the coffln of the evil and hypocritical, flfrcen­hundr~:d-~nd-~mcty-cight-ycar-old crusade ~o elimiaate this class of drugs trom t~e face~~: t~c Eanh .. May the .Endwogcnic Refi)f)nation prevail over the Pharmacra­uc InqtusJtJon, leading to the .~piritual rebirth of humankind at Our Lady Gxa'~<· br:t~ast.s , fro~n which may ever copiously flow tlw amrfll. the ambrositt, rhe a.yabut1i c

11 of eternal hfc! ·

[12]

Jonathan Ott, F.L.S. Ecuador- Mt:xico- Spai n

Spring 1992-Winter 1994

CHAPTER ONE

Ntuural History ofAyahuasctl A Pan-Anulzonian Entheogen

In 1851 a young botanist narned Richard Spruct· was conducting hot:mical stu?ies on the lower Rfo Vaupc~> in Amazonian Brnil. when a group of1l1kanoan lmhans from Urubu-co;ira, "The Place of the Buzzard," invited him to participate in a rbtb­omri feast, at which his host~ partook libcully of a "nauseous beverage" which they said provoked vi~ions . T he drink, catlpi, was m<lde from a vine, and Spruce .drank a small cup of it, apparently insufficient to evoke much of an effect. Bur Spruce documented its t-ffect on his lndi:J.n friends, and questioned them carefully about the (to him) 1~ovel t~ntheogcn. He was permitted to see the plant from which the t:t.lapi porion had be1~n prepared, :-tnd he found it in full flower, enabling him to

coll.ecr good voucher specimens, which he sent ro 1\ew Garden.~ .in England. Al­rhough ._there were scattered early mentions of this "diabolical br~w" ~)'Jesuit mis­sionaries and others, Spruce was the first botanist to collect and 1denufy the plant, which h e had previously heard about from Brazilian mestizos, under the name _v,~jl He pro;ciendy colkc tcd material tor cvcntu~tl chemi~al an~Iysi s, and named tl:e plant BanistairT Cltttpi [Anon. 1 R5 5; Reichel-Dolmatoff 197) ]. Scve~1. ye~r~ later, m the Ecuadorian Amazon drainage area of rhc Rio Napo, the Ecuadorwn ctvrl servant Manuel Villavicencio de~cribed tlu: pcculiareflectsof rL_J'tT-Imasca, a. potion prepared from ;t vine by the Angatero, M:wfln and Z:l.paro Indians. Villavicencio appears to have b~:·cn th~ first our:;ider to describe personally the full effects of the potion and how he "seemed to enter on an at.:rial voyage . . . " in which he saw "rhe most: char­

ming landscapes, great cities, lofty towers, beautiful ~arks , and och:r d<:lighd1~ 1 things." Villavicencio puhlishn1 his account in 1 R58. hf~een. year~ before S~ruce s first paper on t.he.Amazonian "narcotics" 7 [Spruce 1873; Vtll:lVIcenCio 1858]. Spruce, meanwhile, had observed in 1854 th~: usc of car~pi chewed "as some people do tob;1cco" bv itinerJnt G uahibo Indians close to the Maipures Falls in the Orinoco River'basix; of VenczuCla, and in 1859 encountered Villavicencio's ttyrthuascain usc

[13]

among the Ecuadori;Ul Z:\paro Indiai1s. Spruce correctly concluded that ctlltjJi, y11je and ayalmascawere kind red potions prepared from Btmistr:ria mapi, today kn~"~n m ore commonly as Rtnistcriopsis cac1pi [Gate~ 1982], and his detailed notes were published' posthumously [Spruce ] 908].

Subsequent research has confirmed Spruce's vision of a pan-Am azonian en­theogenic potion, the range of which he had personally e:;tablishcd from the east in the area of the Rio Negro in Brazil, west to the i~>othills of rht~ An de.~ in Am azon­ian Ecuador, and north to the Orinoco basin ofVcnczuela. In the 135 years since the pioneering report~ ~>f Spruce and Villa viccncio, the range of indigenous use of ayahtutsctl-typc potions has been extended we~;tward w the Pacific coastal areas of

~~olom?ia and Ecuador, ·~here it is used tinder the names pilck and daptt hy the Embcra :md Noanama Indians respectively. Such use is also f(mnd f~rther north, in coastal areas of Panama [Reichel-Dolmaroff 1960]. Ftirthcrmorc, this range ha!'· been extended g reatly to the south, where its w;c ha.~ been w idely documenr<.:d in Amazonian Peru and Bolivia [Andritsky 1988; &er 1969: B.-ier & Snell 1974: Dob­kin dcRios 1970a , l970b.I972,1973.1992; Friedberg l%5; Kensinger 1973: Kusel

l%5: Luna 1984a.1984b, 1991: Luna&Amaringo 1991: Rusby 1923: Siskind 1973; Weiss 197:3; \X.'hitt:~ 1n2] . Rather detailed information is available from careful study of irs usc in the Colombian Amazon [Bristol 1966; Briizzi 1962: C alella 19.35,1944a.1944b: Goldman 1%3: Koch-Gri.in bcrg 1909, 1923: Monon 1931: Reichel-Dolmatoff 1944.1%9. 1970.1972, 1975; Usdtegui 1959.1961]. We also have detailed inf(>rmation reg:uding indigenous USt' of rtyalmr/sat in Ecuador [Davis

&Yo.st 19S3; Harner 19Th 1973b.l973c.: Mades ctrlt'l988: Naranjo 1975.1979. ' 1983] and Br:rzil [Ducke 1957; Lowic 1946: Prance 1970; Prance & Prance 1970; Prance eta!. 1977].The great ethnobot:mist Richard Evans Schult(~s has clarified co nsider:tbly th,c picture of a_vahr~tJSta ethnobotany in m:llly derailed papers and superb books [Schultes 1957J98(Jb, 19S8; Schultes&; Hotinann 1980; Schult:es & Raf£1uf 1960. 1990, 1992). Over this immense r:mgc, Luna has enumerated at lenst

72 indig~nods groups reported to have mcd the potion [Luna 1986b] and has listed :n least ·~2 known autochthonous nam,:s J·or the drug [Luna 1986c]. The best bibliog raphies to f'J'ttlmtiJcrl compiled so .Ctr run to over 300 sources [Luna l986a;

Lun a &Amaringo ,1991] . ln thi~ book the name ,~J'ahuasc,r w ill be used in rc:fercnce

bod~ to t~~ major.source ph~t, •.&1~1i!terir'{'sis Olllj>i and to the cntheogenic potions prepared from dl!~ and rclaf'ed spcc1es of A.m:rwnian plants.

, The botany of ·~Y<'llnuisc.rJ potior~s hn$ be(;n confused by a plethora of scicnritlc names ;machcd to pbnt~ reportedly employed in making the jungle ambrosia. \XIhile most reports make J'cfc:rencc to Sf)rucc's Bani .• ·terioJm:f c,zapi, also commonly men-

I iunnl an: IJ. tll:f!.tii!M, B. htcbritms, n. Longinlrzttt, B. lutea, B. nltlrtiniantl, B. l?U'­

td!/irolar, B. mu~'iurta, B. quitmsisa nd B. rusbyantl [Schultes 1957.1986b]. Thanks 1 <, import:tnt nnd long-overdue raxonomic work by Bronwen Gates, the picture has !'!a rifled considerably. The most common "other" species of ayrthuasm, B. hrebrians :mJ B. quitensiJ·, arc ~oday regarded to be synonyms for B. ttwpi [Gates 1982]. St!ll :t~.n:prcd as "minor'' source-plants for a~vahru;s,~a are Btmistai,~psis muricrtttl (by far rite most widc.~pread species in the genus. fo r which B. mgmtM a nd B. rnt't~11ficolor arc two of thirty-nvo synonyms) and B. mrzrtiniana var. subenert.'itl (reported as 1~. Jthlrtiuianavar:.lacvis) [Davis&: Yt>sr 1 983; Garda Barriga 1975; Gates 1982,1986; .~chultes 1975]. T he former, under chc name mli or J'tl('/t;t ("w ild'') ~~y,tfmttstrl may he used as a weaker substitute h>r H. caapi by Witoto and \XT;lOran i Indians [Davis & Yost 1983] . although the \'VJor:~.ni use has been said to bt: )l tricdy.symbolic and no t pharmacologic [Miller 1993]. Add itional. &miste;·iopsisspccics considered by Schultes to be sources of 11.)'tthutlsca are B. lnngilflata and possibly B. futett [Schulte~ 198Gb] . Somt: species of Htmi5ttriopsis h:tve ethno medicinal uscs apart from these cntheogenic potions. B,mistcriopsi.r /ucidrt or c,~ji is us(·d in fishing magic in Vene­web [Boom & Moesd 1990] , while in Brazil B. ttrgyrop~ylltr root decoctioi1 is u~ed to treat kidney ailments [Schmcda Hirschm ann & De Arias 1990]. The widdy­rcported 11/misteriopJ·is rus~wma, today being classifleJ as Dif'loptcrys trthtcrrmtl l Gates 19861. is mo1:e precisely regarded as one of the principal r~ytii}T(asca additive

o r "admixture" plants, w hich will be treated in detail below. Early rt~pons by Spruce [1908] and Thcodor Koch-Griin?erg [ 19(~9, 1923] rna de

reference to diHerent "kinds" of tttttpi in the \f;mpcs, and Schultes found t hat the Makt.i Indians of the Br:wili:m Rio Tikie would prepare :1 cartpi-likc enrheogenic . potion from 1hrrl}'ft1'J.f mt:tl:~ystica, also in the same .Malpighiaceae family as Btm­i.:taiopsis [Schultes 1954a, l 957; Schultt·s & Raffauf I ~J90], and th e: KarapinJ In­dian.~ of chc C olombian RioApaporis simihrl.ypreparc an cntheogenic potion fro m T(·traptcrys mucrowtttt [Schultes & Raffauf 1')90]. Gates[ 19M(;] regarded :Tt:trapkr_vs methystf;,t to be synony1;1ous with T. s~y/(lptcra. Another species ofM alpighiaceae,

;v!astr1,'lJlirt psilopl~yllavar. t~ntifi'hrilis, today known a.~ Cltl!,teum ttnt[f'ebrilc (:~.nd also known by rbe syrionyms Btmisteria ttntfje/;riLis and Cobi ptlrru•mis) [Gate.~ 1986] W~lS reported as the 8asic ingn::dienr of an cntheogenic porion, bur was part of a mixed collccti.on containing a:lso Bmti.i'teriopsis material {Schultes 1957]. Like Diploptcrys t.1brertmt1, rhis species is also more properly considered to be ;tri1ong tl)'rthuascr.z admixture plant~; [Luna & Amaringo 1991}. One of the More obscure species of

Malpighiaccac reported ,to b1~ a basis f~r ~~y,rbtJttS('(l J~otior~s is L(1'hmtbc~fr Ul~tes­cms, abounvhich we lmow little >[Schultes 198(>b] . W idespread references m sctcn-

[1 5]

among the Ecuadori;Ul Z:\paro Indiai1s. Spruce correctly concluded that ctlltjJi, y11je and ayalmascawere kind red potions prepared from Btmistr:ria mapi, today kn~"~n m ore commonly as Rtnistcriopsis cac1pi [Gate~ 1982], and his detailed notes were published' posthumously [Spruce ] 908].

Subsequent research has confirmed Spruce's vision of a pan-Am azonian en­theogenic potion, the range of which he had personally e:;tablishcd from the east in the area of the Rio Negro in Brazil, west to the i~>othills of rht~ An de.~ in Am azon­ian Ecuador, and north to the Orinoco basin ofVcnczuela. In the 135 years since the pioneering report~ ~>f Spruce and Villa viccncio, the range of indigenous use of ayahtutsctl-typc potions has been extended we~;tward w the Pacific coastal areas of

~~olom?ia and Ecuador, ·~here it is used tinder the names pilck and daptt hy the Embcra :md Noanama Indians respectively. Such use is also f(mnd f~rther north, in coastal areas of Panama [Reichel-Dolmaroff 1960]. Ftirthcrmorc, this range ha!'· been extended g reatly to the south, where its w;c ha.~ been w idely documenr<.:d in Amazonian Peru and Bolivia [Andritsky 1988; &er 1969: B.-ier & Snell 1974: Dob­kin dcRios 1970a , l970b.I972,1973.1992; Friedberg l%5; Kensinger 1973: Kusel

l%5: Luna 1984a.1984b, 1991: Luna&Amaringo 1991: Rusby 1923: Siskind 1973; Weiss 197:3; \X.'hitt:~ 1n2] . Rather detailed information is available from careful study of irs usc in the Colombian Amazon [Bristol 1966; Briizzi 1962: C alella 19.35,1944a.1944b: Goldman 1%3: Koch-Gri.in bcrg 1909, 1923: Monon 1931: Reichel-Dolmatoff 1944.1%9. 1970.1972, 1975; Usdtegui 1959.1961]. We also have detailed inf(>rmation reg:uding indigenous USt' of rtyalmr/sat in Ecuador [Davis

&Yo.st 19S3; Harner 19Th 1973b.l973c.: Mades ctrlt'l988: Naranjo 1975.1979. ' 1983] and Br:rzil [Ducke 1957; Lowic 1946: Prance 1970; Prance & Prance 1970; Prance eta!. 1977].The great ethnobot:mist Richard Evans Schult(~s has clarified co nsider:tbly th,c picture of a_vahr~tJSta ethnobotany in m:llly derailed papers and superb books [Schultes 1957J98(Jb, 19S8; Schultes&; Hotinann 1980; Schult:es & Raf£1uf 1960. 1990, 1992). Over this immense r:mgc, Luna has enumerated at lenst

72 indig~nods groups reported to have mcd the potion [Luna 1986b] and has listed :n least ·~2 known autochthonous nam,:s J·or the drug [Luna 1986c]. The best bibliog raphies to f'J'ttlmtiJcrl compiled so .Ctr run to over 300 sources [Luna l986a;

Lun a &Amaringo ,1991] . ln thi~ book the name ,~J'ahuasc,r w ill be used in rc:fercnce

bod~ to t~~ major.source ph~t, •.&1~1i!terir'{'sis Olllj>i and to the cntheogenic potions prepared from dl!~ and rclaf'ed spcc1es of A.m:rwnian plants.

, The botany of ·~Y<'llnuisc.rJ potior~s hn$ be(;n confused by a plethora of scicnritlc names ;machcd to pbnt~ reportedly employed in making the jungle ambrosia. \XIhile most reports make J'cfc:rencc to Sf)rucc's Bani .• ·terioJm:f c,zapi, also commonly men-

I iunnl an: IJ. tll:f!.tii!M, B. htcbritms, n. Longinlrzttt, B. lutea, B. nltlrtiniantl, B. l?U'­

td!/irolar, B. mu~'iurta, B. quitmsisa nd B. rusbyantl [Schultes 1957.1986b]. Thanks 1 <, import:tnt nnd long-overdue raxonomic work by Bronwen Gates, the picture has !'!a rifled considerably. The most common "other" species of ayrthuasm, B. hrebrians :mJ B. quitensiJ·, arc ~oday regarded to be synonyms for B. ttwpi [Gates 1982]. St!ll :t~.n:prcd as "minor'' source-plants for a~vahru;s,~a are Btmistai,~psis muricrtttl (by far rite most widc.~pread species in the genus. fo r which B. mgmtM a nd B. rnt't~11ficolor arc two of thirty-nvo synonyms) and B. mrzrtiniana var. subenert.'itl (reported as 1~. Jthlrtiuianavar:.lacvis) [Davis&: Yt>sr 1 983; Garda Barriga 1975; Gates 1982,1986; .~chultes 1975]. T he former, under chc name mli or J'tl('/t;t ("w ild'') ~~y,tfmttstrl may he used as a weaker substitute h>r H. caapi by Witoto and \XT;lOran i Indians [Davis & Yost 1983] . although the \'VJor:~.ni use has been said to bt: )l tricdy.symbolic and no t pharmacologic [Miller 1993]. Add itional. &miste;·iopsisspccics considered by Schultes to be sources of 11.)'tthutlsca are B. lnngilflata and possibly B. futett [Schulte~ 198Gb] . Somt: species of Htmi5ttriopsis h:tve ethno medicinal uscs apart from these cntheogenic potions. B,mistcriopsi.r /ucidrt or c,~ji is us(·d in fishing magic in Vene­web [Boom & Moesd 1990] , while in Brazil B. ttrgyrop~ylltr root decoctioi1 is u~ed to treat kidney ailments [Schmcda Hirschm ann & De Arias 1990]. The widdy­rcported 11/misteriopJ·is rus~wma, today being classifleJ as Dif'loptcrys trthtcrrmtl l Gates 19861. is mo1:e precisely regarded as one of the principal r~ytii}T(asca additive

o r "admixture" plants, w hich will be treated in detail below. Early rt~pons by Spruce [1908] and Thcodor Koch-Griin?erg [ 19(~9, 1923] rna de

reference to diHerent "kinds" of tttttpi in the \f;mpcs, and Schultes found t hat the Makt.i Indians of the Br:wili:m Rio Tikie would prepare :1 cartpi-likc enrheogenic . potion from 1hrrl}'ft1'J.f mt:tl:~ystica, also in the same .Malpighiaceae family as Btm­i.:taiopsis [Schultes 1954a, l 957; Schultt·s & Raffauf I ~J90], and th e: KarapinJ In­dian.~ of chc C olombian RioApaporis simihrl.ypreparc an cntheogenic potion fro m T(·traptcrys mucrowtttt [Schultes & Raffauf 1')90]. Gates[ 19M(;] regarded :Tt:trapkr_vs methystf;,t to be synony1;1ous with T. s~y/(lptcra. Another species ofM alpighiaceae,

;v!astr1,'lJlirt psilopl~yllavar. t~ntifi'hrilis, today known a.~ Cltl!,teum ttnt[f'ebrilc (:~.nd also known by rbe syrionyms Btmisteria ttntfje/;riLis and Cobi ptlrru•mis) [Gate.~ 1986] W~lS reported as the 8asic ingn::dienr of an cntheogenic porion, bur was part of a mixed collccti.on containing a:lso Bmti.i'teriopsis material {Schultes 1957]. Like Diploptcrys t.1brertmt1, rhis species is also more properly considered to be ;tri1ong tl)'rthuascr.z admixture plant~; [Luna & Amaringo 1991}. One of the More obscure species of

Malpighiaccac reported ,to b1~ a basis f~r ~~y,rbtJttS('(l J~otior~s is L(1'hmtbc~fr Ul~tes­cms, abounvhich we lmow little >[Schultes 198(>b] . W idespread references m sctcn-

[1 5]

tif!c literature to Prestonia arruz;umim or Ha(:madictyon amazonicum a8

y11je are the

~·esult~ of :m u~fortu~late error, and rhere are no voucher specimens to supp ort the mclus10n of tlm spectes o f Apocynaceae in the ayabuascacomplex [Schultes & R:lt: £:mfl960] . Similar~y, Bmgman.;jrl species (which are important as ayahunsetl addi­nve plant~, as we wtll sec below) were wrongly stated by a missionary in the 1 890s to be the main ingred ient of an fl)'l11mascr; porion prepared by the E~:uadorian ''Ji­varo" h1dians (this is a pejorative name for Shu:tr Indiam and will not be used .in

this book) under the name 1ltlftmttl . This involved an unfortunate confus.ion be­tween mil;!.:oa, as the Shuar ~all the Brt~R,?r~t~mict spedt·~ (which they use in

1tyr7hwHc

11) ,

and nntt•:na o~ a.yt~htttlJca. The gen us.Aristoloc/Ji,twas pr:opo.sed in the identification of m atenal ot ~~y,t/mrm·,z studied by Colombian chemist G. Fischer Cirdenas, and this wild guess h:ls greatly confu~ed the sub.~cqucnr li terature [Schultes 1957].

In sumnury, a recent paper by Gates [1 98G], representing tht: mo.~t conservat ive sr:mce ( rhar is. a minimum of specil:.S) on the number ofmalpighiaceous p lants used as hases for ~~wdmmctl potions, acct~pted. the following species:

Ba11~ster~ops~s mflp:· [=H. inchriam. B. quitmsis]

Btmmt nojlm tmmtr1tfl [,H. a~~<'IIIM, B. metttllicolor, ctc.J ~al!ttcum tmtifi·ln'ile [ = CtbiptmttimiJ·, lvfruc'(~?liilj>Ji/ophJ'IItt] 7hmpttrys .r~y/Qptern [ = .7.' mdhy>ticlt]

M ore liberal analysi$ of the literature would also i;Kludc: the following species reported as source.pbnts f<)r ayalmasm potions and accepted by G:~tcs as valid taxa:

Banistaiop.ris longitd,7ti1 [ "'Btmistt:1·i,t rushymta] Brmi.l'teriop:.is lute a r = BaniJ'UI'iopsJ.,· nif't'OJiodom] Bllnislf•riopJi.r mttrtinian,iv:u. mhencrvitt[=B. mtJrtinimut var. lu·;Jii] J:oph,mtbt'1'tl lattcscms

· Tht'tljJttrys mut'ronrUtl

As we will ~cc in C hapter T\vo .. the.~e spt cics ofl\.,blpighiacc:tt~ are tht~ !>Ourc.:es of che harmine~typct·mymc: inhibitors importan t in ,~yahtias(l(ph;u·macology, and known to chcnu m as the ~-carboline :dka.loids.

Bmuj·teriopsi.,. map/ is a .Iiana which grows in Am azonian lowland rainforests. It

~~ found as ~tr sc~u th as ~ol~\'ia, and as f~r norrh as Venezuela and .Panam:l. It grows 111 Arnazom an ColomlHa, Ecuador. PcrLt and Brazil, a nd e.5c:tpcd over the Andes to :-:oa:~~ Ecuador. Ir~asmud1 as it is widdyyrop~lgat'cd by cuttings for cultivation, it

.t.~ drf'hcul~ to establish ;t natur;tl range .. "\.m azonian groups recognize various "kinds" of IJ)'•tlma.~·,,., wirhi~1 ~he hotanicnl (~JtH:epc B. ~~rapi, aJld tht:se doubtlcs!> rcprc.~ent clon~s w~ud~ are d~~tlu~t ch~n~ical races of the plant [Gates 1982; Schultes 1986a]. Bamstcrwpsts mwu1ztr1 ts a vu11ng shrub or Iiana \vhich has the largest range of any

[16]

:.p1 · 1 · i ~..:s in thl' g~:nu.~ . Ir grows as far north a.'l southern Mexico,_ and as far south as 1\ r~·.•: nrina, both i~ trop~cal :ainf(n·e,~t and in ~emidecidu~us:f~rest [~Jte~,l?82]. /l,miiltriopsis Longutlata ts a kma whrch grows 111 the Andt.s of .c.olombl:l, I, eru and ''olivia: B. futea is a vine growing in Argentina, Paraguay, Bohvra and Peru. ex ten­'l in~ ro the east th roughout Brazil: and B. martinimu1 v_,ar. subt~z~n'itlis a. ~ian a from rropical rainforests of Amazoni:m Brazil, PerLt and Colombr,l. · ~xtendmg to the

upper Orinoco in Venezuela [Gates 1982]. TetntptcryJ Jty!optn:l1S a bush ~nov~n frnm the Colombian A m azon [Schultes & Raffauf 1990) ; and Ctdlaeum rmtifelmle i~ : a Iiana from Amazonian Per{t [Gates 1986; Schultes & Raff~lllf 1990]. .

Ordinarily, ayahuasca potion~ con."Sist of aqueous infusions ~)r dccocri~ns from wild or cultivated Iiana.~ of Bnnistcriopsis trwpi and related spenes. T here 1s scanty ~: v.idcnce for the use of H.misteriopsi.r species in South American ent:hc.~ogenic snuffs 1 Bernauer 1% 4: Holmst:cdt & Lindgren 1967: Ott 199 :3~1, and unconfirmed reports

of rhc usc of Bttnisteriop.~is infusions as a dyste::r or enema [DeSmet 1983,19_k5; Em­hodcn 1979: Furst 1976: Furst & Co~: 1 977]. Schulres also found that rhc Wttoto In-. dians o f Amazonian Colombia at times smoke dried leaves and "young bark" of Rmistcriopsis c.wpi, wrapped into cigarettes with leaves of an unidemi6ed .Hi:lictmia :ipecies [Schultes 1985b]. Nevertheless, by fa.r the most common use of ll)lll!JUtl.fca potions is by the oral route of administration. . . .

In tbe preparation of r~ytlflltasctT potions, whole stem!i, longltltdmally s:ctJOned ~ tems, ste rn shavings or pounded stems of the source lianas ar.e cxrracted '.n water. Sometimes, as among the Ii.tkano of the Colotnhian V.lllpes, preces of t~c lranas are macerated in a mortar, allowed to :)tnnd with cold water, then srratncd before ingest ing the cold-w:m~r infusion [Reichel-Dolmaroff l 970]. !hili sort of :'instant ayalma,,·crl ''is appealing in its simplicity, and we wil! recall that S~ruce clc.~cnbed .rhe. Guab.ibo Indians chewing dried r~:valmtlJCf1 Stl, !llS ltke tobacco [Schultes & Raffaut 1992]. The simibr pracri~e ofsimply knca.ding the li:ma t:ar~ in col~ water l~:ls been said co be the most common means of ,~ytl/JunJt'ftpreparatwn m the ColomhtanAm­azon [Schultes & Raffau f 1992]. The phnts may also he extracted with h~r w~ter to prepare cnthcogenic potions. In some cases, for example_ among t:hc Cas~lma­hua; Sharanahua and Culina Ind ians in the Rfo PurLtS area ol· Amazontan Peru. t~e plant m atter is heated in watt:r for ahout an hour, 11l tcred , cooled and su~manly drunk [Dcr Mardcrosian l'f al. 1970; Rivier ~·Lindgren 1972]. In i\rn;w.oman Ec-· mldor and ncarbv areas of northern Per(t, there is a tendency to boil the plant m atter in water for a pr~longed period. At times the water may he boiled down, decanted. more water d;cn added, flmher boiling fo llowed by filtration and then prolonged simm ering of th(: filtrate to concentrate it, with a total of 10- 15 hours cooking.timc

[17]

tif!c literature to Prestonia arruz;umim or Ha(:madictyon amazonicum a8

y11je are the

~·esult~ of :m u~fortu~late error, and rhere are no voucher specimens to supp ort the mclus10n of tlm spectes o f Apocynaceae in the ayabuascacomplex [Schultes & R:lt: £:mfl960] . Similar~y, Bmgman.;jrl species (which are important as ayahunsetl addi­nve plant~, as we wtll sec below) were wrongly stated by a missionary in the 1 890s to be the main ingred ient of an fl)'l11mascr; porion prepared by the E~:uadorian ''Ji­varo" h1dians (this is a pejorative name for Shu:tr Indiam and will not be used .in

this book) under the name 1ltlftmttl . This involved an unfortunate confus.ion be­tween mil;!.:oa, as the Shuar ~all the Brt~R,?r~t~mict spedt·~ (which they use in

1tyr7hwHc

11) ,

and nntt•:na o~ a.yt~htttlJca. The gen us.Aristoloc/Ji,twas pr:opo.sed in the identification of m atenal ot ~~y,t/mrm·,z studied by Colombian chemist G. Fischer Cirdenas, and this wild guess h:ls greatly confu~ed the sub.~cqucnr li terature [Schultes 1957].

In sumnury, a recent paper by Gates [1 98G], representing tht: mo.~t conservat ive sr:mce ( rhar is. a minimum of specil:.S) on the number ofmalpighiaceous p lants used as hases for ~~wdmmctl potions, acct~pted. the following species:

Ba11~ster~ops~s mflp:· [=H. inchriam. B. quitmsis]

Btmmt nojlm tmmtr1tfl [,H. a~~<'IIIM, B. metttllicolor, ctc.J ~al!ttcum tmtifi·ln'ile [ = CtbiptmttimiJ·, lvfruc'(~?liilj>Ji/ophJ'IItt] 7hmpttrys .r~y/Qptern [ = .7.' mdhy>ticlt]

M ore liberal analysi$ of the literature would also i;Kludc: the following species reported as source.pbnts f<)r ayalmasm potions and accepted by G:~tcs as valid taxa:

Banistaiop.ris longitd,7ti1 [ "'Btmistt:1·i,t rushymta] Brmi.l'teriop:.is lute a r = BaniJ'UI'iopsJ.,· nif't'OJiodom] Bllnislf•riopJi.r mttrtinian,iv:u. mhencrvitt[=B. mtJrtinimut var. lu·;Jii] J:oph,mtbt'1'tl lattcscms

· Tht'tljJttrys mut'ronrUtl

As we will ~cc in C hapter T\vo .. the.~e spt cics ofl\.,blpighiacc:tt~ are tht~ !>Ourc.:es of che harmine~typct·mymc: inhibitors importan t in ,~yahtias(l(ph;u·macology, and known to chcnu m as the ~-carboline :dka.loids.

Bmuj·teriopsi.,. map/ is a .Iiana which grows in Am azonian lowland rainforests. It

~~ found as ~tr sc~u th as ~ol~\'ia, and as f~r norrh as Venezuela and .Panam:l. It grows 111 Arnazom an ColomlHa, Ecuador. PcrLt and Brazil, a nd e.5c:tpcd over the Andes to :-:oa:~~ Ecuador. Ir~asmud1 as it is widdyyrop~lgat'cd by cuttings for cultivation, it

.t.~ drf'hcul~ to establish ;t natur;tl range .. "\.m azonian groups recognize various "kinds" of IJ)'•tlma.~·,,., wirhi~1 ~he hotanicnl (~JtH:epc B. ~~rapi, aJld tht:se doubtlcs!> rcprc.~ent clon~s w~ud~ are d~~tlu~t ch~n~ical races of the plant [Gates 1982; Schultes 1986a]. Bamstcrwpsts mwu1ztr1 ts a vu11ng shrub or Iiana \vhich has the largest range of any

[16]

:.p1 · 1 · i ~..:s in thl' g~:nu.~ . Ir grows as far north a.'l southern Mexico,_ and as far south as 1\ r~·.•: nrina, both i~ trop~cal :ainf(n·e,~t and in ~emidecidu~us:f~rest [~Jte~,l?82]. /l,miiltriopsis Longutlata ts a kma whrch grows 111 the Andt.s of .c.olombl:l, I, eru and ''olivia: B. futea is a vine growing in Argentina, Paraguay, Bohvra and Peru. ex ten­'l in~ ro the east th roughout Brazil: and B. martinimu1 v_,ar. subt~z~n'itlis a. ~ian a from rropical rainforests of Amazoni:m Brazil, PerLt and Colombr,l. · ~xtendmg to the

upper Orinoco in Venezuela [Gates 1982]. TetntptcryJ Jty!optn:l1S a bush ~nov~n frnm the Colombian A m azon [Schultes & Raffauf 1990) ; and Ctdlaeum rmtifelmle i~ : a Iiana from Amazonian Per{t [Gates 1986; Schultes & Raff~lllf 1990]. .

Ordinarily, ayahuasca potion~ con."Sist of aqueous infusions ~)r dccocri~ns from wild or cultivated Iiana.~ of Bnnistcriopsis trwpi and related spenes. T here 1s scanty ~: v.idcnce for the use of H.misteriopsi.r species in South American ent:hc.~ogenic snuffs 1 Bernauer 1% 4: Holmst:cdt & Lindgren 1967: Ott 199 :3~1, and unconfirmed reports

of rhc usc of Bttnisteriop.~is infusions as a dyste::r or enema [DeSmet 1983,19_k5; Em­hodcn 1979: Furst 1976: Furst & Co~: 1 977]. Schulres also found that rhc Wttoto In-. dians o f Amazonian Colombia at times smoke dried leaves and "young bark" of Rmistcriopsis c.wpi, wrapped into cigarettes with leaves of an unidemi6ed .Hi:lictmia :ipecies [Schultes 1985b]. Nevertheless, by fa.r the most common use of ll)lll!JUtl.fca potions is by the oral route of administration. . . .

In tbe preparation of r~ytlflltasctT potions, whole stem!i, longltltdmally s:ctJOned ~ tems, ste rn shavings or pounded stems of the source lianas ar.e cxrracted '.n water. Sometimes, as among the Ii.tkano of the Colotnhian V.lllpes, preces of t~c lranas are macerated in a mortar, allowed to :)tnnd with cold water, then srratncd before ingest ing the cold-w:m~r infusion [Reichel-Dolmaroff l 970]. !hili sort of :'instant ayalma,,·crl ''is appealing in its simplicity, and we wil! recall that S~ruce clc.~cnbed .rhe. Guab.ibo Indians chewing dried r~:valmtlJCf1 Stl, !llS ltke tobacco [Schultes & Raffaut 1992]. The simibr pracri~e ofsimply knca.ding the li:ma t:ar~ in col~ water l~:ls been said co be the most common means of ,~ytl/JunJt'ftpreparatwn m the ColomhtanAm­azon [Schultes & Raffau f 1992]. The phnts may also he extracted with h~r w~ter to prepare cnthcogenic potions. In some cases, for example_ among t:hc Cas~lma­hua; Sharanahua and Culina Ind ians in the Rfo PurLtS area ol· Amazontan Peru. t~e plant m atter is heated in watt:r for ahout an hour, 11l tcred , cooled and su~manly drunk [Dcr Mardcrosian l'f al. 1970; Rivier ~·Lindgren 1972]. In i\rn;w.oman Ec-· mldor and ncarbv areas of northern Per(t, there is a tendency to boil the plant m atter in water for a pr~longed period. At times the water may he boiled down, decanted. more water d;cn added, flmher boiling fo llowed by filtration and then prolonged simm ering of th(: filtrate to concentrate it, with a total of 10- 15 hours cooking.timc

[17]

[McKennat'taL 1984aJ Thisproc•·d . · . .d . · · · ... lU e 1scons1 cnblvn . 1 Ctded}y notcnergy-eftlcient w· ,., 'f" h . . ' '. lOte CUm )CrSOillC and de-

. H c eatmg would b" d l traction of the /l llllhll'""l -'k-' .. d . . c;: expecte to en lance the ex-

:,r "'·"·' ;.u ;uOI s tnto water the · ·d h he. ating leads. as would be exp . d d. . . d ~e IS ev! ence t at the pr.olongcd

d . . ecte ' to cgra atton of some of h . . . .

poun s. Harmalmc forex:lnl I h' I . . . t e .lCtLve c.om-. ' . pe.w .lClJsantmporcant~ d -- 'k·' ·J • tsterionsis lian:.ts -md .1PP '"t·s t. 1. . f' I. · econ a1y at <uoJu of Brm-

:r · " · · ~: .. · o oe one o n e mo~a· , . · " , . . . . plants, sct:rns to be largely orcomplet-'1 'd . . '·db .. tcme enz~rme-mhtbJtors 111 the

h e Y estrov<: ythehe·ltmgpro · . .11 ~ee w en we discus•> awrhttn. . }· . ' · , · ce.ss, as we WI • • • J ... ,(:r/ p 1armacognosy.

The resultmg <'£Jia/Jww·,r brews are in "' . d . ·I . context. \'V'hile it has been sugg, J h· . f,J..:st.c I.n a .~ lamanJc or ethnomedicinal

h ' · csteo t at t 1e potiOn.~ may 0 . · ..

c e.· motherapv ag· ainst parasitic V"o· rr [o d f !. t. unpoi t.mt as a sort of ' · · '' ns f\.CI r gucz eta 1982] b , f: 1 ·

portan t use of ,,v,rhua~ctt is a<· \" ll·lt l 1 II . . ' } art l e most •m-:.r ·' " ·v • .una astute y ca e 1 " l· . ·h ,.

f,tlilsm plant and potion is itself th t, ·h, . f' h (.a. p .lil t teac er -the 11J'rl-

1,)u 't.] . 1 c cac t:r o t e a.~ptrtng sham;l [L . Jt)u ' . . o4o . Accordmglv, ft1Whua rc z t' , f . .. . . n un.l .. o'l.t, f. ' J • .. t ~ o p.u,unounr Jffii)Ort·mc, 1 • . . .

o J neophyte paw! or shaman I . ·I· .. . I r • ~tn t lt: .tppre·nrtces.IHp 1 • . <• • • • n pre JteJ .tte cu cures, the sh· J'J h .

.fJilmm ( who conl'umcs nH::dt·c· ") . . I 1. am an, .I ce t e Aztec J· . . me mgests t 1c p 1arnncoth 1 1· rm,mum, 111 order to learn hom tl .. " I ' ". . con. t le tw'atcnmcmttm

. H!> P ant teacner the Cluse of tl • d' h appropnatc therapy and the . . . I . . . ' H: 1sease. t c kn

, prognosJs. t l.~ prt·cisdv ·ts a. .. I f' l· d' . owledge conferred on the h . 1, b I . I· . . , . . Jcsu t o t Je Ivtnc

d d . e.u: r y t le p .tnt teacher that such . . . . .

regar e to be a siJamt~n [from 1i . . . . · ·' practJttoncr ts . " · ungLL~l::tll Ullllt11l] j'Jil" l ) ' ll'h . i\{ I cz-ne- one who knows" [Ott 1993]. . J . • ' . ·'lJ· or I azatec cno-tfl-

In the c·1sc of th }> • t • c eruvtan ttyanuasqtu!1'0S, the h . J . . . supernarur:ll melodies, from the. plant (Giove 199~ . ~m,l~l a s~ }nay le;un rmros, s~ggestcd that the iatros are svn:csthetka.ll! . , .. · . - · .· un.t 19~ha, 198~!~]. It was Iter 1986; Gt.:bhart-Saver l98G· S. ·k · ·I l <>7) 3t]ratilsmogr If1e~ t~)la~mtlSCfl. vtstons [Bel-. · · · • IS lll< .. · ' m:1ges den • d f · . /.· · tons areaprominentfeatureofA.n .. ·. . . . ,_ .. . \e tom ,:~yr1 1UtlJii1 vt~-J1)7ti] Th·· . . . I 1azonJ .man[l~1chel-D()lmarofflC)71 19T> 197') ·.: . . • '- magicalmclodtes and tlYfllmasctt-ins ired ·ut , . ·h . ' ... . ~. . . '

effects of the .,0 tion it ·If , ., 1· n-h ·P • ,.tsmu< .. :l.~dwcnrheogt:nic

r SC , .He t lOU&',( to leJd t " f . . considered to be vital to t·h l . I' . . • ~ an J~.S t lt:ttc frame of mind''

e l <'.l mg proccs~-musrc . d . . h ~ Sayer 198.6]! The lovelv t'lttoo• . ·:1 1• · d · . · .m · •11 t :'ls t · erap. y [ <.JCbhan-

. • , ,, .m( oo y nauu used bv ·1 I represent "he·11thy'" . , · . f h · ·r · ·• s tam~ms are t 1ougrlu to

. • v.cnwns o t e patten .. :J . ·I J "h· . of the patient. Diffe rent illnesses I , .. :it· .. ~ s ~\.ll<.:d~ t 1C ~ .tm.an Clll s<:~e on the Ilk in

. . • Co< o specmc JStOrtion. I h I h I . and ayahunsca.is a 'pot<~nt aid fi>t· the ·I , I • • " . • • .~ Ill t le eat y < es1gns, . . · . ~ l.un.tn tn r(••JauHmg tl , · h nng health[Luna l99'J 19<)'1] s· '1. . . L • '. ·r: . . le patrcnt, t l.lii rcsto-

. •. w• . .. ·' .• lint 0 1 a:~tnertdth ' . > • 'd 1'1 ' ancient Mexican shamanic heali;l r R . ·I . . . er.lpcuttc I .eas 1 <ely prevailed in "in tlowcrih s(~rig"-wa~ ·~met' h h· .c orclt1c at.IlCJent ~\zters . m x6tbitl h: ruimtl-i ,. • 1 • .tp orror H; ent leo'•emc st:. ret · ' 1 " ] < ream of the <'h'Jtnatl/})t'l·e-r d. . . l t> " I ermcxoco, r le 1· owe.ty ·' • · .) cx:pressc · u t · ·'f. 1z· ' , . . . l I ecpr :<1to~, r, a SJcred language ofshaman!i

[1 8]

N,\TIJH/11. H l \'1 ( l({Y (I)' ;\ i ';\ 1 IIJASI :,\

·' r11l[ ,ocrs. the d ivi ndy-in.~pircd f<,g(}J, oracular speech of the thaumaturge inebriated h)' ~·nrhcogenic plants, depicted visually as "speech scrolls" with appended Howers'

1

I ( ;;icxn:~ 1984; Le6n Portilla 1961; Ortfzde Montellano 1990]. Naturally such div­

indy- in!'pired sound would be thought to have healing properties.

AY.4liUASG4 ADJ\.UXTlJRE PLANTS

i\lchough there is s_ome evidence for the use of straight ,rytlfJI(asca-infusions em­ploying Btmistt'riopsis tllllf'~ (or a relat(:d species) by irsclf-by far the most common practice is the brewing of potions containing otht~r plants in addition to the &m­isteriopsis base. These rrytthwzsctt :1dditives or ;H.! mixtures were recently characteri­.,Kd aptly as a "traditional pha.rmacopo:da" [McKenna et af. 1986], and indeed. some 117 species in :~9 families have been reported as ayalmasca additives, many of them an; potent entheogens in their own rig;ht. and a good many are known sources of hiodynamic compounds. The reported r~yabumctz admixtures arc listed in 'Itble 1, and several categories of these w ill be discussed in som e detail. Basically, the many ~~yahutJSctr admixtures may be brokt·n down into three broad categories, each to be discussed in turn: 1) non-psychoactive and presumably therapeutic Jdditivcs; 2) sti­mulants; and 3) enthcogens or v isionary drugs. Since my f(>cus is cntheogenic use

of aytdma..rett, the last category will be given by far the gteatest attention. Therapeutic Additives: This is the most nebulous category of ttyahJ/tJ.SCO :lddi­

tives. and is a sort of catch-all to explain, t()r the nonce. the many non-psychoactive (~o far as is known) and pharmaco logically-obscure :~dmixture plants, all of which are not likely to be entheogenic. I conjecture that ayahrwsctt, like the: ancient lvkx icJn l'llcdhuad potion based on an aqueous infusion of cacao beans (T!JI.'obrormz cacno), represents a sort of all-purpose })harmacological vehicle. In ancienr Mexico, cacao potions were used as a basis f(.>r cntheogenic l~ylmms con raining psilocybi:m mush­rooms and. other inchri:uing plants, as I showed in my book on the subject [Ott 198 5]. Such ·potions were also used for rhe administration of a great many other

me<licinaJ plants wit:h a more specific therapeutic purpose. as evt~n a cursory exam­ination of Francisco H ernandez's Mexican plant pharmacopreia will show [Herntin­dez, 1651]. I s1:1spec:t that many of the admixtures to r~yrllmrtsca muse h:we a specific therapeutic rationale, and are added to ·~1'ahwlmt, the~ queen of planr medicines, to enhance their efftcacy, whether by a specific pharmacological m eans, or simply by association with the molit powerful healing magic known. A n:·ct:nt paper examined the biodynamic ingredients of this "traditional pharmacop<~ia," concluding that

[19]

[McKennat'taL 1984aJ Thisproc•·d . · . .d . · · · ... lU e 1scons1 cnblvn . 1 Ctded}y notcnergy-eftlcient w· ,., 'f" h . . ' '. lOte CUm )CrSOillC and de-

. H c eatmg would b" d l traction of the /l llllhll'""l -'k-' .. d . . c;: expecte to en lance the ex-

:,r "'·"·' ;.u ;uOI s tnto water the · ·d h he. ating leads. as would be exp . d d. . . d ~e IS ev! ence t at the pr.olongcd

d . . ecte ' to cgra atton of some of h . . . .

poun s. Harmalmc forex:lnl I h' I . . . t e .lCtLve c.om-. ' . pe.w .lClJsantmporcant~ d -- 'k·' ·J • tsterionsis lian:.ts -md .1PP '"t·s t. 1. . f' I. · econ a1y at <uoJu of Brm-

:r · " · · ~: .. · o oe one o n e mo~a· , . · " , . . . . plants, sct:rns to be largely orcomplet-'1 'd . . '·db .. tcme enz~rme-mhtbJtors 111 the

h e Y estrov<: ythehe·ltmgpro · . .11 ~ee w en we discus•> awrhttn. . }· . ' · , · ce.ss, as we WI • • • J ... ,(:r/ p 1armacognosy.

The resultmg <'£Jia/Jww·,r brews are in "' . d . ·I . context. \'V'hile it has been sugg, J h· . f,J..:st.c I.n a .~ lamanJc or ethnomedicinal

h ' · csteo t at t 1e potiOn.~ may 0 . · ..

c e.· motherapv ag· ainst parasitic V"o· rr [o d f !. t. unpoi t.mt as a sort of ' · · '' ns f\.CI r gucz eta 1982] b , f: 1 ·

portan t use of ,,v,rhua~ctt is a<· \" ll·lt l 1 II . . ' } art l e most •m-:.r ·' " ·v • .una astute y ca e 1 " l· . ·h ,.

f,tlilsm plant and potion is itself th t, ·h, . f' h (.a. p .lil t teac er -the 11J'rl-

1,)u 't.] . 1 c cac t:r o t e a.~ptrtng sham;l [L . Jt)u ' . . o4o . Accordmglv, ft1Whua rc z t' , f . .. . . n un.l .. o'l.t, f. ' J • .. t ~ o p.u,unounr Jffii)Ort·mc, 1 • . . .

o J neophyte paw! or shaman I . ·I· .. . I r • ~tn t lt: .tppre·nrtces.IHp 1 • . <• • • • n pre JteJ .tte cu cures, the sh· J'J h .

.fJilmm ( who conl'umcs nH::dt·c· ") . . I 1. am an, .I ce t e Aztec J· . . me mgests t 1c p 1arnncoth 1 1· rm,mum, 111 order to learn hom tl .. " I ' ". . con. t le tw'atcnmcmttm

. H!> P ant teacner the Cluse of tl • d' h appropnatc therapy and the . . . I . . . ' H: 1sease. t c kn

, prognosJs. t l.~ prt·cisdv ·ts a. .. I f' l· d' . owledge conferred on the h . 1, b I . I· . . , . . Jcsu t o t Je Ivtnc

d d . e.u: r y t le p .tnt teacher that such . . . . .

regar e to be a siJamt~n [from 1i . . . . · ·' practJttoncr ts . " · ungLL~l::tll Ullllt11l] j'Jil" l ) ' ll'h . i\{ I cz-ne- one who knows" [Ott 1993]. . J . • ' . ·'lJ· or I azatec cno-tfl-

In the c·1sc of th }> • t • c eruvtan ttyanuasqtu!1'0S, the h . J . . . supernarur:ll melodies, from the. plant (Giove 199~ . ~m,l~l a s~ }nay le;un rmros, s~ggestcd that the iatros are svn:csthetka.ll! . , .. · . - · .· un.t 19~ha, 198~!~]. It was Iter 1986; Gt.:bhart-Saver l98G· S. ·k · ·I l <>7) 3t]ratilsmogr If1e~ t~)la~mtlSCfl. vtstons [Bel-. · · · • IS lll< .. · ' m:1ges den • d f · . /.· · tons areaprominentfeatureofA.n .. ·. . . . ,_ .. . \e tom ,:~yr1 1UtlJii1 vt~-J1)7ti] Th·· . . . I 1azonJ .man[l~1chel-D()lmarofflC)71 19T> 197') ·.: . . • '- magicalmclodtes and tlYfllmasctt-ins ired ·ut , . ·h . ' ... . ~. . . '

effects of the .,0 tion it ·If , ., 1· n-h ·P • ,.tsmu< .. :l.~dwcnrheogt:nic

r SC , .He t lOU&',( to leJd t " f . . considered to be vital to t·h l . I' . . • ~ an J~.S t lt:ttc frame of mind''

e l <'.l mg proccs~-musrc . d . . h ~ Sayer 198.6]! The lovelv t'lttoo• . ·:1 1• · d · . · .m · •11 t :'ls t · erap. y [ <.JCbhan-

. • , ,, .m( oo y nauu used bv ·1 I represent "he·11thy'" . , · . f h · ·r · ·• s tam~ms are t 1ougrlu to

. • v.cnwns o t e patten .. :J . ·I J "h· . of the patient. Diffe rent illnesses I , .. :it· .. ~ s ~\.ll<.:d~ t 1C ~ .tm.an Clll s<:~e on the Ilk in

. . • Co< o specmc JStOrtion. I h I h I . and ayahunsca.is a 'pot<~nt aid fi>t· the ·I , I • • " . • • .~ Ill t le eat y < es1gns, . . · . ~ l.un.tn tn r(••JauHmg tl , · h nng health[Luna l99'J 19<)'1] s· '1. . . L • '. ·r: . . le patrcnt, t l.lii rcsto-

. •. w• . .. ·' .• lint 0 1 a:~tnertdth ' . > • 'd 1'1 ' ancient Mexican shamanic heali;l r R . ·I . . . er.lpcuttc I .eas 1 <ely prevailed in "in tlowcrih s(~rig"-wa~ ·~met' h h· .c orclt1c at.IlCJent ~\zters . m x6tbitl h: ruimtl-i ,. • 1 • .tp orror H; ent leo'•emc st:. ret · ' 1 " ] < ream of the <'h'Jtnatl/})t'l·e-r d. . . l t> " I ermcxoco, r le 1· owe.ty ·' • · .) cx:pressc · u t · ·'f. 1z· ' , . . . l I ecpr :<1to~, r, a SJcred language ofshaman!i

[1 8]

N,\TIJH/11. H l \'1 ( l({Y (I)' ;\ i ';\ 1 IIJASI :,\

·' r11l[ ,ocrs. the d ivi ndy-in.~pircd f<,g(}J, oracular speech of the thaumaturge inebriated h)' ~·nrhcogenic plants, depicted visually as "speech scrolls" with appended Howers'

1

I ( ;;icxn:~ 1984; Le6n Portilla 1961; Ortfzde Montellano 1990]. Naturally such div­

indy- in!'pired sound would be thought to have healing properties.

AY.4liUASG4 ADJ\.UXTlJRE PLANTS

i\lchough there is s_ome evidence for the use of straight ,rytlfJI(asca-infusions em­ploying Btmistt'riopsis tllllf'~ (or a relat(:d species) by irsclf-by far the most common practice is the brewing of potions containing otht~r plants in addition to the &m­isteriopsis base. These rrytthwzsctt :1dditives or ;H.! mixtures were recently characteri­.,Kd aptly as a "traditional pha.rmacopo:da" [McKenna et af. 1986], and indeed. some 117 species in :~9 families have been reported as ayalmasca additives, many of them an; potent entheogens in their own rig;ht. and a good many are known sources of hiodynamic compounds. The reported r~yabumctz admixtures arc listed in 'Itble 1, and several categories of these w ill be discussed in som e detail. Basically, the many ~~yahutJSctr admixtures may be brokt·n down into three broad categories, each to be discussed in turn: 1) non-psychoactive and presumably therapeutic Jdditivcs; 2) sti­mulants; and 3) enthcogens or v isionary drugs. Since my f(>cus is cntheogenic use

of aytdma..rett, the last category will be given by far the gteatest attention. Therapeutic Additives: This is the most nebulous category of ttyahJ/tJ.SCO :lddi­

tives. and is a sort of catch-all to explain, t()r the nonce. the many non-psychoactive (~o far as is known) and pharmaco logically-obscure :~dmixture plants, all of which are not likely to be entheogenic. I conjecture that ayahrwsctt, like the: ancient lvkx icJn l'llcdhuad potion based on an aqueous infusion of cacao beans (T!JI.'obrormz cacno), represents a sort of all-purpose })harmacological vehicle. In ancienr Mexico, cacao potions were used as a basis f(.>r cntheogenic l~ylmms con raining psilocybi:m mush­rooms and. other inchri:uing plants, as I showed in my book on the subject [Ott 198 5]. Such ·potions were also used for rhe administration of a great many other

me<licinaJ plants wit:h a more specific therapeutic purpose. as evt~n a cursory exam­ination of Francisco H ernandez's Mexican plant pharmacopreia will show [Herntin­dez, 1651]. I s1:1spec:t that many of the admixtures to r~yrllmrtsca muse h:we a specific therapeutic rationale, and are added to ·~1'ahwlmt, the~ queen of planr medicines, to enhance their efftcacy, whether by a specific pharmacological m eans, or simply by association with the molit powerful healing magic known. A n:·ct:nt paper examined the biodynamic ingredients of this "traditional pharmacop<~ia," concluding that

[19]

.t\ yAH l!i\SC;\ A N t\(.( l(; lJ ES

many of the plants containedpharrnacologically-activc constituents (or belonged to genera or hmilies containing such), bur whose pharmacological rationale as r~}'/1-butrsctl admixture.~ was a "complete mystery'' [McKenna et ,tL 1986]. Even more mysterio tLnvcrc the numerous ~yn/mllsctladmixtures f01·which we have no chemic;u

d:tta whatever. I agree with the aurhors that this category of admixture plants holds great potenti;J interest for we~tern science, and I expect further research will show

that some of the unknown phuns are psychoactive, while others have more specific therapeutic effC.·cts. The her. that .Amazonian .shanuns are known ro bio:~ssay unfa­miliar pbnrs in self-experiments by adding r.hem to tryahuamt [Miller 1993; Mont­gomery 1992] . or by "examining'' them while und(~J' irs influence [Bristol 1966] gives me further confidence in a specific phyrothcrapeut'ic dimmsion oftl)'ttlmtt>tfl. A recen t rcvit:w disclosed that four of rhe fi ve mo.~c common anti-rheumatic plant

medicines in Am u.zoniaare known ayal>uaJca additives: A!cl>orncrt tt7SttmcijrJ!irt: Hnm­Jf'Liifl f!"llrzdijlom subsp. srlmltNii; lv!tms01t alliruett and 1\.{aytmu.r C'/;enifblitt fPrancc & Kallunki 1984]. T heir use in ll)'ltburum must be therap~uric and n<;n-visionary.

Stimulants: As we will see in Chapters 1\vo and T hree. plain infusions of tlYfl­hrMsrl1 have pronounced soporific or sedative effccr~. and it is rhereftwc not >urp;·is­ing r.hat p lants containing known stimulants bave been r:eporrcd as :1ddirivt~s to « Yil­

huttsctl, "to give strt:ngrh to de·al with tryalmtiJC(t" [Schulte:; & Raff:tuf 1990) . The

most widely reported stimulant additive to ay:t!JUasctt is gu'7)'1i.'tl, the leaves of llo: gttttyusa fShemluck 1979). The .Shuar. Run a :~nd Quijos Q ui chua Indians of Ecua­dor add leaves of this traditiunal stimulant to a_yahutl.fCtl [Furst 1976; Ki)hn 1992; Ott 1993: Russo 1992: Schultes L972h: Schultes & R1ff.1uf1990] . ]esuit missions grew commercial pbnratiom ofp,UriJ•usa in the colonial period. and ther:t~ i~ a 17th century report of addinggu,~ymrr to a potion containing Brurrn,msiaand NitoJrima species. be.~ ides Bm1istaiopsis [Schultes 197% ]. Guayma i~ a close relative of the t:l­

mous South A merican srimul.ant mnte(or mtttrl; IJ.~v:p~ll<l87f<triemis. also known scien-6flcally :ts l JH1rt~~7ft~vensis or 1 pat({{Ut'nsi.r) :md of the North American ~timulanr. yrmpon (llcx tJOmitoriJt.). Like 1. .rml;igutl, these species conraln cafl:e inc. and leave.~ of a Shuar strain ofl gur~yusa were recently dwwn to contain 7.6% cafi:Cine, making this by br the most potent caHcine-containing plane known [Bohinc N td. 1977: Lewi.~ et rrl. 199 1; Power & Chestnut 1.919]. llmpon \vasreportcdly used as an "hal-l . " " · I . " N h A . ~h k :1 ucmogt~n to cvo 'e l:CStasit:s among orr , mencan C . ero ·ee Inc ians, who. lil<c their Shuar coumerparrs, used strong infusions of !Ic-c leaves to induce ceremon­ial vomiting for purific::l~ion fH~md & C hiltoskey 1975: Lewis et ttl. 199l].

Similarly, thci\maw nialt stimubnt_J,oco or Ptm{fjnifl_)loco, a caffeine-containing relative of rhe famous Brazilian caHi:~inc-plant,fWlrtlmi (nu4.llinirJ cuprmavar. sor/.Jilis)

[201

llln1111:tn I <>H2; Slhulte~ 1912. 1986a; Schultes & Rafflllf 1992] was recently re­pon ed :1!' an ,~,,,dmtrsca additive among the Colombian Siona lnd!ans [Lan?~on

I ( IH(. J .. rhis important Amazonian stimuhnt is unique among caff~mc-.contam~ng .ln rl' ~ in that the bark, rather than the Ie..wes. is the part extracted for Its htgh c:lffcme , , .n.r-'r.: nt [Schultes 1942, 198Ga.1987; Schultes & R:tfb~f 1992]. By the same token,

I \ ·nr vi an Campa and Colombian Barasanalndians may rake ayubu11sm with coc~tine-• <>IH:rining le:1ves of Erythr()).ylum toatvar. ipadtl [Holmstedt ettd 1978_; Schu~res I 'IX 1: \Vilberr. 1987] . In these cases. too, the rationale appears to bt~ a sumulatmg l••u •st ro conteract the soporific affects of ~~yahuasrtt, and "to give strengrh ro deal wi r·h" r.hc drug. As 1 will describe in Chapter Three. I found the effects ofayahuasctl prrp:tred usi;g g:urzymtl leaves by Q uijos Qui~,hua llyahwrsqueros still co be quite

I·''JWrific, with no visionary or entheogenic effects. , · .. Entheogens: By far r.he most interesting ca~egory of ayahwm·u a~dltlvcs _arc_ rhe

vi:;i1 111ary orenthcogenic plants. which fJI into four broad ~u~categoncs:_1) Nrcotuma lni c.;ot:inc): 2) Brugmamirt [tropane alkaloids] : 3) Brunfdwr [scopolctmc]; and 4) ( :f,tt,nma!Cbagmpangtz [DMT), the entheogenic tryptamine-contai~ting plant a~­rll il(tures. \X{: will brieHy d iscuss the.~e f<ntr subgroups, and deal W1th the lasr m nHrch greater deta il in Chapters Two and Three. All of these pla~ts l~a~e the same l'lunnacological purpose in ,~}'tTbwtsc,l-to enhance the e~thc·ogentc!VlSIOI~ary <:jual­

i ry nf the potions as an aid to shamanic divination. All of the plants 1~ the fmt ~h.ree :,11hcategories fall i1iro the Eunily Sobn~1ceae, whereas the trypt:mune-conramm g ··:tlc:gory involves plants in r.hc families Malpighiaccae and.Rubt:Keae.

T he cult iva red tobacco spc<:ics, · Nicotiana 1ab11cmnand N. 1"1/Jft ta, are among the ill•lSt common and widespread of all ryahttflJcit admixture plants. Although rhis intportant: class of il)'tlhtttW'..'1 additives has been :JI-but-overlooked in the lir~ratu_rc

n 11 the potion. Johannes Wilbert reccn r.ly reviewed the gener:J ethnobotamcal l_I r-• ·rature on tobacco in South America, including its prominence as a_yalnuJJcaadnu:x.-1 un:. or cohort: [Wilbert 1987]. \'V'ilbcrt mentioned the association of tobacco with ,,1,,rlmflst11 among rheAguaruna. Rarasana, Campa, Comma, Ltmi:;ta. Machigcnga.

<..>magua, Piro. Shipibo, Shuar and Tccuana Indians. _and St~ch use has ~tlso be~n n:portt·d among the Quijm Quichua and Secoya Indtuns of Ecuador [Ott 199j: Vickers & Plowman 1984]. Sometimes tobacco infusions are added to aptlmmttl, or d runk alternately with the potion, and at times tobacco accompanies ilJtlhurum

in the form of snuffs and dysters, or by smoking [\X!ilbcrt 1987J. Toba<.:co. even more than ilJ'flhuaJCI1, is tbe sham anic drug of Amazonia and the Americas as a whole-as \Vilbert commented of the z~1paro Indians, the sham;ms: "take t/.)'fl-

1 t() ·-ee better but believe that their true !)ower derives from tobacco" )1/llSCi!.. . " t

[21]

.t\ yAH l!i\SC;\ A N t\(.( l(; lJ ES

many of the plants containedpharrnacologically-activc constituents (or belonged to genera or hmilies containing such), bur whose pharmacological rationale as r~}'/1-butrsctl admixture.~ was a "complete mystery'' [McKenna et ,tL 1986]. Even more mysterio tLnvcrc the numerous ~yn/mllsctladmixtures f01·which we have no chemic;u

d:tta whatever. I agree with the aurhors that this category of admixture plants holds great potenti;J interest for we~tern science, and I expect further research will show

that some of the unknown phuns are psychoactive, while others have more specific therapeutic effC.·cts. The her. that .Amazonian .shanuns are known ro bio:~ssay unfa­miliar pbnrs in self-experiments by adding r.hem to tryahuamt [Miller 1993; Mont­gomery 1992] . or by "examining'' them while und(~J' irs influence [Bristol 1966] gives me further confidence in a specific phyrothcrapeut'ic dimmsion oftl)'ttlmtt>tfl. A recen t rcvit:w disclosed that four of rhe fi ve mo.~c common anti-rheumatic plant

medicines in Am u.zoniaare known ayal>uaJca additives: A!cl>orncrt tt7SttmcijrJ!irt: Hnm­Jf'Liifl f!"llrzdijlom subsp. srlmltNii; lv!tms01t alliruett and 1\.{aytmu.r C'/;enifblitt fPrancc & Kallunki 1984]. T heir use in ll)'ltburum must be therap~uric and n<;n-visionary.

Stimulants: As we will see in Chapters 1\vo and T hree. plain infusions of tlYfl­hrMsrl1 have pronounced soporific or sedative effccr~. and it is rhereftwc not >urp;·is­ing r.hat p lants containing known stimulants bave been r:eporrcd as :1ddirivt~s to « Yil­

huttsctl, "to give strt:ngrh to de·al with tryalmtiJC(t" [Schulte:; & Raff:tuf 1990) . The

most widely reported stimulant additive to ay:t!JUasctt is gu'7)'1i.'tl, the leaves of llo: gttttyusa fShemluck 1979). The .Shuar. Run a :~nd Quijos Q ui chua Indians of Ecua­dor add leaves of this traditiunal stimulant to a_yahutl.fCtl [Furst 1976; Ki)hn 1992; Ott 1993: Russo 1992: Schultes L972h: Schultes & R1ff.1uf1990] . ]esuit missions grew commercial pbnratiom ofp,UriJ•usa in the colonial period. and ther:t~ i~ a 17th century report of addinggu,~ymrr to a potion containing Brurrn,msiaand NitoJrima species. be.~ ides Bm1istaiopsis [Schultes 197% ]. Guayma i~ a close relative of the t:l­

mous South A merican srimul.ant mnte(or mtttrl; IJ.~v:p~ll<l87f<triemis. also known scien-6flcally :ts l JH1rt~~7ft~vensis or 1 pat({{Ut'nsi.r) :md of the North American ~timulanr. yrmpon (llcx tJOmitoriJt.). Like 1. .rml;igutl, these species conraln cafl:e inc. and leave.~ of a Shuar strain ofl gur~yusa were recently dwwn to contain 7.6% cafi:Cine, making this by br the most potent caHcine-containing plane known [Bohinc N td. 1977: Lewi.~ et rrl. 199 1; Power & Chestnut 1.919]. llmpon \vasreportcdly used as an "hal-l . " " · I . " N h A . ~h k :1 ucmogt~n to cvo 'e l:CStasit:s among orr , mencan C . ero ·ee Inc ians, who. lil<c their Shuar coumerparrs, used strong infusions of !Ic-c leaves to induce ceremon­ial vomiting for purific::l~ion fH~md & C hiltoskey 1975: Lewis et ttl. 199l].

Similarly, thci\maw nialt stimubnt_J,oco or Ptm{fjnifl_)loco, a caffeine-containing relative of rhe famous Brazilian caHi:~inc-plant,fWlrtlmi (nu4.llinirJ cuprmavar. sor/.Jilis)

[201

llln1111:tn I <>H2; Slhulte~ 1912. 1986a; Schultes & Rafflllf 1992] was recently re­pon ed :1!' an ,~,,,dmtrsca additive among the Colombian Siona lnd!ans [Lan?~on

I ( IH(. J .. rhis important Amazonian stimuhnt is unique among caff~mc-.contam~ng .ln rl' ~ in that the bark, rather than the Ie..wes. is the part extracted for Its htgh c:lffcme , , .n.r-'r.: nt [Schultes 1942, 198Ga.1987; Schultes & R:tfb~f 1992]. By the same token,

I \ ·nr vi an Campa and Colombian Barasanalndians may rake ayubu11sm with coc~tine-• <>IH:rining le:1ves of Erythr()).ylum toatvar. ipadtl [Holmstedt ettd 1978_; Schu~res I 'IX 1: \Vilberr. 1987] . In these cases. too, the rationale appears to bt~ a sumulatmg l••u •st ro conteract the soporific affects of ~~yahuasrtt, and "to give strengrh ro deal wi r·h" r.hc drug. As 1 will describe in Chapter Three. I found the effects ofayahuasctl prrp:tred usi;g g:urzymtl leaves by Q uijos Qui~,hua llyahwrsqueros still co be quite

I·''JWrific, with no visionary or entheogenic effects. , · .. Entheogens: By far r.he most interesting ca~egory of ayahwm·u a~dltlvcs _arc_ rhe

vi:;i1 111ary orenthcogenic plants. which fJI into four broad ~u~categoncs:_1) Nrcotuma lni c.;ot:inc): 2) Brugmamirt [tropane alkaloids] : 3) Brunfdwr [scopolctmc]; and 4) ( :f,tt,nma!Cbagmpangtz [DMT), the entheogenic tryptamine-contai~ting plant a~­rll il(tures. \X{: will brieHy d iscuss the.~e f<ntr subgroups, and deal W1th the lasr m nHrch greater deta il in Chapters Two and Three. All of these pla~ts l~a~e the same l'lunnacological purpose in ,~}'tTbwtsc,l-to enhance the e~thc·ogentc!VlSIOI~ary <:jual­

i ry nf the potions as an aid to shamanic divination. All of the plants 1~ the fmt ~h.ree :,11hcategories fall i1iro the Eunily Sobn~1ceae, whereas the trypt:mune-conramm g ··:tlc:gory involves plants in r.hc families Malpighiaccae and.Rubt:Keae.

T he cult iva red tobacco spc<:ics, · Nicotiana 1ab11cmnand N. 1"1/Jft ta, are among the ill•lSt common and widespread of all ryahttflJcit admixture plants. Although rhis intportant: class of il)'tlhtttW'..'1 additives has been :JI-but-overlooked in the lir~ratu_rc

n 11 the potion. Johannes Wilbert reccn r.ly reviewed the gener:J ethnobotamcal l_I r-• ·rature on tobacco in South America, including its prominence as a_yalnuJJcaadnu:x.-1 un:. or cohort: [Wilbert 1987]. \'V'ilbcrt mentioned the association of tobacco with ,,1,,rlmflst11 among rheAguaruna. Rarasana, Campa, Comma, Ltmi:;ta. Machigcnga.

<..>magua, Piro. Shipibo, Shuar and Tccuana Indians. _and St~ch use has ~tlso be~n n:portt·d among the Quijm Quichua and Secoya Indtuns of Ecuador [Ott 199j: Vickers & Plowman 1984]. Sometimes tobacco infusions are added to aptlmmttl, or d runk alternately with the potion, and at times tobacco accompanies ilJtlhurum

in the form of snuffs and dysters, or by smoking [\X!ilbcrt 1987J. Toba<.:co. even more than ilJ'flhuaJCI1, is tbe sham anic drug of Amazonia and the Americas as a whole-as \Vilbert commented of the z~1paro Indians, the sham;ms: "take t/.)'fl-

1 t() ·-ee better but believe that their true !)ower derives from tobacco" )1/llSCi!.. . " t

[21]

[Wilbert 1987, 1991]. Tobacco, like ll)'almasca, is a fundamental "plant teacher" of

che aspiring shaman [Schultes & Raf£·mf 1992] and among the Quijos Quichua, for ex~mple. the neophyte sh:unan must first serve an apprenriceship with tobacco he fore g raduating to an apprenticeship with aynlmrrscrt [Aiarc6n 1990]. Source of

rhe potent p!>ychot ropic drug nicotine, which can only enh:mce the visionary potency of ,~y,t/iumt.~t porion!;, Sou rh A merican tobacco species have also been ust::d as dart-poison ingredients [Bis!iet 1992].

Annthcr important category of visionary additives to ,~ya/mi/Sta porions :~re the cntheogcnic species of Bmpnamitl, known variously as /manto, maikoa, misbn, etc. in various Indian languages. and as lmrmcbem or floripondio in Spanish. The Sha­ranahua, Shu.1r, lng:~no, Q uich ua and Siona Indians add Bm((man.ria JlltlVl'olcns lc:tves to their nynhurtsm potions. :1nd leaves of B. im~f,11is may ~lso be so u,o;ed. to­getherwirhleavcs, stems, seeds, and ashe.~ofkwesoforher Bmgmrmsittspecies [Chan­

go eta!. 1')84: Langdon 1986: Lol:kwooJ 1979; Schulte.~ & Rtffa.ufl990.1992; V ic_kers &. ~)lowm:m 1984]. All of the Hrt~((Jnrmsitlspecit·s :tre potent cntheog~ns in thcu·ownnght, commonly llsc..:dns divin:'ltoryagenrs from Mexico [Lipp 1990,1991] south, particularly in the 1\udes from Colombia to C hile [Polia & Bianchi 1993: Schult~.~ & .R~ntf 1990,1992: W.tlton 1970] and their addirion to r~yn/masctl can only rc!iult m constderahly enhanced visionary potency. \X1e know nothing about the

pharmacological interactions of their contained tropan e alkaloids. especiallv K o­polamine o r hyoscine and hyoscyamine [Brisrol u 11/. .1%9; ElI mam & Evans .1990;

Evans et rd. 1965: Rivera ct rt!. 19891. with r~YtzhutTrctt-derived li-carbolines. . 'l 'he ~obtnaceous Rru,!folsillspecics constitute an important, hut obscure, categ01y

of ayilbllttsca admixnm: plants. Several Indian groups of C olombia and ofEcu;;dor add bark. leaves or roots of Bm1?felsitt Kl'tJIId:flora. B. grrrnrlijlom subsp. sdmltesii or leaves of B. cbiricaspi to their ayttlmasca [Ki.1hn 1992; Langdon 1986; Plowman 1977: Schultes & RaH:mf 1990.1992]. Bmuj(Lrir. J~Mnd~f/ora subsp. sdJIIItcJii, known as rhiriguti)'I/S/1 or chirit·-samm/;(1, i:; primarily used in fl)'lllmmwr, bur chiricaspi, the

Bnmfelsirt ~pecit~~ w~~h the same name. is some rimes used as a solita.ty entheogen hy Kofin_. M:u Huna, S10na and lngano TnJians [Plowman I 977; Schultes & Rtffauf 19_90,1992~. and is considered ('()be preferable to chir~(l,llfl)ltmt. T he chemimy of this gen~1.s ts obscure, I:ut the apparently psychoactive coumarin scopoletinclo is known from these spcctcs, and also from the well-known Brazilian ethnomedicine mmu:ctl,1the root of Bru,!f~·lsiu tmijlrmt; likewise ust:d as ashn.;11<1nic inebriant [Mors & Ribeiro 1957:

1P.Iowman 1977; Schulte~; & Hofmann1 9HO] .

Of the m.iscclbnt:ous and chemically obscure admixture plants , a few might be cited a... prosp ective enrheogcns. The Sh:~ranahua Indians add unidentified specie~

[22]

"' l·i,ip/~y//ulll and Optmtirt cacti to their ll_YIIImasca, the latter making "the effects vn ,. srrong" [Rivicr & Lindgren 1972: Schultes & R.'tffa.uf 1990]. Since several spe­c ""• of Of'~mtill are kuown to contain trace amounts of mescaline, the active en­dwogc.:n of the famous ptyML cactus of Mexico and the United Stares [Anderson 1 'lHO: Ma eta/. 1986; Ott 1993: Pardanani et,tf. 1978: Schultes & Hofrnann 1980], 1 l11' l't' i~ the possibility these t~yabutTscaadditivcs may contain the bn.lous en thcogcn. 1ikf,omea ttlstrmrifoliawas reported as a Peruvian additive [Luna 1984a, 1.984h J and, \i Il l.'<.: the related species A. flnribtmd(l is an adjunct to Afi:ic~m entheogenic powders l•.l't:d on eboka. Trtbemnnthr ibnf,·'l [Schultes & Hofmann 1980], both of rhcsc eu­l'horhia.ceous species must be regarded as probable enth cogens. Finally, the use of the myrisricaceous Viro/11 mrinnmmsis as an ttyaiJutlsl'tl admixture may suggpt rhe i•rt·scnce of the cmheogenic tryptamincs found in 13 spt·cies of this genus [Holm­.•. tl'dt r.taL 1980: McKenna t•tal l984b] .lndecd, this species is used in the elaboration (lrl:ntheogcnic "pellets" by Bora, Muinamc and W icoto Indians of the Colombian An1azon [Schultes 19G9b: Schultes & Raffauf 1990,1992: Schultes & Swain l976: s~hultes eta/. 1977], although prcliminaty an:tly~es of bark, kwcs, seeds and a "p:tstc" of V. suriunmmsi.rwerc negative for ttyptam ines fHolrnsted t N al. 1980J.

\vbich brings us to the most important category of IIJfllmmcn admixture plants, those containing the short-acting enthcogcnic ttyptamines, especially N,N-dime­tl.yltryptamine or DMT. and secondarily 5-metho'<y-N.N-dimcrhyltrypta.mine (5-Ml·O-DMT; present in cracc amounts in rr:~dirional tzytdmmm additives but in sig­llifica.nt amounts in some prospective ayahuasca analogue plants). T he most com­IliOn of the.sc arc chttcrtma or muirut'fljlllll,f,ll , .Psychotrifl 11iridis in the:: Rubiact.:ac or en !lee: bmily, and t:ha.grop17nga, r/;a/ipall,R,rt or m:o-ytzj~. Diplopter_y.r tttbn:raurz in the ~amc f.1mily a.~ r~y11lmrrmz. Malpighiaccac (pr~viously lmown in the lirer:~t:ure :lS

!),miitaiopsis msbytm,z). In both cases. it is the leaves of these phnt~: which are added 1 o rJvrtburt.rca to ''heighten and lengthen" (if uor entirely create) its entheogenic

dTe~ts [Schultes & Hofmann 1980]. In 1965 Jose 0Jatrccasas reported the coUcction in the Colombian Putumayo

rrgion of an additive to tTyalmtT.rcrt in the Malpighiaceac f..un i ly of Bt~rtisttri(lpsis ctlllf'i, which KOf.ln and Tnga Lldians called oco-yt~'l/, yagt-rlco or t-ht~g:ropangtl, and which

l1e called B.'lnistaiopsis rusbyrma [Cuatre·casas 1965] . Schul res had previously docu­tuented the use of the ltmN'S of this liana as an fiJtthwlWl admixture by C olombian Mocoa Indians [Schultes 19571, and there were additiona l mentions of it. always

referring to rhe usc oflcaves and young shoot~ of the plant [Harner 1973b; Rcichd­Dolmatoff 1972,1975]. As cited above, today the plant h:l!i been tr~msf't:m:d to another genus. and the accepted name is Diploptcrys r.abrt'rmll7 [ C.:r.ttcs 1982, 1986].

[23]

AYAHUASCA A NALOC UES

In 1965- 1968, three different groups reported the isolation [Poisson 1965] or detection [.Agurcll, t?t tzL 1968; Dc,r Marderosian et'rtl. 1968] ofDMTin l eave~ of D. cabrmow. T.he iso:btion b): Jacques Poisson was f ro m leaves of the plant col­leered by CJaudtne Fnedberg from Shuar Indians preparing natm111, and the suh­sequem detection work involved leaves collected by H omer V Pinkley. who had observed their usc by Kofin Indians of Am azonian Ecuador in the preparation of tt_ralmrtsca. T he f:tct that it is the IM1•es of this lian:t, not the bark. rh:lC ~tre u.~ed in the potions, combined with the t:tct that the.~c le:tves contain rryptamines rather than the characteristic P-c trbolincs fo und in Rmiueriop.rif, justitles the inclusion of this pl.ant in ~h~ category ofadmixtures. As I will discuss at length in Chapter T hree. there IS a defmtre synergy between the trypt:unines, ordinarily inactive orally, and the P-carbolincs, which by themselves lack interesting effects.

Like Btmisteriopsis caapi. Diploptays cabrerat1a grows in Amawni!m lowhnds, and the pbnt has been collected only in southern Colomhia and Venezuda, eastern Ecuador, northern Pent and western Brazil [Gate:; 1982] . Like B. cttapi, D. r.abrmznrt rarely flowers. ~tncl is normally cultivated by shamans for usc in n.y,rbunsc,z. Bo th plant~ are commonly propagated bycurrings. While R. caapi fruits arc triplc-winged liam­ar:t.~ c~early adapted for aerial dispersal. D. cabn·rantJ {ruit~ appear to be adapted for flotanon and suhsequcnc water dispersal. leading Gates f 1982] to conclude that the natural habitat of the species w.ts r iverine (oco-ynjtf in Tl.1.l<anoan means ''water yaJC."). Collections. fr~m Pcrl't :111d Ecuat!or were all sterile. suggesting r.hey arc culnvar!>; the only fernie collc.:ctJons were hom riverbanks in Brazil. Vcne7.llcb and Colombia. Sc.:hul~es reported th~tr another related species, Diplnpterys itwofutrt (ex­cluded by Gate~ from the genus. class ifi ed rarher as Mt:zill it~cfutlms) is known as a~olmasr.rl IICP_'n, s.uggesting use in the porions. though none has been reponed [Schu~te.~ 1983J .T h_c ~thnobotanical li rcrature is unfimunarcly vague :~s to the quanmy oflcavcs of DrpfoplnJ'> which m:1y be added to a. t)'pical dose of ayllhtMSCil.

Comparativdy more is known about d1c cthnobotanyofanorher foli:~r additive to ~~wrJ•u,rsctt potions, the leaves of l~ychotritt virirlis, in the Rubiaccac or the coffee f:unily. Called chtltrullil in Peru, and wmi mm or amirt;capanga in Ecuador, leave.~ of th i ~ shrub ~re similarly added to tt_ralmmm to enhance its visionary potency fKcnsmger 1973; Knhn 1992; Miller 1993 : Prance 1970; Prance & Prance 1970: Prance et a!. l977: Schultes I%9b; Weiss 1973]. As was the case with leaves of Diplt~M~r)IJ mlm~ran,z, leaves ofl~yr:/;ot,·i({ {)iridis contain D MT a1> principnl alkaloid r:-.lcr Mtrderosian et of. 1970; Rivier & Lindgren 1972] Again, we will leave unril Chapter Three a discussion of the pharmacological synergy between DMTand rhe lkmiJtcriopsis :tlka.loids: suffice to say that D MT is the key ingredient. responsible

[24]

NA'I'\Jili\1 ll t\TllltY OF ;\YAHUt\ \ C/1

l o~ 1 1 he o..:nthcogcnic effects of Dip!optery~ or l~yclwtri;~ lcaf-containi~g :-ytt~JUasca 1 11 11 i 11n~-acc.ording to Peruvian Indian mformants, one_ sees ~oclun~ :-'1tl~out 1 hi:; in~rcdicnt [Rivier & Lindgcn 1972]. I would agree With d11s, r~lOdl~mg Jt .to

• .. ty ont· sees nothing intcustiug talcing ayabuasca without a t ryptamme-nch addJt­

lvc. or the addition of some other potent entheogen. f~yrbotria carthaginmsis has also been reportedly used as an tt~almas~aad ~~ i~cure.

,1 1uJ preliminary stud ies likewise detected DMT i? leave~ of tlus_ spe~1es [~lVter & 1 .i nJgren 1972]. Although .Psyd;otria p.rycbotria~folia has been Cited .m vanous rc­pnrts <lS an ayahu11sctt admixture [Pinkley 19G9; Schultes l969a. l969b].' and was ,·vcn reported to contain D MT [Der M:trdcrosian ct td. 1970]. Sch~ltes smcc char­.u.laized this as an herbarium error [Schultes 1986b] . and the matcnal analy1.ed was .ulllaUy P. viruiis [Der Marderosian t:t a/. 1970]. V.triou~ unidentified spccics~of 1\ vrhotria are also used as ,~vahu11sm admixrures by Peruvian Sharanahua and Ca­.. l;inahua Indians. !1ychotritt leaves callcdpishiL·awn and /;atsiL·auHl were added to

11 vt~!Jwtsca by Sharan~1hua of the uppl!r Rio Purl'1s region [Rivier & Lind~ren _1972] · •1•11d the latter wa~ said to be infe rior. T his must correspond to the C.as~mahua Hvchotria leaf admixture matsi kmM, which was found to be devoid of a_lkaloids .. i1; contrast to another Psycbof1·ia leaf additive to nixi pat (ayohuascn) potions, na1 ~'tlll'll, which contained substantial amounts [Der Marderosian et al. 1970]. The < :a~hinahua who prepared the nixi paelived o n the Rio Curanja, in the s~11~1e u~per l{io Purt'1s region ofPert't. Nai ktl.wa w~\S rhought to be P. alb~ . P. atrthagtrtemt~, P. / 111rizontalisor R mtt~q;inattt. Clearly, more detailed. taxonomic and ethnobotamcal .'.l tHhes arc needed to clarify the identity of these Rycbot1'ifl. species. A number of ·.pccies of the genus arc used ethnomedicinally throu~hout Am_:twni~ [Schul tes. & lbffauf 19901 . and P. insularum and other species are used w1dcly m Polynes1an

t·thnomedicine fCox 1991; Whistler 1992]. Jrychotria uiridit is a shrub or small tree with shin,r leaves, somewhat similar in

:1ppc;uancc to a cotrcc tree. The plant is also found 111 the .Ama:ton lowl:t~1ds~ but grows farther north as well, in Central America, and may also ?c found Ill Cuba 1 Schultes & Hofmann 19801 . Althou~~h it produces colfce-bean l!ke seeds. t~1esc ~re d ifficult to germinate, often raking as much as .six rnon~hs. ~he plant IS. castly propagated from leaf cuttings. which arc partially buned with . the peuolc­:;ometime.~ f:ulen leaves spontaneously form daughter plants {~amso.n ~993] ..

T his is the overall picture of ttytthuaJca admixture plants-further mfon nJ.tlon t.:an be obtained by consulting the references in T:1blc I. The review by McKenna t l a/. [1986] furnishes chemical and pharmacological details, and see my Phann~co­thron for a review of the ethnomedicine of llJ'abuasca additives [Ott 1 993]. I mtghr

[25]

mention that some groups arc reported to have used various ayahuasrtl additives, sue~ ~1s the Shuar. who have been reported to employ four different enthcogeni<.: :tddi~Ives __ to nmema or flJ_almasm-Diploptny.r mbrmuut [Harner 1973b]; Bmnjclsi,; spec~es [S,chuhcs & H(:fmann 1980]; Nicotit~ruz species and maikoa or Brugmansi

11 speCies [~chultc.~ & Rlffauf1990] .The Sharanahua of Pen! have been cited as using at least nmcadmrxn~rc plants, induding the known entheogen.s Bmgmamill sruveolms [Sch~Ilt~s & R1ffauf 1990] and .Aychotritl t1i1'idis, as well a:-: the unidentified P;ychotritl ~;pecies 1I:~red l?~ve, an~1 various plants unknown from a chemical/pharmacological pers~)CCtivc [~vwr & -~mdgrcn 1972]. Si~ prospective additive plants- Brugmansitt t'(·r.,·rcofo~, 01'm1t~m munmtlmm, Jtltemrmthem .<:p .. Cypn·11s sp., Cafttthra sp. and Ps_ydmtrra Jlot'Pf'tJIIWtl-are reportedly cultivated in home garden.~ in Peruvian 1\mazo~ia, conceivabJ~, a.~ t~yalmmttl admixturc.s [Podoch & De Jmg 1991 J. _ \V~tle there do exist some reports of taking ,~yalntt~scd neat, rhat i.s, with no u~gred~ents other than Bani(teriopsi.r species (1'uch as Sprucc~'s repot tofGuahibo In­dtans Simply chewing the dried sterns ofBtmisteriapsis), we havl: no infi)fmation

011 the .result~ng effects. In all events. by f'a r rhc most common practice is brewing pouons With one or several additives. Wt- also have little or no information on rhe effects of tobacco and other solanaceous plants when added to ay

1t/mmm, most ct:h­

nograyhers lacking a stomach for «nauseous beverages" like ~~ya/luriJm. By br rht: mos~ unp~ r: tant :-tddirives Jrc the rryptarnim~-containing leaves. The pharmacog­n~sucal e~Jdence we are about to cx;tmine will explain why. Plain ,~mbuasc1r is more of a ~edauvc t~an a stimulant. and general ly speaking, enthcogens arc stimubnts, flzs~~flora spe~1es used ethnomcdicinally. which also conrain ,~y,tbtttiJCt'l-type j3-car­b~lme alhlouls, a;e _ust:d a~ sedatives and tr;mquiliz.er~; [Joyal 1987; Mon:trdcs ] 990; Nicholson & Arzcm 1993; Oga ct ttl. 1984; Speroni & Minghctti J 9'8S ]. Since om interest here is a_;~rbtt.tscrt as cntheogen, we will fows on ~he most common ad-

1

dirives, rl~e tryp~ainine-comainirig P~}'t:botria and Dip!optt•rys ieavcs, 'which in f:Kt 1

arc :the S tlllllllatt~g and ei:J.theogenic constituents of the leaf-enriched tlJt1fJUtTSCtJ. potwn.';. As we will see, there is a cbu·-cm pharmacological synergy, which I hnve been at pains t~> elucidate 21i.1 self-experiments, between the 1~-carbolines of ftmis­taif)psi.r species and the DMT contained .in Ps)'d)()tria and Diploptays admixture p~ants.- I11dced, ~-ht· (3-carbolines funcrion here not as specific psychotropic con­smue~ r~ ,but: as emyme inhibitors, to prevent our bodies' from deactivating the DN~T c~~Hained in the' l~avcs, wl-lich is not: ordinarily active orally. The sound and the Jury I; ~~ahu,~.ft'tl ., whteh has anractc~ so much ;met~tion ro this pan-Amazonian · rtmbros.ur, ·lS 1romcally u result of alkaloids not founclm Brmisuriopsis speci~s, but • extracted from the leaves commonly alldcd to the potions throughout Amazonia!

{26]

TABLE I Al~tHlUSCA ADDITIVE PLANTS;'

/\CANTHt\CEAE 'f,',liost,tdrya /,mcrol.u.z Nees var. crispa Nees1 [Schultes 1972a]

AM/tRANT HACEAE . i lltawmthcra /ehmmmii Hieronymus' [Garda Barrig;t 1958; Schultes .1 957] ,,.,._..;m' sp. [Schultes & Hofmann 1979] ·

APOC'lNACEAE flit~uUtm~lms mamba (Spruce ex Muel!cr-Argoviensis) Woodson [Luna 1984b] tHt!ouetia tamaquarina (Au bie r) DC. [Pinkley l %9: Schultes 1957,1960] Milndevil!a scabra Schumann [Luna & Amaringo 1991] 'f/t/Jfm 1umonttma sp. [Luna 1984a, 1984b; Pinkley 1969; Schultes 1972al

AQUIFOLIACEAE . , lk• Y,tttzyusa Loesncr ~~ [Furst 1 976; Schultes 1972b; Schultes & Raffauf 1 990]

ARACEAE M(mtrichardirt 11rbomcms Schott [Luna 1984a]

BTGNONIACEAE Aftmsoa alliaaa (Lamarck) A. Gentry3 [Luna 1984b] J;tbelmia bNeroporlt (DC.) Sandwith [McKenna et al 1986] ?;t!Nbui,l incana A. Gentry [Luna 1984a] 'l(lbcbuia sp. [Luna l9S4b] 'lyrmanthus panurmsis (Burman) Sandwith [Luna 1984b] . BOMBACACEAE

Cawmiffcsirt hy!.fJgf iton Ulbrich [Luna & Amaringo 1991] C(u~tmillcsia t~mbcfltlftl Rufz tt Pav6n [Luna & Amaringo 1991] Ceibrl pmtanrlr-tl (L.) Gaertner [Luna 1984b) Clm·isitt insigni.r Humboldt, Bonphmd et Kunrh [Luna l984b] Chorisia spt.cios,t [McKenna eta! 1986] . ()j~t1rMilmz «ishpingo" [AnEvalo Valera11986.: \v'asscn 1979]

BORAGINACEAE Ttmrrujb1·titt angustifolia Roemer ct Sch~1!tes [Vickers&: Plowman 1984]

CACTACEAE ' Epiphylfum sp. [Pinkley 1%9; Rivicr & Lindgren 1972] Opumia sp. 1 [Rivier & Lindgren 1972]

C\RYOCARACEAE Anthotiiscus pilosus Duckc [McKenna ct ,t!. 1986]

CELASTRACEAE M~ytmus ehen~{olin Reiss3 [Luna l984a, 1984b]

CYCLANTHACEAE Crtrludollim dit'el~~ms Ducke (Luria 1981a]

CYPERACEAE Cypt•m.r di~itrttus Roxhurgh [McKenna et rtf. 1986] Cypemsprolixm Humboldt. Bonpland et Kumh [McKenna et aL 1986] G_Yjwms sp. [Pinkley 1969: Rivicr & Lindgren 1972]

DRYOPTERlDACEAE Lomrtriop.ris j ttpm·t•ns/r (.Marti us)]. Sm. [Pinldey I %9; Rivicr & Lindgren 1972]

ERYTHROXYLACEAE .E1ythrox:yium mm Lamarck var. ipadtl Plowman2 [Wilbert 1987]

EUPHORBIACEA£ Akbor~Jetl cruttmcifoiia (Willdcnow) Just. J [Luna l984a, l 984b] !-Itmt trepitrms L [Luna 1984a, l984b)

GNETACEAE GnNum nodijlorum Brongniart [Schul tes & Raffauf 1990]

GUTTIFERAE Clusia sp. fRivier & Lindgren 1972: Schulte.~ & Rathuf 1990] TUt'Omitd sp. [Luna 1984b l

LABIATAE Oeimum micrantl.111m Willdenow [Pinkley 1969)

LECYTHIDACEAE Coumupita guirmcnsis .Aublct (Luna 1984a, 19811h]

LEGUMINOSAE Htmhinitl guianensis Aublet [Luna & .Amaringo 1991] CtcJa!pinitl echiuntit l.amarck [Luna 1984aj Crtllimulmllngust~f(,fi.-1 Spruct~ ex Bentham1 [Luna l984b] Carnpsi~mdnrlaurijrJ/ia Bentham [Luna 1984al Cedrding,t C/tsianr4imnis Ducke [Luna 1984b] l~ythrin.a Kltirmr WiJidmow (Luna 198,1h] Erythrinll potppigitt.1lll (\VlJ.Jpers) Cook [McKenna l?t rJ/. 1986] Pitheccl!obium LitthfJr. Bentham [Luna 19R4b] .Sclerohium setifi:rum Ducke (McKenna ct ai. 1986] Vourrcaptm.-'1 mneric,rm; Auhlet [Luna 1981tb]

LORA.NTH.t\CEAE Phrygi!tmthus cugenioidt:r (l..) HBK [Pinkley i 96~>: Rivier & Lindgren 1972]

[2.8]

t•f,1:v.'.'..i/1111t/111s tugmioitleJ (L.) HBK va.r. robustus Glaz. [McKenna et al. 1986] t•J,timra pyr~/(>fi,t (HBK) Eichler [Luna 1981a,1984b] .

Mi\LPIGHIACEAE !Ji;•loptcrys atbrerrtna (Cuatrccasas) Gates.1 [Agurell eta!. 1968; Dcr Marde-

rosian et ai. 1968; Pinkley 1969; P01sson 1965; Schultes 1972a] . !Jiplopterys inlloluttt (Ti.1rcz:minow) N iedenzu =lvfezi(t. ind udens (Ben rh:un)Cua-

trccasas5 [Schultes 1983] , . M11.sc1~e;nia psiiophylla (Jussieu) Griscbach var. antijebt~Li.r Ni~dcm.u' = Cabt

prtrttensis (Jussieu) Griscbach; Crdliumn anttfebnle (Gmcbach) John-son [Schultes 1957] .. .

Stigmapl~yUon fit/gem (Lamarck) Jussieu [Schultes & R1ftauf 1990] MARANTACEAE

Crdatllt'a veitcbianrr V..:itch c:~x Hool<cr fil. [Schultes 1972a] MENISPERMACEAE

llbuta gmndif(>litt (Martius) Sandwith [Luna 1984b] MOR/\CEAE

Coussapotl temnnnnii Mildbread [McKenna ct ttL 1986] Ficus insipidtl W illden ow [Luna 1 984b] Piws ruizimut Standley [M<.Xenna ct r.d l98G] Ficus sp. [Luna 1984b]

MYRTSTICi\CEAE Viro!.z sp. [Luna l 984b] . , Virofa suri11amemis (Roland) Wuburg lluna 1984a, 1981b]

NYMPHIACEAE Ca bomba tltjlllllim Aubler [McKenna et a!. 198G]

PHYTOLACCACE/\.E !>etit,eria td!iacetz L. [Luna 1981b]

PIPERi\CEAE Pipersp. [Schultes & RafEmf 1990]

POLYGONACEAE Tripft1riJ surinamemis Ch:uni!;SO [Luna _1984a, 19~4b l . , , . .. 71-ipktris surinamemis Cham. var. cbamt.rsorm.l Metssner [McKenna et rd. 1 ) 8(> J

PONTEDERIACEAE PorJtt·dtritt cordata 1..5 lSchulres 1~>72a.]

RUBV\CEAE . . Calycop/.~y[/um spruaanum (Bentham) Hookcrjil. ex Schurn<mn [Luna 1984a] Capirom~ decm·ticmu Spruce [Luna 1984b]

l29]

RUBIACEAE Guettarda jerox Standley fMc Kenna et ,zl. 1986]

Psychon·~nt'llrth~~i~1emis_.Jacquin 1 [Luna 1984a; Pinkley 1969: Schultes ] 972a] Rycbotr~rl !:~ych~trta~~lta (Seemann) ~tandley [Pinkley 1969; Prance 1970] Psycl1ot1·~n "ba~sd?tiW~. [Der Marderostan et al 1970; R.ivier & Lindgren 1972] Rychotmz nat kawa [Ocr Marderosian rt nl. 1970] Psyr.hon·in "pishikmva" [R.ivier & Lindgren 1972]

Rychotria ~~i;i~lis Ruiz cc P:~v6n 1 [Luna 1984a: Pinkley 1969; Prance 1970] Rud,~'t'fl rf'tijoluJ Standley [S<.:hulres 1985a; Schulte.~ & R1ffmf 1990]

Snbicrn rz~nazonensis W~.!rnham [Hugh-Jones 1979: Schulte.~ I98.5a: Schultes & R"lffauf 1990. 1992]

U1Jt'nritl guianmsis (Aublct) Gmdin [McKenna et nl. 1986] SAPINDACEAE

Rmllinia yol'o Schultes cr Killipl [Langdon 1986] ~CHIZAEACEAE

Lygodium 1'elllfst um Sw.ut:t.: [Pinkley 1.%9: Rivicr & Lindgren 1972] SCROPHULARIACEAE .

s,·oparin dulcis L. [Luna 1984b] SOLANACEAE

Brugmansia !'w;~nis (Barbosa-Rodrigues) Lockwood ex Schultes1 [Schultes & RafF.utf 19~>0]

1

Brugmrmsia sum•t•olens(Hurnboldt ct Bonpland ex. WiUdenow) Berchtold ct Prcsll (~bki~ ~c R~os l970b: Luna l984a. I984b; Rivicr & Lindgren 1972]

Bnmfolstrl duncnspt Plowman 1 [Plowman 1977]

Bnmfi-ls~a grtmdytnra D. Don 1 [Plowman J 977; Schultes & Raff:lllf 1990] Bttll!(efst~jgr~nd!flora D. Don su bsp. sdmltesii J>l~wman L,J [Luna 198-ib: Pinkley

U 69; !lowman 1977: Schulte.~ & R1f£tuf 1990] Grpsicum S_P· [~i:ier & Lindgren 1972: Schultes & .R."lffJUf 1990] lochromtt fitchstoitks (HBK) Miers 1 [.McKenna et tJI. 1986; Schulte~~ 1977] ]uanullon oriJrncea Cuatrecasas1 [Schultes 1972a] Nicotian11 msticn L. 1 [Luna I984b: Wilbert 1987j

Nicoti,ma tt~bnmm L. 1 [Luna 1984b; Schultes 1972a; Wilhert 1987] VERBENACEAE

(JJ_rnutJ·~, orlornf,l (Poeppig et Endlicher) Ibeppig [McKenna ~~ ttl. 1984a] Vitt•x trijltm~ VJhl [McKenna et al. 1986]

VIOLACEAE Rinorm 1•iridijlortJ Rusby5 [Schultes & Raff.mf 1990]

(:\0]

NATI !I!,'\1 II L\'I'llll\' Ill· /\ Yi\ ll llASI A

Non.s

I ' I 'lw~:(' rtJ•ttf,urtJrti:Hidirives a n:. known cntheogenic plants, many of which are at times used tilwll' ~~ ~~·their !'tHheog~.:nic effect, in ~bsence of ayabuaJm.

llu·•.c ·~Vti!Ju,umcohorcs arc known stimul:tnts, used alone and a.~ ttynlmasCt1addi tive.~. In 1l1<' l.1 trcr case. their function appears LObe counteracting the marked soporific effects of , ~,,,lf,u.tm;, so shaman or parient will not fall asleep during the ses~ion. Both llrx f.lUIJtiSfl

111td llmllinia.yoco are known to be abundant .~ourccs of the stimulant caffeine [Lewis et 11/. 1'191; Schultes l98Ga: Schultes & Rnfb uf 1990]. and EJytiJ,-oxlum ''tJC'll var. ip,ultl is a klln\Vll source of rhe stimulant COCiine rHolmstcdt ('/ Ill. 1971; Plowman 1 ~)8 1 ].

• 'I ht·!;c four species were recently reported :IS among rhc five princip:tl :uui-rhcum:Hic l'hyrnmedicinc.-s of A.tna7onia [Prance & K1IIunki 198if]. Their usc in nyalultlsrrl may be ~t-l.tto.:d ro this specific rherapeuric indication.

1 I w: t~ told byaShu:lr nyahwtsqtttmth:u Ctdlirwrlm bark i~ used interchangcablywirh uyp­t.unine-rich lcaves:t~ an rtyaf,uascrt:ldmixrurt , pmporcioningidcnricaldt'.:cts. Thissuggc~ rs I ; t1/it111d,~t bark may be a source <Jt DMT. Root infi.tsions of C tJngwli{il/ia are tL~ed as a ·.t i III LJlanr by Colombian L1dians of the Rio Pa~ta7.1 area fSchu l r~.:.~ & Ib fF.mf 19901.

'l'ht·,;c specie.~ have nor been reponed u.~cd as ayalmascn additives, bur arc presumed ro h.1v.: been, because r.hey ar~.: sometime.~ known by rhc name ,~yalmtrsM<>r charruna or are n t ht:rwi.~e related to rhc f.tmou.s porion [Schultes l972a. l985:l; Schultes & Ibff:ltlf 1990].

1 ' l'h is Table lists plant species reporredly used :t-~ additives or "admixtures" to cmheogenic .t)·,tfmn.<·til p()tiom in Amazonia. In many cases. the additivc.s arc said to "heighten and l.·ngthcn" the cnth<"ogenic pwpertic..~ of tlle brews fSchultes & Hofmann ] 9801. In mhcr • .l ~l·~. additive plant!> ;trc srimuh ms whose eHi:cu countcr:.tcl the ioporific prOf.!Crties of tlw ~imple extract~ of Bauistaiopsis mapi lFur~t 1976: Schultes & R:1ff.1uf 1990]. Finally, ~:nmc addi rives appear to be thcrapemic [Luna 1984a.l984h: Luna & Am:uingo I 99 1: M.:Kenna eta/. 19HG: Prance & Kallu nki 19H4] :md probably do not ex en psychoacrive d'fccr~ . Many <>f the planrs listed here arc unknown chemically and thc rationale f(>r rheir t t ~,; in t~yalmnsm is ob~cme. Certainly some of rhcsc unknown plants will pmve ro be p~ychoactivc. The chemistry of 56 specie~ of ~~vabut1sc,1 additive.~ h~s recently bt>cn rcvi-:w­··d by D.J. McKenna and collc;lgucs. who aptly characrerize rhe Amazonian ayalmmca < <'mplcx as a "traditional pharmacopreia'' [McKenna t1 nl. 1986]. There may be ~ome duplication in rhis table. Luna [1984a] ro.:purtcd a lii/Jc/lmlt specie:. a~ ny.1lmmcn addiriv<". rl11:n two yean; l:~tcr reported 'M/Jelminlmrropodtl as add irive [McKenna et a/. 1986] . The L)lpausspccies rcporrcd as ~~vahuasmadmixtmc nvo deca<ks ago [Pinkley 1969: Rivier & Lindgren 1972] may be either C. p1·o/i:mi or C. rligil~.ttu.rrcponcd suhsequcnrly (the for­mer in the English and the latter in rhc Spanish ofM cKenna l't a!. 1986). The Ficus species 1har Luna [I9!!4b] rcp<>rted may be F mizimlfl he reported two years b ter [McKenna t'f "I. 1986). T.1ble was aclapreJ from Pbannacotlmm [Ort 1993]. with minor modific..1tions.

[3 1]

PSYCH:C)~r~RIA viridis H. & I~

'--- ------ - - -------'-----I

1 Above lcl1-: Fruit, enlarged 4' times. c I I .. enter: F owering bran<:h: aboia one-third size.

Right: Flo\Vcr. magnified ~omc .3 times. Lower ldl:: .Sectioned 6·uit, enla~·t;ed four-fold.

Righr: Disscctt!d corolla, enlarged 3 time$.

CHAPTER 1\vo Phanntlcognosy of'Ayahuasca

Plants and Potions

I 'll,· phytochemical study of '~1"7/masc,lli:mas :md. potions commenced in the first d1' .11k of the tVv'entieth century. w hen in 1905 a Colom bian pharmacist, Rafael / , . , < l:t Hay6n, isolated an amorphous preparation from a Y'~jt! potion that he called tr•lt 'f•ttlina or tdepathim: [Zerda Bay<Sn 1915]. Eighteen years were to pass before f, ,((, ,w Colombian chemist G. Fischer Oi.rdmas, in his doctoral thesis, reported the

~~~~l.trion of crystalline material ofZcnb Bay6n's t('/epatintlfrom planr material of J•.lj,;, which he belit:vt:d to he a species of Ari.rtolochi,t, ·as we saw in the previous 1 h.tprer [Fischer C;i.rdcnas 192:~ ]. The f(>llowingyear, H. Seiland E. Putt reported dit· rl'~ ults of a "preliminary" examinatio n of Cttapi. plant material they called n /l!h'lt:ria Cttapi-tht: i!iolation of three impure :tlkaloids [Seil &: Putt 1924]. A year liu>·r, the Colombian chcmist .A.M. Barriga Villalba reported the isolation of two itlblnids, ya_j/ina and yr!jfnintl from )'tl}e plant mattc:·r he'd identified as Pres toni a l f/,,, ·nut~lic~yon] rtmaiomticrt, also mentioned in anoth(:r doctoral dis~ertation pub­li.,:hcd that year in Bogot;t by Colombian chemist L. Alb:macfn [Albarracin 1925;

lttrriga Villalba 1925a,1925b]. J\ftcr this pioneering •..vork in Colombia, the scene shifted ro Europe, and in

l 'Jl 6, Europeans E. Clinquart and M. Michids likewise reported isolation ofyaji­i llt' and yttjlnin(' from pbnt );cunples identified a~• Prestoni,r mnrtzoniclt [Clinquart I '~26; Michiels & Clinqua.rt 1926]. Thc~ituation cbrifl.cd somewhat rhc following )'t :lr, when E. Perrot anJ Raymond-Hamer rcporteJ the cq ui\•alcnc(' of tlltipathinc .tnd. _y.1gfi1Je, which they isola red from Banim•ria otapi [Perrot & Raymond-Hamet l~127a, l 927b]. but was again muddi('d the fc>llowing year when hmed German ,·hcmist Louis Lewin published his isolation of bmristtri11 from yap material he had obtained from the J'vk-rck company and also called Bfmisteritl CtliljJi [Lewin 1928, I<J.2.9]. Lewin's colleagues at M erck. K. Rumpf and 0. WoUes, and Swiss chemist I:. Elger b~an to clarity mattt:rs considerably, when they n:por ted that Zcrda Bay-

[33]

on's and FischtT Oirdenas' tdepatina. Barriga Villalba's and Albarracin's yrtjlinrt, and Lewin's httnisteritl were all equivalent to harmine, a concl usion seconded by three other groups the following year [Bttidd & M ussgnug 1929; Dalmer 1929; Elger 1928: Keller & Gorrauf1929: Wolfcs & Rmnpfl928]. As though unaware of these advance.-; in di~tant Europe, a South American thesis from Peni a decade later re­vived the concepts .Jiflj.Hw: and yajinintt f(>r alkaloids isolated h om B. tflrtpi [Arispe 1938]. All of these studies suffered. hO\vcver, fi·om a lack of botanical voucher specimens to back up the botanical name.'! associart'd with this chemical work.

Finally, in 1939, chemistsA.L. and K.K. C hen. wurking\vith botanical material collected by botanist Llewellyn \X'illiams near lquitos. Pcnl and definitively iden­tified as Rmistt1'i(JjJJi.l ct11lpi, showed that. tclcpathint\ yaj0ine and bani.~ rcrinc were in fact identical to harmine [Chen & Chen 1939: \X!i lliams 1931]. These re ;ear­chers \Vt're able to isolate harmine from stem.~ . leave~ and roots of the diKum(:ntcd B. ctwpi sample. Elgcr had already cimvinc ingly c.~tablishcd identity of td cpathine, yaj~ine and banisterine with harmine, by comparin g crystalline harmine iso lated: from &mist£'riop.ris with synthetic harmine and harmine he isola red from R'ganum barnwfrr fEiger 1928]. This wdl-known alkaloid bad been isolated from seed$ of Syri~m.rue, /}grmzim btlrmafrr, by German chemist J. Frit78chc midw;ly th rough d1e . nineteenth century [Fritzsche 1817]. T he struct11rc of harmine was also known

[Perkin & Robinson l919:1.11)19b), and the alkalo id was 11rst synthesized in 1927 [Manske ct ,rf. 1927.: Sp:ith & Lederer 1930a.1930b]. H armine was .fimnd to be 7-mt·thoxy-1 -methyl-~-carboline, sha ring the f)-carboline ring (a tricyclic indo.le nu­deus !mown technicaJlyas pyridof:3A- 1> ]indole) with other albloidsalre:td.y kno>vn fi-om Pi?f.ilrmm barma!a seeds, ~uch as harmaline !Gobd 1841]. harmalol [Fischer 1885; Gi-ibd 1841], harmol. n iine, d ihydroruinc and lepraHorine o r tetr~hydro­h~trm inc (THH) fAlle n & Holrnsrcdt 1980] ; some of which. a~ we will see, were' later il'olated also from Brmisteriopsisspe~ies. T hus. hy 1929 it.was dd:initivdy dem­onstrated that the principal alkaloid of ~~y,ThliliSI'ttplams was ha~mine, a compound '' of known structure w hich had alre:tdy been synrhcsi1ed. ,

Chemical studies continued on rhe fiJillmrur.rJ compkx,·and the; n:une yajCinc was ll.uthcr as.sociated with the drug in two plpers appearing in rht 1950s [Costa 195(;; Mors & Zaltmian 1954]. fn one of the.sc papers. }'aj(!hl.e or harmine was a lso · i~obtcd from stems and , leave.$ of a. plant ·then called ' CJbi ptimm.ri.>. which Gate~~ considered tO• b~· identical to C:llar:um antili:ln·i!e (lmtlwn bv wn~,riyms Banf.,·teria

1 ./r. ~ .. I

ant~{ebrilr :u1d 1\{ts.t·.tKnia. psilophy!la var. ,J!Jtijebrilis. and definitely used a1; febrifuge and po,ssibly as an ingredient in ttytthtM.rcrt) [Gates 1982,1986; Mors & Zaltzman

1954] . In 1957. ~~udyi~tg bor;{ni~olly-undocL;merited. Btmim1'iopsis material from

[34}

llw IUo Napo :tn.:a, AmericJn researchers FA. Hochstein and A.M. P:uadics iso­l.tt l'd IUO% harmine as the major alkaloid, and also reported lesser amounts ofhar­Ht.din(.; (previously known from Itganum harmala seed!i) and of d-tetrahyd.rohar.- . ,,, inc in the dried ground vine [Hochstein & Para dies l957]. Although d. I- or mcemtc it ·t rahydroharmi~e (a mixture of two optic:tl or stercoisomers. which a~e mi~ror j t1tagc:s of an asymmetric molecule diticring in that they rot:ttt: pl:tnc-polartzed l tght i ,, < )pposite directions, dextro-rotatory or /evo-rorato ry, as viewed in ~ dcv icc ~allcd ,, IH'larimetcr; a 50:50 mixture. called a mccmate, of the two ste~·e01somers JS op­tic tl lv inactive, since this effect or "optical activity" cancels itself out) was already

k no\~n from L:plttctinia. clm.r~flom in the fami ly Rubiaceae [P.tri!i N aL 195_5, 195?] urul from laboratoty synthesis, this is the t1rst time the d-isomer had been f?und m n:trurc. Since the ract·mic compound had already been named leprailonne, the ,, 1,.thtlilJca d- tetrahydroharmint is properly designated d-lcptaflorine, and its absol­,;,c configuration was deten11im~d to be (+)-1.2.3.4-tctrahydroharrnine [Kobilcov:l. ,\· ' ri·ojanck 1966]. H ochstein and hradics also found harmine, harmaline and d-1<-praHoriile (also called THH) in an aqueow; extract of B. caapi "as. tt.~d by rhc n:ll·ivcs," and were able to isolate harmine fro m th is. They astutdy conJectured that h:t rm:Uinc and d-leptaHorim: might have "subst:111rial psychotomimetic [Jic] acriv­i rv in their own riaht" [H ochstein & P.uadies 1957]. . In 1968 anorh;r A merican group stud ied botanic:tlly-documentt·d material of

lf.mi.rtaiop.ris crulpi roots and rhiz.omes from the Colombian Putumayo region, col­lected by Richard Evans Schultes. This group found both harmine and ha rmaline in rhis material, and also found. both compounds in stem materiaJ of .B. inebrit:!lS I sic] aJso collected by Schultes, a species now comidcred to be synonymous with B. ,.,t,lpi [Dt·r Marderosian et t1l. 1968; Gar e.~ 1982]. The following year, Schultes and colkagucs studied chemically the stem material fi·om Richard Spruce's origin:tl type colkction of!J:mistr:riopsis caapi, which the g reat pioneer had ~ent tO Kcw G~r:dcns with his voucher specimen in 1853. Despite variouli misfortunes which bdcll t~e material in transit, it arrived and was pre~crved in England. Schultes succ<:cdcd m

procuring five pieces of the matcri;ll weighing 26.7 g. and at the-~uo~insb lnsti­n1tet in S tocld10lm. the Swedi~h chemists Bo Holmstedt and Jan-bnk Lmdgren ftn ­:llly followed through on Spruce's initiative l l.S y~ars later! Usirig the technique known as GC/lvfS (gas chromatography/ mass ~pectrometry), they analyzed 11.? g ofSprucc's colll:ction, finding the in;ttcrial to cont:iin OAO<!Ic> al~aloids, :~ ll,har.mu~c [Schultes ct 11/. 1969]. They also anaJy7.ed a fresh collection of B. caapr, hndmg 1t to <:ontain 0.50% alkaloids, mainly harmine, with lesser amounts ofharmalinc and r/-.leptaflorinc (T HH ), plus "two' m inor components." T hus, after l1:5 years and

[35]

the rigors of boactravel from the upper Amazon to England. Spruce·~ type collection contained amounts of albloids comparable to fresh material! lr ·is probable, as we will $ee bter. that rhe sample had con rained the unstable harmaline and d-leptaflorine, but that these h:~d decomposed over the years to the more stable harmine. In 1965 a single sample of lfanist~'riopsis stem used in preparation of nmem(a]by the Shuar Indians had been shown to conr:~in 0.21 °ic1 harmine and "a minimal quantity of another alkaloid" [PoiMon 1965]. Although cited undt·r the concept B. inebrians. this material would now be classified as B. mnpi [Gates 1982].

Yet anodwr American group in 1970 rcportt'd analysis of a Cashinahua nixi ptte (nya/lunm7) potion prepared duringAug,ust 1966 on tht Rfo Curanja ofAmazonian Pcrt't (~>ee page~ l7 and 25 for comrnenr.-. on the preparation of this potion), con­taining Bmtistl'l'i(lp.~s stems and I!ychotri,Tleavt·s. Although the porion had been "kept at room temperature for at least two years" prior to analysis, it was found to conrain low bur detectable :tmounr.o; of both harmine and harmaline. Owing to an apparent confusion between harmine and harmaline in the diswssion (while the potion w:tssaid to contain "much harmaline, and a little harmine" the authors were able to isolate crystalline harminrfrom the potion. suggesting that brmninrwas the major alkaloid; although 0.011% harmaline and 0.007% harmine were reported; that is. roughly 50% more harmaline than harmine), it is diffictLlt to draw quan­titarive condusions11-the authors stated vaguely rhat a typical dose of 240 ml contained "about 0.02 g of harmine or harmaline'' plus 30 mg DMT fDer Mar­derosian tt a/. 1970). We will return to this paper in a discussion of the trypta.mint­conraining leaf additives to ayr1huascn.

Two years later, Swiss chcmi~;t Laurent Rivier and Swcdi:;h chemist Jan-Erik Lindgren published the most <:omplete an:tlytic~tl srudy of tiJfdJiutJcrl plants and potin.ns yet conducted [Rivicr & Lindgren J 9721. ~)rlcing with material used in tl)'ldmnsctl porions mainly by the Sharanahua and Culiua Indians of rhc upper Rio Punl~ of Amazonian I"t:n't (the neigh bors of the Cashinahua studied by Der Mar­dcrosi;tn's gmup), t:b(!St' resc:m~hers made 30 separ:~ tc analyse~ of 16 diA:Crent Btmi.ouiopsis samplcs.1

l again using GC/MS. 'lotal albloid levels in dried sterns were from CJ.05-0. H3% (15 .~amplcs): in rhc branches 0.14-037% (4 samples): in leavc5 0.25-1.90% (5 .samples): in roots O.()L--1.95%' (5 samples): wirh a single sample of seeds containing 0.91% alkaloids. All :.:arnplcs but two contained har­mi ne as the main alkdoid, rcprt~~enring between 40 and 981)1(1 of rhc alkaloidal frac­tion. In the t\'v'O exceptions, 42% harmine was exceeded by ·17% d-leptaAorine in stem material obuincd from Piro Indians ofH:rLt. :~nd 40% harmine wa~ surpassed hy 4·4'}(. d-kptaHorine in root.~ of Rio f\trt'ts B. ,·aapi. 'the ~>tem. branches and leaves

l36l

, ,f wl1 ich contained 77-94% of their total alkaloids as harmine. \X'ith these two

1 ~ · ··pt iuns. all .\amples cont:1ined d-lcptaflorine as the .second most impor~~mt al- · I tl• ,id. rcpre~enting from 1-471)11, of the alkaloidal fraction, whereas harmalme ~vas dw t hirJ mo~t concentrated leaf alkaloid, from traces up ro 17% of the alkal01dal 11 .1, t ion. Also present were harmol (in eight of the samples. as much as 31Yo) a~~ 6-11 wt ho~tytryptamine (in four of the ~am pies, traces except for one ~ample cot~tammg i• •:,). Rivierand l indgrcn also a.nalyzed nine r~)'i1huasc·tt potions, somcofwhtch they 11 1~·.1 ·, tcd personally. All but rwo of the potion~ (one of which contained more D.MT !11.111 anything else; one of which had t/-leptaflorine a$ major alkaloid) contamed . lt.trmine as tht major alkaloid (22-()2% of the alkaloidal fraction). with DMTas 1ltc \l'Cond most imporrant alb loid (20-41 %. though three contained none). The •, t·c·ond mosr important ~-carboline. pre.~cnt in all samples from ()-40CJ.{, , was d­l•·pt:tflorine. with harmaline bringing up the rear. present in all but one. at J. level "f t r.u.:e.s through 4% of rhe alkaloidal fraction. Rivicr & Lindgren co? elude~ that ,, 1 rpical. 200 ml dose of rhe Rio Pur\1s fl)'fillfltlstlt comaincd 65 mg of- alkalcnds-1 '' n 1g DMT pltJs 40 mg of!3-c.·ubolincs a.s three parts harm inc to one part tL-leptaflor­ittt·, with only insignificant traces of harmaline [Rivier & Lindgren 1972] .

Another important study of fl.Yttlmmcrr plants and potions was done by Den­llis J. McKenna's group more than a decade later. The group studied six &wisteri­r•fHJr );ampks. mainly fi·om lquitos ;md '{;trapoto, Peru. and ~ctermin~d total alkal~id , •lltCcntrations ofO.l7- 1.)6%1, finding all but one to con ram harm me as the m:lJor .tlk:Jioid (present at levels of 0.057- 0.64% in dried stems). The one exception con­tainl:d slighrly more harmaline, which was found to be the second most importa.nt .tlbloid in three of the other five samples (present at levels of 0.05-0.38%), whtle ,/-lcptaflorine was the third most important alkaloid (lcvclsof0.025- 0.38%). Low lr v<"l.~ ofhannol were detected in all .s:t mplc.~. and harmalol in two. T his group also .udy?.cd quantitatively nine fl)'fllmnscn potions from thc s:tmc areas (plus Pucallpa). live undiluted. using high-pressure liquid chromatography (HPLC l. Averaging the ri,·c ~amplcs. McKenna found an alkaloid content of 0.73%, with G5°1cl ~~the al­k.,loidsasharmine, 22%astt'-leptaflorine. 6%as h:trmalincand8% asDMI. These n:~earchcr.~ reported that a typical Pucallpa dose was about 60 rnl (range 5 5-60 ml). which would contain, on average. 437 mg of alk:tloids-2!i0 mg harmine. 96 mg r/-lepraflorinc, 25 mg harmaline and 36 mg DMT [McKenna eta/. 1984:tV J .

T he most recent quantitative analysis of ,~yrzhu,rsctl potions involved a !'ample of: .\lmto Daimt'(sec Chapter Four) from the Brazilian Christian aynlmti.Scacu!t. While not rcp.orting analys i ~ of source plants (Brmisttriopsi.r cflnpi and l~yc!Jo.h·ia t'iri~lis), the European group conducted a GC/MS analysis of a 50 ml dose of the ponon.

(37]

finding it to concain 170.5 mgofalbloids. with 14% (74.5 mg) of harmine, 11% (69.5 mg) d-lcpraflorine and 15% (26.5 mg) DMT. Only traces of harmaline were f~und ~Liwszyc rt a/. 1992]. We will return to the foregoing reports in suhsequcn t dtscusstons of ~~yttlmamzpharmacology. Traces of six other fi-carbo lines, which may be arteF.tcrs of chl!tnical m:mipubtion [McKenna 1992]. have also been found in &nis~criops~s c.1tt!'i (Hashimoto & Knvanishi 1975,1976] a.~ well as the pyrrolidjnc alkllo td~ sluhunmc and dihydroshihunine [Ktw:mi.~h i t:t a/. 1982].

_Th~s we'~e quantitative data from five separate mtc.lics of25 samples of Banis­tmopm Ctlflft$tcrns (normally u~ed in the potions). with the r:tnge of tot:~ I alkaloid concenr.rarion in uricd material from 0.05-1.36%, mainly harmine. secondarily d­lcptaflorine, terciarily harmaline. Similar alb.loidlcvels were found in branches and s~.:eds, somewhat· higher levels in roots (0.61-1.~)5%) and in leaves (0.25-1.90%J). Thc~e dam (stem analyse~ only) are summariz.cd in Table IT-A.

T,un.E II-A R EPOitTF.D ANALYSES OF AYAHUAS(..it PLANTS (DRIED STEMS)

Hochstein & f~lradies 1957 (1) Pois~on 1965 (1 sample) Schultes et tzl. 1969 (2 samples) Rivier & Lindgren 1972 (15 sample.~) McKenna et 11/. 1984a (G samples) Overall Average (all 25 1;;imples)

AlkaJoid Range

0.40-0.50% 0.05-0.83% (1.1 7-1 .36% 0.05-1 .36%

Average

0.30% 0.21% 0.45% 0.35% 0.78% 0.45%

Som~ chcJ~l ica~ StL~dies ~ave be~n conducted on a few .&misuriopsis sptt:ics bc~idcs tlltljJt. Bnntstcnopsumur;cattt, ~atd to be used under the names mli and srtciJi111J't71miiS­m by the Whoran i and Wiroto Indians respectively [Davis & Yost 198J], h.as been reported (as &nij'/t:rt()psis [Jic] tlrgrntl!:l) to contain fi ve ~-carbolincs in leave.~ :ll1d

srcrns. in~luJi.ng har~in.c and d-leptaflorinc . .Intere.stingly. DMTwa~' also reported to occur 111 th1s r.pec1es .• bur alkaloid k vch were rarher low, 0.02<}'() coral. Harmine w:t.~ th<: princip:tl :1lk:tloid (0.006%), followed by d-lcptaflorjnc (0.005%). 5-meth­<~?·tet:rJhyd~ob~rman ~O:(~O•l<Yo). N-merhyl-tetrahyd,~oharm:m (?.002%), and la~dy h.ur~l~ltne ~0:001 J .. f-J). DM.I was prescn.r. at a lr~w k•vd of0.003%, accomj1anied. by DM 1-N-nx.tdc at 0.001% [Ghosall972; Gho.•;al .~ Mazuttlder 1971; (;lwsal f!t ,r/. 1971 cJ. "Rllllisteriopsir !utea WJS reporre:d to cont:tin h:u·mine rAIIen & Holmstcdt 1980]. bur under the ~ynonym B. nitro.riodomwas ~aid to he "practically de::void of

[38]

,d k.t ll I ids .. rnC'ulofcu I %7]. Harmine wa.~ also found in the :tbove-mcn tioned Cal­'"'"fllllt111fdPfwilr (as Citbi p~trarnsis) [De Siqueir:t-Jaccoud 1959; Mors & Zalrzman l'l',,.il. \xt have no chemical information on other minor species of ay11buascrt lt.llt.ts. although Btmistrria chrysophylla (=Hf'teropte,:vs chrysopl~yllll, accord ing co c :.H~·~) has been reported co contain alkaloids [Gates 1982: Webb 1949]. There is ,tl" • a report of harmine in the stems of Brmi.rttriopsi.r inebritms [O'Connell & Lynn 1' 1'1 :~]. which would today be clas~i fied :t~ 8. mllpi [Gates 1982].

L~.:t us now examine rhe chemical srudiC$ of the Diploptetys nnd Psychotrialca.f .11 lmixrures to ay~tlmas,:a potiOn-!\. ln. 1965, the French researcher Jacques Poisson, working with leaves ofDiplopterys m/m;t"llntl (reported as B11nistaiopiiJ msl~yantt) col­I!"\ ted by Claudine Friedberg from plants uscd by Shuar ("Jfvaro") Indians in the 1•n·paration of natnn{a/ or t~yllltutl!t:IL, i.~ohrcd 0.64% DMT from :t small sample of dricd leaves [Poisson 1965]. Although Hochstein and Paradic!' [1957] had rcpor­ln I their isolation of OMT from "an aqucou.~ extract of leaves" used in r~yahu,rsm

1w.1r Iquito.'i, Iht't (and called by rht: 111.Yt~((l"<>r Prestoni,r mur1Zo11im). this was the first i!.• dation ofDMT from identifiable leaves used i 11 actual preparation of an rtyrJimas­l'tl potion. In 1968 t\vo independc::nt groups reponed their detection of DMT in lr·.1\'CS of Diplnf'terys mlmnmtt. again cited as H. rus~ytmll. In both cases, the leaf 111atter was collected by Homer V. Pinkley. who observed its usc in preparation of "l'illmasca bv Ecuadorian Kofanlnt.liam in I 966 [Pinkley 1969]. In the fi rl' t studv, . . . r ltromatographic analysi,.; showed presence ofDMT in the leaves, and gas chroma-to~~rapbic qmntitation (8 runs) established an :tpproximatc concentration of 1.46% L >MT in the dried leaves fDer Mardcrosi:m rt 11/. l 968]. A second g,:1s chromato­J',I apbic study of the material reponed in rhc !'arne i $.~11e of the same journal, found o . .-iG% DMT in dried leaves, with trace amount~ of JV.methyltryptamine (MMT). ')-methoxy-N,N-dimeth yltrypta mine (or 5-McO-DMTI, 5-hydroxy-N.N-dimcth­ylrryptamine (5-0H-DMT or bufotenine) and N-merhyl-retrahydro-~-carbolinc

I l\gurell t:t a/. 196~]. A more recent 11tudy of D cabrenma leavcs used as ayahua.sttl .tdmixturcs in Pert't found 0.17% DMT plus ''extremely trace amounts" of S-OH­I >Iv1T or bufotenine rMcKenna tt·nl. 1984:1j. In summary, from 0. L7-L7S% DMT was reportt~d Ji:om Djjl/opteiJ'S mln·rr111u1. .leave.~ in fi)llr ~eparate studies.

The 1970 study of plant ingredients in the Cashinahua uixi fJtlc potion of the upper Rio Purt'1s area in Pen't showed DMT in .Z.~ycbfllritt jHJ'ciJOtrirtcjiJ!ia leaf, latt~r L"nrrecd y identified as P uirirlis. T his sample was used for comp:uison purposes­lltxi fMc prepared for the:· stud}' involv<'d two additional species of l~ytbot:r·ia, {~ailed 1111i ktt1oa and m11tsi httu'il. The latter was found to be devoid of alkaloids, wherea~ leaves :md stems of the fimner (thought to be eith(:r P albtt, P. crlrtbaginensi.s; P hor-

[39]

izontafisor P. marginata) contained from 0.16-0.22% DMT and lesser arnount!i of dehydro-DMT, thought to be an artefact of the analv.~is fDer Mardcrosian et a/. I 970]. Rivicr and Li ndgren analyzed two R t'iridis sa~ples, finding one to contain 0.34% alkaloids in d rit:d leaves, of which 99<l-'fl was DMTwith traces ofMMT and 2-mcthyl-tctrahydro-P-carboline (MTHC); whereas the second contained m.erely 0.11% alkaloids, with no DMT and 85% MMT plus 12<H, MTHC. One sample ~f I~ rarthr~~ru·miJc<mtained O.GG~.r;, alkaloids in dried leaves. vvhich was 99% D.MT, with traces of the other tvvo compounds. Psychotr-ia bacteriopiJy!la, P. emetica, I? undulrua and an unidentified }~ychotrirt species were all devoid of alkaloids [R ivil~r & Lindgren 1972]. J\ more rccenr. analysis of three s;unples of P. viridis u.~t:d as aya­humca admixrures in Peru fiHmd 0.10-0.16% DMT in all samples, with no other alkaloids save traces of MTHC in one. A si ngk R tarthapJnensis sample was r()uiHl to be devoid of albloids [McKenn:l eta/. 1981a]. Thus rhn~t· separate srudies have found from 0-0.66% DMT in l~•ychotritt leaves used as awllmmm additives. These dat:t on the quantitarive analysis. of DMT in the leaf ad;nixtures to ttyahuasca are

summari·led in Ttble JI-B, borh fcJr D. otbn·rrmtl and nrious species ofPs.ycbotritl.

TABLE II-B REPORTED ANALYSES OFAJ~4HlMSG!t LEAF ADMIXTURES

Diploptnys tltbrennut Poisson 1965 (1 sampk) Dcr M:1rderosian et ttl. 1968 (1) Agurcll r:t 1tl. 1968 (I sample) McKenna t't a/. l981a (1 sample) OveraJI Average (all 4 sample.'>)

DMT Range

1.33- 1.75%

0.17-1.75%

1~ycbotri,t species (P. t<•iridis, P tflrtlH~ginmsi.r, mti krtrm) Dcr Mardcrosh n ('/.lt/. 1970 (4) 0.1G-:0.22% ltivier & Lindgren 1972 (J) 0.00-0.6()% McK<'nna r:t a!. 1984a (4) 0.00-0.16% Ov~rall Average (allll samples) 0.00-0.66%

Average

0.64°/o 1.46% 0.4Ci% 0. 17% 0.68%

0.19%) 0.33% 0.10% 0.20%

I I

The limitt:d <}Uantito.tive data we. have ti·om four separate analyses of 16 samples of Peruvian ~nd Br:tz.ilim a,yabu,uca potions art summarized in Ttble II-C. T he most complere ;malysis, ilfninc potions prepared by Sharanahua and Culina Indians of the upper Rio Pun.'t~; had f()~Uld an average of 40 n~g f3-carbolincs and 25 mg DMT

[40]

/'• '/' I ypil ;\[, :~oo ml dose [Rivier & Lindgren 1972]. Anal~si~ of the single rotion

1 ,n:parcd by neighboring Cashinahua Indians had found SJ.Jmlar amounts of .£?MT

in :t typical 240 i11l dose, 30 mg, but only 20 mgof~-car~olmesperdose were .found 11 >er Mardcrosian et ttl. 1970]. We must recall that th•s sample had been kept a

111 i11imum of rwo years without refrigeration prior to :1nalysi!>, and undoubtedly :>< lim· of the ~-carbolincs had decomposed. {n the McKenna group's aver:tge of five_ :1a mple.s of tJ)'Ithuasca from the lquitos and 1itra~oto aJ'ea of Peru. a tJ:'Pic:tl dose (.?t 110 ml contained 401 mg of ~-c:J.rbolincs ,md 36 mg DMT. and the smgle analysJs oi'Sm1to Lhimefrom Brazil found a 50 mJ dose to contain 144 mg ~-carbolines and 2.11. ~ mg ofDMT [Liws:t.yc et "l 1992; McKenna etrd 1984a]. The overall average j;,,. all of the 16 sample)\ an:ti}"'Zcd is 158 mg ~-carbolincs and 29 rng DMT per dose.

TABJ.F. 11-C REPORTED ANALYSES O F A YAfll.f..4S(.it POTIONS (AvERAGE PFH DOSE.)

Der Mmkrosian Nal. 1970 (I) Ri.vier & Lindgren 1972 (9) McKenna et ttL 1984a (5 s:1mple.s) Liwszyc ct a!. 1992 (1, Santo Dt~imc) Overall Average (al.l16 samples)

(3-Carbolines DMT

20 rng 40mg

101 mg 144 rng 158 mg

30 mg 25 mg ;)() mg 26 mg . 29 mg

1\lt these s:unplcs were prepared with P))lcbotrialeaf admixtures, and the conten.ts oF DMTpn· dose arc quite con1-:istent (2?, 26.5. 30,3~ t_ng). but how dow~ explam rhc great variation in ~-carboline levels, from 40 mg (d· we exclude as UJ~rdtab~e the data from the aged Cashinahua porion) ro 401 mgpf'rdose, an order of magnttudc difference?\'«: mustn't f(>rget chat in the Rio Punh area, where the lower levels were found, the ay(thuasm is only heated fc>r about one hour. whereas in the Pu:all~a area 10- 15 hour cooking rimes arc typ i~,;al, and the brew is concentrated bcton~ m.gcs­tion. In the Rio Purt:is area. doses of200-240 ml are typical, whereas ncar Iqmtos, doses of the concentrated pot: ion were in the rangt~ of 5')- ()0 mi. and a dose "rare~y exceeds 75 ml'' [McKenna et af. 1984a]. DiHcrences in cooking time could expbm much of the discrepancy, <md we must also recall the indigenous ~clief i1~ distincr "kinds" of B:'lnistcriopsis mapi. which seem to represent: clones ~f .cbcmJca~ races [Schultes 1986a]. Indeed, the nvo t~yahttascrz clones an:tlyzed by R1~1cr and Lm?gr­en from the lquitos (0.57% alkaloids) and T:1rapoto (0. 83<Yo) area of ~cnJ. contamc:d much h igher levels of alkaloids than did the seven clones analyzed trom the upper

[41]

~o Purt'ts area (0.11, 0.11, 0.20, 0.20, 0.20, 0.21, 0.41%) which had yielded potion~ With the lower <lmounrs of ~-carbolincs per dose (McKenna\ two Iquitos done.-; averaged 0.52% alkaloids; hh two 'Itrapoto clones 0.51 %). we must aho take into con.sideJ~atio~ htctors such as varying amount$ of plant material being added to th~: ponons, and unp.rccisi(~n as tu as gauging do.~cs is concerned. T he practice of taking .~evcral doscs.dunng a smgle scs.~ ion in some areas may nl.so be important, :ts many anthropologiCal report~ mention supplc.mennry doses of ll")!fi!JUasctl .

. Chem~cal differences benve:n the source plaut <.:otnposition and composition of the .~;>onons a.re aho w~rthy of commcn t. \XIhereas we have seen that McKenna's group found harm a I ine as the major a.lklloid in one of six B. m rljJi cultiv<trs studied, and to be more conccntrMed than d-lcpraflodne in three others, with :tfourrh con­ta.inin~ eq(1ivale.nr amounts of both compounds; rh rt:e studies oft~w~/luasat potions have found only traces of harmaline in two cases [Liwszvc •11 a/. 1992; Rivier &. Lindgren 1972] with insignificant amounts in the third {McKenna et

111. l984a].

\~c tnust als~ recall rhat the an;tlysis ofSpruce's type specimen of B. 111rlpi 115 years after collenton sho\ved 1}-carholinc amounts similar ro hcsh materiaL bur all as harmine, with no harmaline or d-leptaflorine [Schultes et rtL 1969]. lr is known that ~1armal inc can be chemically oxidized to lurmine in acidic conditions [Iyer & Rob­mso~l 1934] or chemically reduced to leptaflorine in alkaline conditions fPerkin & Robm.son 1919a]. Evidently the prolonged .storage, in the case of Spruce's type matcnaJ~ and the pr:ol~mged hearing, in the case of well-cooked 1~y1t/111asctl, e;1u.~es deli tru~; twn of harmalme, although harmine and/or leptaflor.inc are possible de­gradanon products. Structures of major ~~y,thuttsat alkaloids are shown in T1ble Jr.. ~· Harmaline ~light also be called 3.4-dihydroharmine: lcptaflorine called ],2-dihydroharm;~lme or 1.2 . .3,4-tctrahydrohar.mine (cornmo!llyabbreviatcd THH). H

PsYCHOI'HAltMACOJ.~<;Y oF ~-CARrK)LINf.s

Alrhough harmine and harmaline had h~c.n <iiscovcn~~d in the Hl40s, rhc: co~ text of th_c: rc;~earch was a study of pigments, not of drugs, and it wasn't untilrht· isolation of han~1 i_ne fi·om B.-rnistn ·iojHi.\ UMf'i that pharmacological studit·s of rhe alkaloid were .uunated. The f:unc;d me.•;calinc rescarc:hcri\kxandre Rouhicr cond'ucted some eady, rescar~:h on yajeine (hurmin~) ·in ~mimal~ [Rouhicr' 1924, 1926], but it vvas Louis' Lewin: like Rouhil~r, be~t known h)r his work on p~yoti (Lewin 1888.: Rouhit~r 1927] .. ':ho .fl:-'t t:esrcd the drug onl human beings. Lewin reported rh dt 25-'75 mg ofhaunme lll]Ccted subcutaneous!}' pn)vokcd euphoria in human subjecr.s [Lewin .

' I

(4.2]

I 'I .~!>\ ] . Lewin and P.ml Schu~ter tested harmine (banistcrine) as a therapy for Par­ki n!inni~ m. injecting 20-40 mg doses into 18 patients, evokjng some t~ansient i~­pro''''mcnt [Lewin &. Schuster 1929]. Just before his death~ Lewin published a bnef IIH lll('t;raph on .&nisteritl Ctlapi: Ein Ntut'S RauschgifttmdHeilmittel(B,t~1ist~ria c.1ap!: 11 Nt fl' Ntlrcotic and Medicament) [Lewin 1929]. Another German s<:Jcnttst who IS

,, , ~ Ltv best-known for his studies ofpcyotl/ mescaline, Kurt Reringt:r [ 1 927], working wil'h. K. \Vihnanns, had furrhcr researched "banisterint " as a therapy in Parkjn$()11-i.-: 111 , giving patients 20 mg doses four to six times daily [Bcringei· '192~; Beringer.& Wilmanns 1929]. Beringer remarked on rhe similarity between harmmc and bams-1\:rinc pharmacolo&ry• just as tbe chemic,tl equivalence of the two was being estab­li::hed bv his German scientific colleagut:>s [Heringer 1929].

' .

L<\BLl'. II- D STRUCTURES OJ: MAJOR AYt1HllA.W.:'A Al.KALOIDS

Harmine

(cy-n CH / ) --~~~~

H CH ~1 Harmaline

~l . I H NH CH30 N /

H C~H \

d-Leptaflorinc

l~l ~) /N"-H

N,N-DMT

/\ C..erman physician, L. Halpern, who had also employed harmine as a the~apy for 1\u·kinsonism, becune the first ro conduct self-experiments with tlu: drug, lll dose:.; of up to 10 mg orally and 30 mg injected subcuraneouslr [HnJpcrn 19.30a.1930b] · Halpern found rhc injected harmine stimulating, exciting her to be.lltgercnce, she st:art:ing a fight with a man on tb1c street, even though "th~j)['Ospect for ~~c attacker was very unfrvorahlc''! 'Though she asserted her conscwusness. was m no way influenced and in no way abnormal." she described it a!) being "packed in ether" and mentioned "lightness'' and a ''Heetingsensation" she "compared to the state oflcv-

[43]

t\ \' i\ J J ll;\.'\( :;\ /\ 1'\ t\( ,( )(; ll r:.:i

itation frequently reported to occur with the nude drug ,~yl/lntasut or r1t:ljJi." Not

bad f()f something that didn't alter her consciousness! i\fi:cr .~uch a promising st:1n at the end of rhe twenties, interest in usc of harmine as a medicament waned. Nev­

enhdess, :ulimal studies continued, and by the end of the thirties, A.G. Beer had studied the effects of harmine in cats, characterizing it as a ct:·ntral nervous svstem stimulant. which result would seem to be con~ istcnct with Halpern's pr:eviou's self .. experimenrs [Beer 1 939a, l939b]. In a review of pharmacolo~:,ry of harmine-type alkaloids, }.A. Gunn also characterized harmine as a central nervous .wstem stimu­la~1t in mammals [ Gunn 1937]. R1ymond-Hamcr., who had reponed th~ equivalence of relepathine and y:*inc [Perrot & Raymond-Hamer 1 927a, 1927b], studied the "comrov~r.~hl" vascular diccrs of harmine, harmal ine and leptaflorine in a dog, charactem,mg dw drugs as vasodilators fRaymond-Hamct 19,fl].

A breaJ<through in pharmacologica l ~>t:udie.~ of harmine \Vas :H.:hicwd two dec­ades bter. when rhe North American group ofSidney Udenfriend described harmine, 1,2..3.4-tetrahydroharminc (kpraflorine), harmaline :md harman a.s "potent in­hibitors of monoamine oxidase,'' (MAO-inhibitor~) with an action comparable to. but more potent than the therapeutic MAO-inhibitor iproniaz id [Udcnfriend tt

rd. ~ 9 ~>8J. H armine and b;trmaline \V.<:re the most active inhibitors, with lcpta­flonne· a~1d harman about an order of n1Jgnitude less potent. One year later, the

~roup of A. Plcrschcr sugge~ted that: the psychotropic acri viry oft he ~-carbolincs from B,mirtt'riop.~·i." was due to their demonstrated activity as MAO-inhibil'ors (Plet­scher ('trtl. 1959]. We will discuss the significance of th.is MAO-inhibition later. In .subsequent studit~s by Americans \XIilliam M . Mcisaac and Vicente Estevez, and NeilS. Buckholt-,: and W illiam 0. Boggan, the ttyahuascaa!kaloids were contlrmed as MAO- inhibitors. along with a number of additional natural and artificial ~­carbolines [Buckhole~ & Boggan 1977; Mcisaac & E:>tevez 1966].

Pharmacological studies of the ~~-carboline alkaloids continued. Although \Xt'il­

!iam. J. Ti1.mer and _Sidney ~1crlis (who btl~f became infunom ti.H' unethi<.:al cxper­unenr:; Wtt.h D.M1 and bufotenine on inmates in a mental ho.~piraP5) fOrt J 993}. worl<ing with!\.. Carl, had expressed doubts that h:umine was p~ychoactive [Titrncr ct rtf. 1955]. Hany H . Pcnnes and Paul H. Hoch reportt:d that intravenous injec­tion.~ of 150-200 mg ofhnmine into hapless "mental patients'' produced ''vi~ual hallucinations" in five of,elcvcn subjects. On the other hand, thcst~ psychiatrists noted that the drug was ''nor hall ucinogenic by thf oral or subcutaneous routes," even 'though they gave as much a~ 960 mg oralf:y in a single dose. Sidt' effects (which were more pronounced by intravenous injection than by oral ingestion) included nausea, t:r~:rnors and numbness, and these appeared in some subjects rc:ceivi.ng oral

[44]

PH ARMAC UCNOSY nr AYt\HUASc_:;\

l1.1rmim: a bow a threshold oB00- 400 mg [Peimes & Hoch 1957]. The Australian fl'~:t·:m.: hcr.~ S. Gershon and \VJ. L·lllg later administered harmine to dogs t'itl in­t u 1 v,~nou.~ .injection, claiming it provoked "apparent hallucinations'' at doses of~ ,, c j•/k~ of the hydrochloride salr-it is unclear howthe :mthors learned of the dogs .. ''npparent hallucinations" [Gershon & Lang 1%2]. . . ·,

C hilean psychiatrist Claudio Naranjo then conducted the most comprehenst: e .,, 11dv of the human ph~mnacology of rhe a_yalwmctt alkaloids in rhe 1 960s. NaranJO rc·pc;rted that harmine, leptaflorine (or racemi~ tetrahydroh.armine) and h~rmali~e wnc :Jl "psychotropic," noting ''I have indec:d found harmalme ~o h~ ballucmo~t:ntc_ ar dos3ge levels above I mg./kg . . i.v. or 1l mg./kg. by mouth •. wh.!Ch ts about on~ h:llf tlw threshold levd for harmint~ ... racemic tetrahydroharmme IS about one-thml as anive as harmaline" [Naranjo 1967]. Evtn 'though it is of li tdc or no importance

in ,1valma.rctl pharmacology, Naranjo chose to concentrate his studies with :\0 vol­IJIH~crs on the most activt~ compound, harmalincY' noting onl~ might regard har-.

111aline inebriation as "a syndrome shared, wirh minor variations, by compound~ of .~ imilar structure." All of Naran jo's subjects could readily disringuisli harrnalme

f'rom mescaline, cspeci:Uly given the nauset and other uncomf()[rablc physical s~'m­l 1tom!> only rhc fo rmer produced. Although previous workers had chan~<:ten:r..t'd harmine and rdarccl drugs as stimulants, Naranjo Hated that the central eflect W;lS

•· hard ro intcrprrc and seems more that of a depressant." European res~archer ~1. tvburer recently seconded this, when he characterized harmine as a rmld scdattvc in low doses, wl1ich "caused unpleasant vegetat:ivc and neurological symptoms'' at

doses exceeding 300 mg [Leuner & Schlichtung 1989]. · . . These two descriptions ofharmine and harmaline as deprt·ssants art' ml<t:epmg

\Nith three vague reports of effects of Pegrmum harrmTia seeds (which cont;~in high­;.; r leYels ofhannine and harmaline rhan .Bani.rteriop.l'is) described as ~oponfic , nar­~otic, alcohol-like [Gunn 1937; Hassan 1967: }oh1iston 1855]. As noted in Chap­t:a One, species of flHs~fiom containing th1:s t: alkalo ids are common ly usc~l cthno­mcdicinallr as sedatives and tranquilizers [Joyall987; Mon:mlt>s 1990: Nrcholson & Arzeni I <)93: Oga ct al. 1984; Spcroni & .Minghctti 1988]. N~ranjo h?~ :;~a ted that "the t)'pical reaction to lwrrnaline is a dosed-eye contemplatwn ~,fvtvtd u~a­gcry ... which i.~ in contn1.~ t to the ecstatic heavens or dreadful he!ls oJ: o~her hallu­cinogens .. [Naranjo l967J. But the few first-hand rcpnrts of the effects o t ~~)lftl.masctl potions.stres!i powerfully emotive " hallucinogenic" or entheogenic dTc:cts [Fiort~s &: Lewis 1978; Rivicr & Lindgren J 972]-the ecstatic heavens and drcadful .hclls ;lfC most dt:·cide·d ly a part of the psychic territory of ayahuasttt. A!; one Cashinal~u:~ Ind ian inbrmant had commented: ''j r: is a f(:arsome thing, I was very much afraid

[45]

AYAI J ( ! /\SCi\ i\ N i\L< )(:(IF~

[Kensinger 1973J. Moreover, as we saw in "E1ble II-C. of 16 trytlhurts,·tt potions <lna­lyzcd: the average dose contained only 158 mg ofl3-carbolines (normally three part!> hamune to one part d-leptatlorine, with only traces of harmaline). \Xt will recall

that in one pharmacological study 300- 400 mg harmine orally was a threshold dose in h uman subjects and a dose of 960 mg was ''not hallucinogenic" [Pennes & Hoch 1957]; whcrt!JS Naranjo tound the threshold for harmine to he 8 rng/kg orally. or

about 500 m g in an Indian weighing about 60 kg (w·irh racemic lcptaflorine being even l~s.s poten t -we do not know if d-lcptaflorine exceeds the racemate in potency). Even m the .~rudy of McKenna, which found the highest ~-carbo lint: levels in llJ'Il­

buasc~ poti_om, the average .level was 401 mgperdose (70% harmine. 24% d-l~p~ taflorme. G%) harmaline), leading .l\1c:Kenua to comment that for an ayahu.1JCtt potion cont:tining only P-carboline:. to be psychoJctive, "conc<.'ntrarions or'~-carbo­lincs considerably grearer than those measured in our .c;amples would be required" (McKenna eJ t:tl. l98,b]. It seems obvious that the answer to thi.~ conundrum is srraightf(mvard-the main cntheogen~c prindpl,e of the 16 ,~JttthtMSCtl potions that have been analyzed to date is the DMT. pn:sent at levels of25-3Ci mgpcrdose, with an average of29 mg, a.s v•e saw in Table II-C. 1\s we will discover in the next sec: don', DMT is most decidedly an cntheogen at these nominal do~>c k~vels, and definitely conducive to exploring the ccst~lt ic heavens and the dreadfi.d hells of the p.sycht::

PSYCI-IOI'HARMACOI.OGY Of DMT

In Aprill95~, Stephen I. Sz:ita and twenty "friend-; who were courageous t:nough to, volunteer became the first hunt an beings to experience the ~:mheogenic effects ~)f the lrydro~hloridc salt ofN,N~d imethyltryptam i ~le t•in intramuscular injections m do~es r:mgmg from 0.7- l.l m g/kg body weigh t. Sztira dt~scri bed the dwg as hav·· ing a ''psychotic [sic] effect partiaJly similar to that cauo.;ed bv m esl<a.lin or LSD-25~' [S7:lra 1956]. DMT hnd bt'ell synthesized 25 years earlier, but it had 1'lor occurr~d to anyone to rest it for cmhcogenic p roperties [Manske i931].1t wasn 't until 1955

that ?~1Twas definitin:-ly idemil1ed :ts a. constituent of seeds and pods of ;t tree in the bmily Leguminos:w, ~tln.ad~ntmthcrtt pcrr.,'l,·rh·Jrl [Fish u ttl. 195 5]. the seeds of which (along widu:eeds ofA. mluhrirw) were known to.be an ingredient of a potent

enthc~~geni~ snuif cu ll~. cohoba in the Caribbe;in and Jl'P~J, TJi/ca or cibi/ in South Am enca [Ott: ,l 99.3: RcisAir.~chul 19cJ7,,1972; Schultes ct ,t/. 1()77; \X{tSser1 1967; \\?;t~w:n & Holm.~tcdt 1963). T he finding ofDMT in a natural entheogen promp- ·

ted m testi!lg. and it has since been fcmnd also to' be a constituenr of a wiJespre::td ' '

[46]

t\ n1:11.onian complex of cntheogenic snuffs prepared fro m resin of numerous spe­· · i ~·s of vl;ola in the familv Mvristicaceae, and known variously as paricd and t.tmul. li\l'.urdl t t a!. I%9; Holms;e<.h 1965; Holmstedt & Lindgren 1967: Holm stcdt

1·t ,, /. 1980; McKenna et al l 984b; Schultes 1954b; Schultes & Hofmann 1980;

Schultes & R tf'fauf 1990]. DMT is also known to be an enthcogen ic principle of a Brazilian inebriating potion called viuho dtjm·emtl, prepared from roOt:i of various

Mimos11 species (also in the h1mily Leguminosae), and ir was, in fact, study of this potion which led to the first isolation in 1946 ofDI'v1T as a natural prod~ct, u~1Jer rhc name ~~~f!.l'rilla or «nigerine," by Brazilian chemist 0. Gon~alves de Luna. from Mimo£t1 bostilis [Da Mota 1991; Gon~alves de Lima 1946; Lowie 1946; Pachter et' ttl. 1959; Schultes 1979a].

Sz~i.ra and his Hungarian colleagues. particularly Z . Bi>sz<->rmcnyi, G. Brunecl<er :llld A. Sai-Hahl~z, fcnmd that w ithin two to three minutes of injecting 50- 60 mg ofDMT, verv impressive ~md potent cn theogenic tHects commenced, which lasted ahom45 mi~ute.s to an hour [Ri>sziirmcnyi & Brun(~cker 1957; Bi>szormenyi & Sza­r:t 1958; Sz:ha 1957.1961], and rhe bizarre rapidi ty and potency of the drug im­prc~scd some researcher~ as being psychosis-like. Pursuing rhe idea of enrheogens

:1s p~ycbotomimctio, DMT "psychopathology" w:1s described by, ~.H . . Arnold .and G. Hofmann [ 1957] and the group ofSai-l·bl:lsz. Bruf!-ecker and Szara char;tcterrz.cd the drug ~L' "ein ncues Psychoticum," "a new Psychoticum." inventing a new care-. gorr ro go \.vith Louis Lt~win's Eupborica, E.xcitmllirt, I~wmotictt, lm:brianti1t, ;u~~~ of course PlumtilStitrt [Lewin 1924; Sai-HaL\sz ct ttl. 1958]! Nevertheless. the effects S7.ara described hardly sounded parhological [Sz:tra 1957]:

Eidetic phenomeru, optical illusions, pseudo-hallucinations and . later real hallucinations, appeared. The hallucinations con!'isted of moving. brilliantly colored oriental motifs, and later I saw won­dctful scenes altering very rapidly. The tlCes of the people seemed to be m:L,ks. My emotional state was elevated. sometimes up ro

euphor.ia ...

Sz:ha did not: elaborate on the JiHerences between pseudo-hallucinations and "real" hall ucinatiom;, but perhaps an yonc who hJ.s experienced enthebg(:ns tlr$t -hand will

get the picttm:! DMTwa.<; later found to be even more potent and ra~id t'ittsm.oking ;he free base [Bigwood & Ott 1977] . In d1i$ case, .~moking 30 mg of the drug would

produce an almo.~r instant peak enthl:.ogcnic effecr las ting only 5- 10 min urcs! In a n attempt to duplic:tte the presumed use of DMT-containing plant extracts as en-

{47]

em as, Peter A.G.M. De Smct self-administered rectal doses as high as 125 mg DMT hydrochloride in 15 ml of water, with no discernible effect [DeSmet 1983] . Simi­larly. although DMT might have been active in the co!Jobn and (pmti snuffs, intra­nas;ll administration of 5-20 mg DMT caused "no effect other than a burni ng sensation .in the hack of rhe nose and throat," al though one patient described 10 mg intr:tnasally as a "feeling of being 'hit on the head.'"' Likewise, oral dosage of up to 350 mg "wali cornplt~tely withour efft·ct" [Turner & Merlis 1959] , and single dos­es a.~ high a.~ a gram have been given orally, also with no dlcct [Shulgin 1976]. If :t gram of pure DMT w:t~ without effect. then how could a mere 25-36 mg in an fl)'lllmmca potion even be perceptible, much less ecstatic or fearsome?

T he answer lies in the MAO-inhibiting dlecc.~ of the ~-carboline constituents of rtyahw1srr1 pot ions. T he cnz.yme, monoamine oxidase, which the ~-carbolines in­hibit, functions in our bodies to oxidize, or decompose, compounds like the t ryp­mmines, which othe1wi~c migh t play havoc with our brain and other metabolism. Monoamine oxidast: in the digestivt~ system break.~ down any DMT ingested, be­fore it could make its way into the brain. The pharmacological mechanism of ~~yn­hullsm activity could be thus seen as the inhibition of monoamine oxidase bv har­mine and d~leptaHorinc, thus enabling DMT to smvive in our bodies long e~ough to he absorbed and transport ed to our brains. By dint of great sensitivity and insigh t, and ;In adventuresome spirit, the Amazonian shamanic psychonauts fJi.inger 1970] managed to discover. with no knowledge ofenzytnt's or alkaloid.~. that rhe nonde­script RychqtrilllJiritli.> and Diplopttr_ys cahrl'rtlntt leavts, normally quite innocuous, were rendered potent cntheogcns by boiling them in a pot with .~ome p ieces of &m­i.ftm'opsisstem! This. indeed. was ;I most ingenious piece of wo rk surely one of rhe greatest pharmacognostical discoveries of all antiquity! .

t\lthough DMTw:t~ fi rst connected w ith ttyahfltlsta in 1957, there were doubts :tbour the botan ical ~ource,' 7 and only "'' hen DM:Twa.-. a.~sociated wirh plants ob­~cn·ed in use in tlJttlmrJsctl potions. f<>r· which hoe;llli<.:~l voucher specimens exi.steJ . in 1%5 by Poisson and in 196H by the groups of Agurell and Ocr Mtrderosian , did rhis mechanism for nyalmnsra activity sugge.5t it.)elf to researchers [Agurell ct al 1968; Ocr Mardero.~i;m eta/. 1%8; Poisson 1965). Poisson noted that DMThad "unc action b:Jiucinatoirc fugace" {"a. tran.sienr hallucinogenic activity"), when in­jrcred, but nwmi_oncd it wa.~ inactive orally. Pois!'on suppo~ed chat "a rather strong c:c>rKcntration of· the active principles'' or " th<: prt·seJKe of o ther substances" in mltem(a] rendered tht~ DM'l' acti ve orJlly [Poisson 1%5 J. He f:1iled to cite the 1958 Hnding of Udenfriend' s group. th;lt the harmine ht: had isolated fi-om &mistcriopsis was an MAO-inhibitor, nor did he perceive the signifi cance of his finding ofDMT

[48]

111 d11.: admi.xturc plant Diploptcrys mburnna. in the light of that discovery. T he I• .!In wing yt>ar American Melvin L. Bristol published a paper on the use and pre-1 •.u .1rion of an aynhunsca potion called biaxfi among the Colombian Sibundoy, one , t1 v<.·ry few Andean indigenous groups to use aynlmasca. Although unaware of th~ 1 ,.,·,·nt publication of Poisson's paper, Bristol cited Sz:ir:t'$ early paper on DMT ef­l ( · , : r~. noting that Hoch~tcin and Paradies had found DMT in "leaves 10aid to be ,·rnployed in Peru along with B. etta pi in preparing n n:trcotic fsic] beverage," le:tvcs I"' rook to be Dipfoptays Cllbrmmtt. Bristol then cited the fi nding of the:: Udcnfricnd l'.ruup. that ayahutzsm ~-carbolines were .MAO-inhibitor$, then reviewed the phar­rn.teology of the ~-carbo lines in human beings. Having rhus cited all the rclevanr work. he then went on to a detailed discus~ion ofthe preparation of bittxli contain­ing B. etMpi and rhngroptt11J[IIOI' Diplopttrys cnbrermtr~. and described a ceremony in which the sh::mnn, Salvador Chindoy. Bristol and another man each ingested some l'iO ml of the potion (with half as much given to a woman present; the three men 1nok another 75 ml 45 m inute!' beer, but Bristol vcJmiccd and felt little or no efTccr). I \ristol biled to make the !'pec.iflc connection between d1c MAO-inhibitin~ effects , ,f.tyrtbunscttalkaloid.~ and rhe presumed presence of DMT in the potion:>. and con-1luded by e>o:pre~ing doubt!' whether "the bi11xli actually contained psychotropic rncrhm:y-harmancs" [Bristol 19661! Indeed. although he cited S'l.:ira's paper on I >MT, he seemed to be unaware that this drug was inactive orally. The fi rst to definitively make the connection in print between the MAO-inhibiting effect.~ of the ~-carbolines and the possible potentiation ofDMT these might provoke were Swedish chemists Bo Holmsrcdc and Jan-Erik Ljodgrcn. In a superb chemical in­vestigation of South Axncrican J!OJ!O and epend snuff.~ :1 nd their AnrulmrulliN:m and Viroltt sourct: plants. which was presented at an international 10ymposium. in S:tn f-rancisco in 1967. these chemists cited Udcnfrie::nd's reportof~-carbolines as MAO­inhibitors. Commenting on their finding of both crypmmines and ~-carbolincs in a botanically-undocu mented pm·icd snuff sample from a Swedish museum, Lhese chemists astutely concluded [H olmstedt & Lind~rcn I %7]:

The occurrence ofborh tryptamines and r}-carbolincs in the South American snuff.~ is pharmacologically interesting. The ~­carbolines art: monoamine-oxida:-c inhibirors, and could potentiate the action of the simple indoles. T he combination of ~-carbolincs and rryptamines would thus be advant:a~eou~.

The following year. discussing the ftnding of DMT in leaves of Dipfoptcrys c·nlmrrma

[49]

collected by Homer v: Pinkley, who observed their usc: in ,~YtriJUmat potions by Ecuadorian KOf:in Indians, Ara Der Marderosian and his collt·agucs noted "many implications" of this result. They .said that the practice of adding DMT-containing leaves to ~~wthttasc,l to '"enhance color visions' seems to be justified on a theoretical basis." C iting several repor,ts of cntheogcnic properties ofDM~f. they righdy noted that the drug was totally iuactive orally. Thq then concluded. as had Holmstedt and Lindgren with respect to the cnrheogenic snuffs, that " the harman alkaloids . .. are mono:unine ox ida~~ inhibitor.~ . and perhaps this fact ... may help account for the cffectivcnl~ss of" the IV>f:in t:ty,lfnwscapotion [Dcr Mardcrosian et11l 1968]. In th.e same issue of A mn!crm ]ou mal r{ Pbarmtuy, Swcd e S t i g Agurdl, co II abo ra.t i ng w tth Holmstedt and Lmdgr<~n on an anal p is of the same leaf material collected hv Pinkley, commented pJajnly that «the combination in yajt of monoamine oxidas~ inhibiting harman alkaloids with N,N-dimethyhryptam inc might wmlt in specific pharmacological cfft:cts" [Agurell N al l%8]. The subsequent !1nding ofD MT in various R:ychotr·i,zleaf admixtures to t~y,t/n,,rsca by D<~r Marderosian ctl(l [1 970], Rivi<.:r and Lindgren [1972] and McKenna et ,rf [1984a] further suggested rhe pro-bability of this mechanism. •

The questions remained, however, wen·concc~nt:rutions ofl3-carbolincs present in lty,t/masm, or was ay,thu11sca it:sclt; an effective MAO -inhibitor? Furthermore, were

the concentrations of DMT p resent in the porions orally-active at the prescribed doses? All of sixteen years were to p:tSs before the first qttestion was ~nswered. Dennis J. McKenna measured the MAO-inhibition. in a "rat liver preparation," of nvo Peruvian ayalm<lStasamples, finding both to be '"extrerndy effective'' a.s MAO­inhibi tors, as was aho an '',tytthuast t1 analogue,'' a m ixture of ()9<% harmine, 26%> leptailorinc and sGlllt 51}:0 harmaline in solution [McKenna eta/. l984a]. The answer

accordingly W :t<> yes, a:valma.(crt potions were d fecrive as MAO-inhibitors. But the human pharmacology of oml DMT remained a complete mystery. The only way convincingly to prove t hiq propost·d mechanism for 101·'1/masc,rpharmacol<)f,TWOttld be to conduct h'uman bioassays with measured amounts of pure DMT and ~~-car­bolines. As we will ~ee, the literature on this point was virtually non-existent, thus I resolved to employ the "Hd:Tn:rTechnique,'' to don the venerable mantle of the · human guinea pig . . . to a11to -pharmaciz~. 1 6 In short, I employed dw "intact Jonathan Ott preparat ion," my most rational bioa!'say in the alembic ofmy own brain, and ' plun?t~d head long' into ,the phantasmago~ic world c>ft1)1flfJtNISCa; "tJ:.YtthuuJttlcapsules" and 'tlJtlhwrsca analogues. " Th.is person al «grt~at adwnturc," which was to takt: me

to the Ecuadorian .Amamn and on somt~ t\vo dozen psychonautic expeditions into the surreal realm of the Amazoni~n mnbro.ritt, is the subject of the rhird d 1apter:

[50]

CHAPTER ThREE

Ayahuasca Aluzlogues with Psychonautic Reports

T he decade 1959-19.69 had seen a hurst o f phytochemical activity pointing to

I Hv1T and related tryptamines (especi:tlly, 5-MeO-DMT) as cntheogenic principles in four major complexes of South American entheogt~ns~in vinbo dejurema po­tions prepared from .1\.limfi.M hostifis and o ther JlvfimOJtt species [Pachter t'f a!. 1959]; in cohol}(l snufE b:t!ied on Alwdenrmthel'tf pt-regri.lut :md :tllied species fAgurdl et a!. 1%9; Fish et rtf. 1955; Iacobucci & Rt'Lveda 1964]; in epenti. snuff., prepared fro m Vil·oltl species [Agurcll eta/. 1969; Holmstcdt 1965; Holmstedt & Lindgren 19671; :md, of course. in dJ!IllnttJJCrt potions [Agurdl ct a/. 1968; Dcr Marderosian ct a/. 1968; Dcr Marderosian et 11L 1970; Poisson 1 %5; Rivier & Lindgren 1972]. Sig­nificantly, three of these f<mr geographically and culturally d iverse groups of South American entheogens wtre ingested o rally (among the Witoto and nearby groups in the Colombian Am:tzon, the Viro/1t species are ust:·d to prepare edible pellets of resin, r::uh~r than snuffs). As scien tists poini:cd the finger at the tryptaminesa.s active agents in these enthct)gens, they simultant:'ously evolved a theory explaining, at least in the case of ,ryabuasttl, how DMT, kno-.vn to be inacrivc orally. could be rendered

a potent, oral ~ntheogen by MAO-inhibiti ng 11-carboline~ present in ;~J'I1hul1stapo­tions and some snuHs [Agurell d1tl. 1968; Ocr Marderos.ian ct ttl. 1 968; H olmstedt & Lindgren 1 9G7]. But ~~-othing was known of the oral pharmacology ofDMT, and for this ~heorv to be valid, DMT would have to be at least twice as active orally as by intramu!'c~lar injection [&iwi.>rmenyi & Brunecker 1957; Ri'•sziirmcnyi & Sza­ra 1958; Sz.irn. 1956,1957, 1961], according to the an:tlytical d ara on ~~wdnuuca po­tions which began to accumulate in 1970 [Ocr Marderosian et ttl. 1970; Li"''szyc tt Ill. 1992: M cKenna et aL 1984a; Rivier & Lindgren 1972] . The scientific world

awaited an in trepid psychonaut to put the theory to the test. , Arnericm cthnobol:anist Jeremy E. Bigwood becmn e tht~ first to step into the

breach, when he conducted a single experiment a decadt~ hiter, ingesting an ay.1-

[51]

;\\'A 11 u,\sc :i\ A;.; 1\1 .1 )c: t r 1:.,.;

lmasm capsule containing 100 mg each of harmaline hydrochloriclt: and DMT free b::tse (equivalent to 86 rng harmaline free base or 1.0 mg/kg and 1.16 mg/kg DMT) {Bigwood 1978] . Bigwood reported the first effects within 15 minutes, increasin~ to a peak by 15 minutes, with uDMT like hallucinations" that "gradually tapered off,'' having completely dis::tppeared 4 hours after ingestion. Of the pioneering ex­periment with phrtrmalmrtml, Bigwood concluded:

in .~horr. the experience was very similar to. in both time course :111d effect, that of a DMT- anJ harmaline-containing aynlmnscn bn:w that 1 had previously experimented with ...

!his, then, was a~l app;uenr co.nftrm:uionof the theory <>f ~-carbolinc/DMT.~yncrgy m fl)1tthwrsctl potions, except for two problems with the experiment. First and mo.~t important is the fact that we now know harmaline to be at bel' t a tract: constitucnr in '~J'IIInur.rm porions. and. of little or no importance in il.Yill111nsm p harmacology A~ . Dennis J. Mcl<cnna w:ts to comment six years later:

harmaline . .. is essentially a trace component in nyaburtsrn and probably does not coruribute signifi.Gm tly to the MAO inhibition which this drug elicit.~.

McKenna, it is worth noting. had found much higher levels of harmaline, and of ri-carbolines in general. than had the other groups :malyzing nynlmnscn. who had found traces or none at all fLiws~yc eta!. 1992; McKenna et ,r/. 1984a; Rivier & Lindgren 1972] . Since McKenna had found harmaline co be "slightly stronger chan harmine" as an MAO-inhibitor, and since Naranjo [1%7] had found plain h:u­maline to be fully twiu ITS potmt as harmine in human subjects, Bigwood's choice of harmaline for hi~ nynlmmra capsule w~ unfelicirous and vitiated the value of hi~ pioneering self~experiment. Which brings us to the second problem with rhis te.~ r. the quantities involved. ·w hile the 86 mg harmaline is well within tht! quantities of 0-carbolincs repon c::d pr·r do~c in the 16 samples analyzed (which ranged from 20 to 401 mgp erdose, with an average of158 mg. as we saw in T:1blc II-C), Bigwooci's 100 m~r, DM1' free base W;IS fi.tl ly three timesthe quantity found in a typical do~c (a r:anv,e of 25 to J() .mg, with an average of29 mg). Thu:; Bigwood achieved a rough­and-rt:ady, nne-shot demonstration of rhc feas.ibility of the novel pharmacological mechanism. without realistically modeling a typical ayrJimtJJCt1 potion.

Seven years hter. a series of "underground" public:ltion~ made reference to

[52]

--- - -----

l''·)'l'hun:tu tiL cxpt.·rinwnt'.~ with rud imentary rtytlhu,tsctt analogues. Although they W<Tc unaw:m· that Schultes had conternpor<meously discovered Witoto Indians in A ma?.onian Colombia smoking the bark and leaves of Bnnisu riopsis cnapi [Schultes I 'l>i5b]. "Gracie" and "Zarkov" [1985] conducted self-experiments smoking a.lk­:tloid-enriched extracts of Ptgrmmn harm ala seeds, Rmiflom incarnata whole plants. :tnd B. catlpi seems, finding:

the high is not particularly p~ychedelic or hallucinogenic .. . One feels calm. At higher do~cs. din iness and nausea set<; in with very little increase in the high. Closed eye imagery is at best hypna­gogic ... No one who has experienced DMT or high dose mush­rooms would ev<::r call them visionli .. .

F.ven 'though the group of McKenna had recently reported ~-carboline quantities :1s high :ts 101 mgpcrdosc of '~)'fllmrrscn, these smoking experiments found that:

we only needed to consume sutl'icit'nt plant material for dosag~s in the 50 mg rangt· ... increasing the dosage did not increase the high but only agt:;ravated the physical syrupwms.

After establishing, hasic pharmacodynamics of smoked ~-carboline-enriched plant extracts. Gracie and Zarkov experimented with smoking DMT free base ten min­li tes after having smoked the ~-carboline preparations. They found a threefold en­hancement in potency of smoked DMT with ~-carboline premedication ( 15 mg of DMT " felt more like 35-45 mg") and a lengthened visionary period of 6 minutes i nsteadof 2-3 m inute.~ absent the f3-carboline preparations, and heightened" almost overwhelming" auditory effects [Gracie & Zarkov 19851. Like Bigwood·s expcr­i men t, however, thc~c data merdy sut;~;ested the fcasibili ry of tryptamine/~-c;trboli m: .~ynergy. wirhout modeling accurately actualayaiJurrmt potions,

These underground re;carcher~ went on to preliminary experiments involving mali nge.srion of~-c::trbolinc-cnriched cxtr~1Cts ofPcgmwm l7i1rmal•t seeds combine:.<.! with synthetic DMT free hasc. After various psychonaut ic experiment.~ . Gracie and Zarkov concluded [1986] that:

) gm of seeds with 20 mg of DMT s<:ems to be a threshold dose ... our personal preference is 7 gm of seeds with 30 mg of DMT. . . our nominal dose would be 10 gm of seed~ with 40 mg DMT. ..

[53]

AYAI Il!ASCi\ tb:,\LDCIJFS

Here, then, were some data to sink one's teeth into ... a d earcut demonstration that DMT was rendered orally-active l>y ~t r~-carboline-com:tining plant extract at least analogous ro ttynlmasca, with oral activity demonstrated, moreover. in the 20- 40 mg dose range nlready established in ayrJimascrt potions. On the other hand. these data did not tell w ; anything ~tbout P-cnrboline levels in the ltgmmm harmala ex­tracts, and without analysis of the cxtraw; employed, we have no idea if rhe doses were within the range fo und in t~yalmmca . Indeed, Pe,R,mwm /tarmala seeds have a different alkaloid profile than JJrwisuri()psis cnapi stems. with harmaline often the chief alkaloid. Moreover, the seeds have been reported co conrain 2-7~;, P-carbolines, or some 4-15 times the :weragt: concentration . OA5%. found in 25 analyses of B. caapi stems. T hus Gracie and Zarkov were working with potions cont.1ining from 100 mg up to 700 mg ofP-carbolinc.~. depending on the scr:t.in and the efficiency of extraction, a r:tther broad range. Figuring an average of 4.5% alkaloids. their preferred dose would have contained 315 mgP-carbolines plus 30 mg DMT, exactly double the average dos~: of the formt: r found in IG samples of ,~y,z/masca analyzed, with a typical average with respect to DMT. Accordingly. from these data we could deduce that the McKenna group's 401 mg P-carbolines plus 36 mg DMT in a dose of Pucallpa a_yrtlnuJ.Sctl would likely have been active; whereas they would tell us nothing about the activity of the far lower ~-carboline doses found in nyahunsm by the other groups lDer Man.lerosian eta!. 1970; Liwszyc etrtl. 1992; Rivier & Lindgren 1972]. Clearly. more detailed, specific and rcpe<Lted psychonautic experiments were required to work om the basic parameters of human pharmacodynamic.~ of ttyttlmmta potions. Now I realized it was 11~y turn to step into the breach.

11tAVELS IN THE U NIVERSE or THE SotJJ} 9 W ITH AYAJ/Ut1SC1

My baseline experience with nynlmasettwas provided hy two Quijns Q uichua ay1t­

hurJSqucros from rhe Rfo Napo area of the Ecuadorian Am:~r.on: whence had co~m· Manuel Villavicencio's pioneering report of the entheogenic effect's of aya-lmasca in 1858. Experiment 1 involved the inge.~tion in a shamanic ceremony of a potion containing BaniNer·iopsi.<- L'tlJijJi p l u.~ a small amount of leaves of !if':x: gull_ytutt-no tryptan1ine-rich leaf admixture was employt:d. I had not witnessed the preparation of the potion, hut the lt)'ttlmmrpur(J told mt~ in Sp<mish that it contained ahout a hancHi..J of guayusa leaves to yidd a tot..tl of some 20 doses. Ingestion of some 60 ml of this potion produced a dreamy sedation with no visionary or enthcogenic ef­fects. The shaman explained the addition of g"'~y'urn lcaves as designed to counteract

[54]

P:;vc :1 I! )NI\ tJTic : 1\ t'. l'!l i('I'S

thv •ioporit!c cHeers of the r~)lalmmca, although for me their caffeine content wa10 i n~ufllcicnt ~() r that purpose, and I had to fight offslecp.l could ~ee why~-carboline­c·nriched plant infusions had been used traditionally in Ecuador, Brazil, Mexico, Fr.tnc:e_. Italy, the United States and elsewhere as sedatives, effects which have been mrrohorated in modem ph:umacological investigations [Joyall987; Monardes 1990: Moore 1989; Oga l't a/. 1984; Speroni & Minghetti 1988; Weiss 1988].

Experiment 2 consisted of a simibr potion prepared by the same rtyalmasqm:m, to which had been added , per request, leaves of amirucaptl11Kfl, P.rycb()tria t1iridis. This gave virtually the same result. although there wa!: a vague him, perhaps psy­chological, of the presence of stimulating DMT. W hen. I questioned the sham;m regarding the preparation of the potion (he had not wished to prepare it in rhc presence of strangers), he told me he had added a handful of leaves for the entire b>atch, again yielding some 20 doses. T his could not have represented more than a few leaves pcrdme. and it is not surprising th:tt again, rhe effect was hypn~tic and not cntht.'ogenic. Evidently this shaman was not accustomed to the usc ot DMT­

rich leaves in his avniJIIlliCll. For Expcrime~t3. a different Quijos Qui chua ayrzbunsqucrowas invited, and he

;tgrecd to prepare the potion in front of us. This preparation was as described on page 17, but the cooking time was intermediate, some 5 hours, similar to what had been reported by Bristol among the Colombian Sibundoy [Bristol 19<)6] . Unlike the Sibundoy, however, who extract on ly the hark shavings of the Btmislfriopsis stems, this Quijos Quichua nyahua.rquero had discarded the bark shavings, and extracted the yellowish srems themselves. which were quartered. There was no W;ly precisely to weigh the amount of Iiana, hut a pot with rough ly a 20 liter capacity was filled up with stem pieces covered with water, with again. only a handful of ami­rucapang,r lcavcs t(>r the whole pot, all 20 doses. Anticipating this possibility, I had already prepared :m infu~ion equiv..tlent to about 50 J>~ycluJtria virirlis leaves per dose, thrice extracted with water and boiled down to roughly 700 mi. I diffidently explained to the aynlmmquem. who wa.~ hovering over his ~~ytzlmasat pot. that we were particularly interested in experiencing the effect'> of amimcrtpang.1. :tnd to thar end I had conccnt:ra.rcd the c~sence of the leaves into a tea, which I held up gingerly for his inspection. W ithout hesir~uion, he said "what a good idea!" and immediately added mmt of the liquid to his nyrzbunsca pot! Although surprised that he would so readily assent ro adding an infusion of unknown strength to his potion, ~U1d what is more, one prepared by a r.1nk nmtzlmr. I was delighted at his open-mindcdness, and rejoiced in d1c i<J1owlcdge that th is time we would experience rhe stimulation an d visionary quali ties latent in the unassuming amirucaptmgfllcavcs. The rest of

[55]

the preparation of the potion was uneventful, and that night we were each given doses "eyeballed " hy the shaman-! received about 50 mi.

The potion was fa r fro m delectable but went down easily fo r those who had cur their entheogenic teerh on plyotl and teonrmdcad, and we were all given a piece oF ginger rhizome (Zi~lKiUel'l~ffidnale) to kill the taste. [)espi rc its Asiatic origin, ginger has been adopted m northwc.~t Amazonia as a medicinal plant, and Ecuadorian Q uichuas reported ly use ginger juice o n catapb sms for in fected eyes [Schultes & R1ff.<uf 1990] . This time there was no question chat the potion was powerfully cnrheogenic. W ithin an hour T experienced vivid visions and syn;csthcsia, with a pronounced auditory component. Even 'though the powerfu l and ch:uacteristicef­fects of DM T moved forcefu Uy into the foreground (I had aln>ady had many ex­periences with smoked DMT free base), there was a noticeable sedation from the harmine and o ther aytdmmc,l alkaloids-! recall thinking. with aston i.~hmenr, that sle<:'p would perhap.~ have been possible in the midst of the D MT 1JJ/I(.'Mriim; and inde<:'d , the shaman cautioned us not to lie down. lest we ~ l umber. \{ry euphoric auc.l quire powerful DMT effects lasted for some t\'VO hom~; the first a consil' tcnt plat<:':.t,u level; the second a gentle descent from the treetop realm of Stchll Runtt to

Ga:a'.s ground zero, after wh ich I slep t easily and soundly. Based purely on subjective effects. and lacking any analytical d:ua on the three

pOtions, f WaS left With the d istinct imprcs~ion that plain flJIIfJtJIISCIIW:l.~ :t sedative/ hyp.notic, potentially useful as a tranquiliz.er. like h armine-, harmaline- and lepta­Bonne-containing P.tss~flonz species wh ich have found such use world-wide. I was also convinced that ny11h111rsctt potions were indeed capable of rendering D MT ac­tive or:tlly, and that DMT represented rh e stimulating, en rlu:.ogenic constituent of the t~yniJUifsca potion.~ whi<.:h had b<:'en submitted to quancit:uive chemical ;malysis. Based on my initial experiences in Amazonia. I decid~d not only that d1c Drvn:·rich le:tf admixtures strengthened rhe visio nary potency of the potions, but that, as the Sharanahua and Culina Indians of Pcnl told Rivier and Lindgren, one would probably see nothing intere!iring withollt this crucial ingredient, or one or another of. the known encheogenic solanaceous, acanthaceous or amaramh:Kcous plant ad­miXtures to ayahii,TSCII. l was not alone in this asses~menr-D . .J. McKenna had con­cluded that "DMT. .. is probably reponsible for the hallucinogenic effects of aya­huasca" and Luna and Amaringo ( him.~elf an experienced nyrdmmqttcro) p ut j t thus: "~he alkaloid res1~onsible for the p~yd\Oactivity of the brew was most probably dlmethyltryptamme. the alkaloids in Htmisteriopst:f cttnpi not being a. large enough dose to elicit hallucination.~·· [Luna & Amaringo 1991; McKenna tt· ttl. 1986]. The bet that a "tradit ional ph:lClnacopr.cia" of some 97 plants had been reported as

[56]

I'SYI ' II11N;\l l'l' l1: RFJ 'IIJ(J S

tiJ•,tl•tlil.\'1'11 aJmixt llf(.'.~ (sec Ttble I) [McKenna ct a/. 1986], of which at least a dozen w•·rc known cntht·o~cnic plants £tiling into some four different pharmacological • . 1 tq~or ies, suggested to me an analogy to the pre-Colu mbian "tv1exican mcnbtMtl I",, ions based on aqueou!i extracts of ,·acaonquduitl or Tbcobroma cacno, to which 1wr..: ~tddcd enthcogenic m ushrooms and other sacred drugs. apart fro m more pro­•,.tic medicaments [Ott 1985]. I resolved to attempt to elucidate in detail the human 1•h:t rmacology of the DMT-conraining t~ynlmmca potions.

Since I planned also experiments with t~ynbumcnan:t!ogue.~ based on substituting l< '; tdily-available (and f:tr more potenr) b11rmel (Po:gamnn /;nrmttla) seeds for stems 1 ,f' ,tyahmzsctt, I next tu rned my anention to that drug. For Exp eriment 'l . I ingested .1 1 11~tion prepared by extracting with 30% lime juice in water (the acidic lime juice 1 o ..:nhance alkaloid solubil ity in water) 15 grams of ground INtrmcl seeds. T he seeds wnc hand ground in a porcelain monar, then phced in a .~mall pot ' vith su Hicicnt I i Ill\! juice/water to su.spend them. then brought rapidly to a boil with stirring. I then fil tered the smpen.~ ion with a Jl1efitttHypc single~cup coffee filter holder con ra ininc­:t r~usable gold-mec;tl-mesh fi lter dement (paper will also work fine). T he marc (the , ,.~idual solid m atter) was then added back to the pot :u1d again extracted by the •:amc means, with a minim:t.l quantity of lime juice/water, st irred and brought quickly to a boil. I don't recommend prolonged hearing or use oflarge amounts of warer followed by prolonged heating to concentrate. After filtration of the ~econd ~· ~tract, a small quanrity of water was used to rinse the por and poured owr the marc. I l'llded up with about 150 ml of extract looking rather like unfiltered apple juice, with a somewhat u.nplc:tsant, bur hardly disgusting taste. T he whole extraction procedure took only about 15-20 minutes.

W ithin an hour of ingesting the lumnel extract it was obvious the seeds were p~ychoactive, and they elicited a mild sedative effect which attained a peak i.n po­t~ncy 2 hours after ingestion :md had mostly dissipated at the 4 hour point. There were no visionarr or cntheogenic effects, only a bit of visual "tailing" when so me­thing moved before my eyes. T innitus and a mild numbing sensation accompanied a slowed heartbeat and mild vertigo when I closed my eye.~ . Despite this sccbtion, l l>lcpt fi tfully. and awoke the next day with a hangover which lasted all day. There was no nausea or overt negative effects, but che experience wa." hard on my body, and I h ad no desire to repeat it. It was similar to Experiment 1 in Ecuador with DMT-lcss nytthunsr,·,t, and I estimated the dose could h:tvc represented between 300 and 1050 mg of ~-carbo l ines, probably closer co the upper limit, based on com­parisons w ith Naranjo's findings [1967].

Having isolated and purified DMT as the free base from Dc•sm11ntbus illinomsis

[571

(the thin-layer chromatographic properties and melting point commensurate wirh .~ynrhetic material), I subsequently turned my attention to expe;imencs with knowo

amounts of D.MT. For Experiment 5, I prepared an extract of 5 g harmd seeds (us­ing the procedure ou~lined a~ove), and added 20 mg ofDMT free base (0.25 mg/ kg) to the 100 ml of hot, acidic extract, and immediately quaffed this. The e.\­timated quantity ofP-Gtrholines would be J00- 350 mg. or 1.25-4.38 mg/kg. Thi:-;

provoked a definite stimulation from the DMT. a feeling of aliveness and exci­tement in decided contrast to the deadbeat fet·ling plain l;tlrm<'L seed extract had provoked in nw. However, I couldn't say it was really ~~distinct DMT effect, and

marked it down as subthreshold with regard to enrheogcnic dlccts. It reminded me somewhat of Experiment 2 in Ecuador , with more stimulation from the DK1T.

I was eager to proceed to Experiment 6. in which I extracted only ,. g of hmmcl seeds. whose cHeer~; .I wi~;hed to minimize, and this time added 30 mgo{DI\ff free

baSt\ rcprelicming 0.38 mg/kg (with an e$timatt·d ~-carboline level ~fB0-280 mg. probably dos~.:r to the upper limit: 1.0-3.5 mg/kg ). This time there were distinc~. but thrcshold-lcvd. c:nthcogcnic cHeers ofDMT commencing l: 10 after ingestion,

build.ing rapidly to a.peak at 1:15; holding a pbrcau unti! 2:00: descen:'ling to basel me level by 3:00. fherc were vivid colored patrcrns w ith eyes opcncd or closed. euphoric exhilaration and gcneral stimulation alloyed with barmd seed sedation, which led me to yawn repeatedly. T his was more like Experiment 3 in Ecuador, but !'igniflcan~ly less potent, and I estimated :1.lso that the oral potency of DMT wa$ about half or lc.~s than its· po tency when smoked (itself twice the potency when in- . jeered i.m.), 'though it was difficult to comp:u-e hased on rhc radically-dilft'rent

phannacodynarnics of the diHcrent routes of inge.stion . I could rhus sav that the threshold level f(H· oral DMT .in fl)lttbwlsc,t wa.s between 0.25 and 0.38 rn.g/kg , and

chat 1.0-3.5 mg/kg ~-carbolincs wa~; t he prohablc MAO-inhibitor threshold . . In order more p recisely to dt!termine the ~-carboline threshold. I t~"<tractcd

harmine, for fli.rthcr el<.p~rirnenrs, hom l~t;,;tlliUI~l l~~trmaltt seed~;, and purified it as . the hydrochlonde salt, yielding g1h~nish crystals melting at 2(i2°C. I decided r<.1 ho~d the DMT level at the known entheogenic threshold of JO mg, and to start mr senes of p/;rmnahtut.stncapsulcn vith 30 mg DMT plw; 40 mg harmine (as free basl:: equal to 1±7 mg harmine HCI): that being l'hc level Rivier and Lindgren had es­tabli:~ bcd as an average for Rio Pun'ts t~y,JbtttLJc/1 . . hH- .Expc~iment 7. ] ingest~d a g:lati~l~ cap!;tde1containing these quantities, and fel t li ttle; only a slight sensation •

, of actiVlry. Hcasoning that the C ulina and Sharanahua Indians from rhe Rio Punls are:t rn~st haVe weighd oh ;tv•~rage 60 kg, and tha r their 40 n)g ~}-carboline average accordmgly corresponded to O.o7 mg/kg, I prepan~d another capsule with JO mg

[58]

Pw t :H t lNAUTII: Ru·oRTS

I )fvl' l ' f-l·cc b:t~c plus (i3 mg harmine HCL or 54 mg harmine base; 0.67 mg/kg for

I IH:. ln E:xpcrimcnt 8 , I ingested this capsule. again feeling little. ~lthough I cou~d '1''" ~1· the presence of the DMT. I next increased the harmine HCl to 70 mg (=W ,,,,., h:t\c, 6.75 mg/kg) and ingested this in a capsule for Experiment 9 with 30 mg l >M r free base. Now there was a more detectable DMT stimulation, but still \Vell h,·low the enthcogcn.ic threshold I had experienced w ith the same amountofDMT

• 11mbined with infu.'iions of 4 g harmcl seeds. I again increased the harm ine HCl to 94 mg (::;8() mg base: 1.0 rng/k~) and in

F.x pcriment 10 ingested this quantity in aphrmnabuascttcapsule with :30 mg DMT. 'J'h..: results were similar to the previous c.xperimcnt; a definite stimulation from I >MT. slightly more intense this time, but still not attaining what 1 could char­.~~· terize as anentheogenic thre.shold-lcvd t::<pcricncc. Similarly, Lxperimeut ll. with

\0 mg DMTplus 117 mg harmine HCl (:: 100 mgharminc hase; 1.25 mg/kg), w!Jilc ;,I it~h tly more intense with regard to DMT stimulation, still was clearly short of the rhn:shold attained w ith 30 mg DMT plus 4 g bmmd seed infusion.

Finally. in Experiment 12, combining :35 mg DMT free base with 14~ mg of harmine HCl ( = 120 mg ba.~e; 1.5 mg/kg), I made the enthcogenic grade. When. weighing out the DMT a chunk had hllcn em the balance bringing the weight up 1o 35 rng instead of thl~ cu~>tomary 30 (0.44 mg/kg) and I had decided to "go with rhc flow., and usc this quantity. Within 45 minutes. of inge~aing my sixrh pbrwmll­!tllasca capsule, it was dea.r to me that the rhrcshold would be attained. and I exper­ienced a distinct, but mild, entheogcf!iC DMT effect building to a peak by I :05 after ingestion and maintaining a pbteau unril1:50; w ith the effects characteristically

rapering off gradually and virtually di10appcaring by 3 hours after ingestion. The l:xperiencewa~ of comparable intensity 1'0 Experiment 6 , 30 rng DMT plus infusions nf4 g /l(mndseeds , and bo th were decidedly less potent th:m my Experiment J in Ecuador, which evidently involved a higher DMT dose. I thcrcfi.m:· concluded that rhe threshold to effect sufficient .MAO-inhibition, as to render DMT active orally, was LS mg/kg harmine. Fm me, as an 80 kg individual, the threshold for an ~~va­/.lrutstrl-t}'pe elfectwa~ 120 mg harmint> fr(:c base plu!i 30 mg DMT free base ( 1.5 mg/

kg of the fi.mner; 0.38 mg/kg of the latter). ' · ' _ 1{) reconfirm this finding, in Experiment: 13 I increased the •tntounts of both

compound!i, to 188 m g harmincHCI (= 160 mg ha.~c; 2.0 mg/kg ) with 40 mgDMT free base (0.5 mg/kg). Indeed, this evoked a !m)port:ionally stronger DMT efl~ctwith first ~igns evident only 20 minutes after ingesting and the petk attained at I :30, maintaining a plateau until 2:40, with dearly diminishing effects at the J hour point, and no eH't:cts at all by the fourth hour. This experience was still, however,

[59]

les.~ p otent than my Experiment 3 in Ecuador. 'TI> make certain that what· I w;1.~ experi~ncing was t he effect of DMT rendered active orally, I conducted a con en )I Exp~~m1~1~t 14 with 141 mg harmine HCI (=120 mg of base; 1.5 mg/kg ) with no DM_J. 1 hts provoked no enrheogenic effects o r stimulation, just a slighdy pcr­cepttblc hmmel-r:ype sed:uion which was still evident several hours later, but suf­ficie~dy: mild as to m ake me forget I had ingested anything. This, then, wa~; convmcmg proof that a barely-perc(~pti.ble sedarive dose of harmine was indeed

capable ~f eff'C::cting suH!~ ient .tvV\0-inhibirion to render DMT. in the quanti tie:; present 111 ttyal.mtrsca potwns. cnrhcogeni,_; by the oral rome of administration.

.This established. I next turned my a ttt:ntion to tQ'llhwl.ft ttru1alogues. For cbrirv ! wtll ~resent my re:~ults in a logic:tl, bur not necessarily chronological sequence; th:;t IS, I wtll not descnbe the re.~ t of· my experinwnt:' in order. Going b;1ck to hflrmel seeds. one of the most potent and mo.~t readily-available sources of the !}-carbo lines. I ncxr took :td.vantage of the collaboration of several fellow psychonattts to conduct

a comparatt:c experiment. In Experiment 18, five individuab ingested 1t.y,thrmsc,~ analogues \~tth a sc1nd:u:d amount ofd ried Psychotritt fliridi.; leaves, but with varia ble

at~l~)l~nts of n~anum /;,:m/(dtt.sceds. Each potion COnt;lined an extract of 20 g P. t;oufts leaves, bur combmed wah 1.23 and 4 g htrrmel seeds (two individu:tls had <.1 g hnrmdseeds). The g round sced1' were combined. with the powdered leaves (re­

dt~cc~ to CO~II.'.'ie powder in a blender), and extracted twice with 30% lemon juice, hrmgm g qmckly to a boil under stirring. as already described. The 20 g of b .ves would be_expccted co yidd 40 mg D MT according to the averuge p rescntt·d in T 1ble

II-B. Owmg to. lack o~ glassware a.nd primitive conditions f(>r the workup. there was app;lrendy an meffictcnt extr:tcnon of thf DMT from the lc:.tves. since onlv one psychon:.tut reported vi~ions , whereas t:he rc.~t had definite DMT srimulation ,~,hich \Vas, however, not quite threshold-level for cnthwgenic effects. Si~?;nificandv. how­ever, we.;~! experienced roughly a similar level of activiry. and tl;e only pe~·son to

rcp?n VJ~tons had _the p.orion prepared wirh 2 g hmmcl seed (I had inge.~rcd the potwn Wlth I gseed). Tlm suggests that thcrt~ is a very ddl nitc ~-carboline:: rh reshold, :u~d that there may be no advantage in incrca!ling amount~ of this component: that It rs rather the DMTwhich i.s determinant, once the threshold for l\11\0-inhibirion has been crosst:d. I accordingly se ttled on 3 g of lumnd seed as a standard amount for ayahut~sm analogues. to allow sufficient leeway g iven the known variabili tv of alkaloid kvcl~ in barme/sceds, since che strain I've been using appears to be on't·he upper end of .the potency scale. I also decided in the futme to extract the plant m:l tter three. tunes, to ensure quantitative extraction of alkaloids.

For Experiment 19, I prepared a potion by three rimes extracting 3 g hnrmc/

(60]

.,,.,.,bin 50%, lime juice, yielding a total of 100 m l of extract (estima ted content of

110 -210 mg lharbolines; average of 135 mg or 1.7 mg/kg), to which I added 40 mg I )M'r free base (0.5 mg/kg). Entheogenic cffecrs ofDMT commenced about 1:10 .d.lcr ingestion and built ton peak by 1:15. maintaining a pbteau until2: 15 .. with

11 1<: .~ lo'~ descent to ;3:00, when effects had more or less disappeared. On a five-point pr >l't·ncy scale, with 1 representing non-entheogeni<: stimulation; 2 rcpre.senting the

I'It thcogcnic thresho ld; 3 corresponding ro a mild. trip; 4 .representing a moderately­:.ll'ong trip: with 5 repre$et1ting a technical knockout of the ego; I rated this ex­I'<Timcnt a solid ''3 ." This compart:·s to the" I" in Experiment 5 (20 mg DMT; 0.25 111g/kg), and the "2" in Expe riment 6 (30 m g DMT: 0.38 m g/ kg). Although

Fxperiment 5 had .involved extracts of 5 g hunndand Exper iment 6 employed 4 I'·• chis variable would appc~tr to be in.~igniflcant.

Experiment 20 co nsisted of the 3 extracts of :~ g httrnJef seed combined with 50 111g DMT ( 0. 63 mg/ kg) and Experiment 21 involved the typical harmel see<.{ extract 111 which 60 mg DMT (0.75 mg/kg) was addt~d. \'<lherea.~ 60 mg DMT represented :1 <•4" t he 50 mg DMT dose was in between a. ''3" and a «4." I was thus _able to

,·srablish a more or less linear incrcast in emhcogcnic potency as the DMT levds wt..:re increased; from the merely stimulating (0.25 mg/kg) to the ~~ntheogenic

dm shold (0.38 mg/kg); with 0 .5 mg/kg consticuting a mild trip. up to a moder­:ltdy-strong trip at 0.75 mg/kg DMT T hese data arc summarized in 1?1ble III-A.

T \ll LE III-A H UMAN PHARMACOL.OG\'' OFAYIIliUASCit ANAl.OClJF. (P. lliiRMt1Li11DMT)

/ ..__.__.__.J.._J_.~~~

20 .30 'iO :;o GO :'O l<\0

DlviT Dose [mg]

V:•ri<thle ;\mounn; of DMT \X'ith 3-Timc~; Extraction of Ground J~~itnum hflmliJftt L Seed~: [5g. 4g, }g. 5g. Jg]

The results of my seven piMnnalmasmcapsulc cx.pnimcnts, with v<1riable ~trnounts of h:mnine from 40 mg to }()() m g (05 to 2.0 mg/ kg) arc presented in Ttble lll-B.

\Vith rhe ~:xception of the b st t\Vo experiments (Experiments 12 and B ), the arn­ount of DMTwas held constant at :lO mg (0.38 mg/kg).

In my first foray into all-analogue aytilmasca (compounded exclu$ively of non-

l (i 1]

!\ l'i\lll !t\S C .-\ !\ Nt\1.< H; Ill 'S

traditional ingredicnrs), J experimented wirh ll!gmmm hunlltllil seed.~ l'omhim·d with Dmntmtlms i/linomsis root bark. Roots of the "Illinois bundleflower" were n:­ccndy r~ported to contain 0.18% DMT plus 0.06% of inactive N-monomechyl­tryptamme (MMT) [Thompson eta/. 1987]. Almost all of the tryptamines were concentrated in the root bark. which made up about half the weigh t of the dried roots. For Experiment 15. I combined 4 g of ground l+gnnum btlrmnlll seeds with 27.6 g of ground Dmnamhus illino~mis root, calculated to contain about 50 mg DMT. T he materi~tl was extracted thrice wirh about 100 ml boiling 30% lime juice. filtering each time. The resulting 250 ml potion was drunk, giving me a subthreshold. mildly ~timulating effect ofDMT. Accordingly, h>r Experiment 16, I doubled the

L\DLE lii-B HUMAN PHARMACOLOGY OF AY:1HUASCA CAPSULES ( H ARMINE-VARJAllLF.)

:::J 5 u

~ 4 r.' .l

·~ 2 :.E' c),l

"Vtriablc Do.~c~ of Harmine With 30 mg DMT Free lh~e • With 35mg DMT tWich 'iOm~DMT

2() •l<l Cill 80 toll 120• I -10 J6o·j· I 1!0 200

Harmine D>sc fmg)

qt.•an tiryof:D. iilinoensis root to 57.6 g. the bark of which w:-.s ground and combined wtth 4 g of ground P. hnnuiJ/n ~eed, and thrice extr:-.cted as before. Thi.~ time the r~ya/mn~ca_ analogue gave :t distinct entheogenic effect ofDMT commencing at O:JO :md bwldmg to a peak at 1:15 with a 30 minute plateau. Two hours after ingestion the_ effects had noticeably diminished, and an hour later had all bur disappeared. T lus wa~ threshold-level for cnrhco~enic DMT effect.<;, comparable to Experiment 12. Evidently the strain of D. illimmz.riswhich I had in hand (which had been pur­chased on the commcrci:tl herb market) was somewhat lower in tryptamine~ thnn th~ strain anal)"l:ed in 1987. In or~er. to demonstrate the fcas i bility of attaining more . ~~~ 1d en du:ogemc effects from this ny,t h uastn analogue, I con d ucr.cd Ex.perimcn t 22 wuh un extract: (by sr:tndard procedure) of 3 t~ ground ]~ barma!tt Sl:ed.~ plus 50 g ground r?ot bark of_ D. j/finomsis (a dif.Ierent strain: equivale,nt w roughly 85 g whole dned mot.; dncd, ground root bark is now commcrdally available). This potion provoked a slightly stronger. distinct but threshold-lcvd enthcogcnic effect with typical pharmacokinetics. For Experiment 24, I increased the qu:111tiry of D.

[G2]

dlino,•mi.r root b;lrk powder to GO g. equivalent ro approximately 100 g dried root. ' l 'l•i.~ potion cff~cted a more potent DMT trip, again \.•lith typical latencyperiodand • h.n;\Ctcristic duration of phteau and of the overall experience.

l decided ro make anoth er ayalmascnanalogue utilizing again ltgamttnhannnla .1•. source of~-c:ubolines. this time combined with leave~ of Acacin phlebophylln as 1l11: tryptamine source. The leave.~ of chis Australian Acarinwere reported 25 years ·•!!o w contain about 0.3% DMT. nearly double the concentration found in Drs­llltlntlms illinoensisroocs. and intermediate in concentration between rhe traditional J\ rnazonian leaf additives Dip!optcrys cnbrt.ramz and Psycbotria spp. (see l ;"tblc.: II-B) I Rove IIi &Vaughan 1967]. From rhc Alt. Drugs bulletin board system on the hucrnf't , nmputer netvvork. rhc.:re had aln.:ady been a po.~ ti ng describing an enthcogenic flJ111-

f,llrl.tctl analogue uti lizin~ "a heaped teaspoon of ground hannala seeds" swallowed nc:lt and chased 10 minutes b.rcr by an infusion of an unspecified qu:mtity of Acacia ;Mebophyllde:wts [Grct:n.wood 199 :}] . The intrepid Australian psychonaut char­a.:rerized this as ''nothing short of the mo~t amazing :tnd intense experience of .my I ile to date." For Experiment 23 I prcp:.u:cd n potion by thri<.:e extracting j g ground e lormna!.tsecd.s together with 20 gground A. pMebop/~yllti leave!'. The resulting 150 n tl porion provoked a rapid DMT effect of mod<: rate sm·ngrh wmmencing at 0:30 and peaking by J :00, with a. half-hour pbtco.u :Uld two hour descent to baseline by .1:30.ln porencyrhis was co mparahlc to my Experiment 21 with 60 mg pure DMT. which is chc D MT quan rity 20 g of Acacitt phkbophyJI,twould be expected to contain.

PAitAI.LEL F,;'(),ERJMF.NTS ANO ConRORORAT NE D ATA

Parallel psycho nautil: ex periments by severJI colleab'l.ICS have confirmed and ex­tended my phmmalnu/Sctt !'tudic~. using both harmaline and 6-mctho.xy-harmala.n in lil'TI of harmine as rhe enzyme inhibitor, and furthermore employing 5-McO­DMT and rhc artificial /V, IV-dicth yltrypr:unine ( DET) [Ott 199 3] in lim of DMT as the cntheogenic ingredient. Thc~e experimen t!;, which will be outlined below, ~bowed J p<ttrern of activity con!'istcnt wi1:h what I had already cstablish~.:d .

American biochemist ].C. c~ulaway h:u.i independently conducted a serie.ii of psychonautic cxpcrlm.enrs par~llcl to my own. C::~llaway has been working on mam­ma.\i;ln Ihet:~bo!ism ofcndogcnou~ nyptarnine.~ :tnd [:1-carboJineS, :tnd ba.~ eJaboratt•d a hypothc.~is ro explain dreams vittnocturnal interactions of rrypramines and ~-car­bolincs, what we might call "endogenous IIJL11mmclt" or cntlolmasca [Callaway 1988. 1993]. Callaway kindly provided me the notes of his p!J,.umttbuasca studies, induJ-

[63]

1\ \' 1\IIUt\SCt\ ANi\1.11( ;(}L.'\

ing one experimen t he conducted on thr: same day as my Experiment 12 (my fir~>t phm·mabuascaexperimcnt to give me unequivocal ayalmasctZ-likt effects). Calbwa}' ingested a pbmmalmtJsctl capsule cont:1ining 10 mg 5-MeO-DMT combined witi1

70 mg harm:~inc expressed as free b::~se (equivalent to 1.2 mg/kg harmaline, simibr to the level_ B1gw~od found ac.rive) ~ Since 5-McO-DMT is roughly four tim es thl' potency of- DMT wlwn smol<ed [Ott 1993] . Callaway's dose of that compound would be equiva lent to 40 mg DMT. or 0.69 mg/kg. Callawav fdt the first effects in 18 minutes :lJld distinct psychoactive effect-; by45 minutes, ~hich built to a peak by 1:25. with a plateau until the 1 :58 point, when the effects were diminishing lCal­laway l992]. \X.C may conclude from this experiment rhat harmaline is somewhat more active than harmine as MAO-inhibitor, which biochemical dara bears out [McKenna eta/. 198•bl. Furthermore. we may deduce th:u 5-MeO-DMT can sub­!;t:itute for DMT as the entheogcnic agent in t~yniJIInsett. Much a~ smoked 5-McO­DMT is some four time.~ rlu: potency of ~moked DMT. ic appears also to .~ho~.v about fou r time.~ the oral activity in combination with ~-carbolines. Callaway reported no color visions, again mirroring the activiry of 5-MeO-DMTwhcn ~moked-this compound is ofte1~ likened to DMT "without the movie.'' A European researcher, M. Markus, also found 5-McO-DMT to provoke "halluciu:uory effects" in oral combination with harmine, harmaline or 6-methoxy-harma.lan in pharmalmasra capsules [Leuner & Schlichtung l989l.

. Another _coJleague has independently conducted psychonautic experiments With h:lrmalme as enzyme inhibitor. using both DMT and D.ET a~ enrheogenic agent:;. It must be noted that the harmaline hydrnchlori(k used by thi~ researcher wa.s later determined by analysis to be a mixcure of some two pons harmaline to one part: harmine (see Nore H). Afrcrcsrablishing chat 175 mg h armaline hvdrochlorid l~ (equivalent to 14(i mg base, or 2.25 mr,/kg) was only a mild sedative, this p~y­ch~naut we~c on to ~>mhining l50 mg harmaline {130 mg base, 2.0 mg/kg) with alJ~C quan my of DEf free base (23 mg/kg), a slwrt-acting tryptamine rough ly eqUipotent with DMT J•ia smoking or injection. Tn all cxpi.·rimems in this scric.~, the t.~ypt~ine was taken J0-20 minutes after taking the li-carboline. T hisquanticy was Jdlmtcly an overdmagt:." with major cmhcoy,enic effects commencing at the 1:30 point and lasting for severnl hour.~ (DET normally lam~ m.uch long;r than DMT; some two hours racher than lO minutes . . . a Euro1x::tn colleague h:1d sim­ilarly reportt~d a"vcry strongeHcct:" fi:om aph11rmahuascacapsulc prep:~ red with 150 mg harmine HCI in combination wirh (.)O mg DET). Goin~on to t:xpcrimcmswith D~T. this brave psychonaut found 50 m~ harmaline hydrochloride (43 mg hase; 0.66mg/kg) combined with 60 mg DMT (0.92 mg/kg) to be inactive. Quantities

[64)

l'w1 :11uNi\U nc R1:.J'Oins

IVl'l'i.' im:rc;l~(.'d to 100 mg harmaline HCl (86 mg base; 1.32 mg/kg) and 120 mg l >MT (1.85 mg/kg). provoking an entheogenic effect starting at 1:20, peaking ra-1 ·idly and starting to recede at 2:30. being mostly over by 4:00. This psychonaut 1 hen went on co decrease the <luanti ties ofDMT to 80 mg (1..23 mg/kg) and 35 mg (O.S,i mg/kg) in subsequent rests, in combination with 150 mg hannal_~n(~ salt 0_30 mg base; 2.0 mg/kg). Both dose l<:.vels again produced entheogenic dh!cts. In f1ve ll'St:), accordingly, this psychonautestablishcd that 1.32-2.0 mgll<gofthe h:mnali ne/ h.mnine mixture was sufilcient to activate tryptamines, whcrea.~ O.G6 mg/kg was 11ot. even in combination with ()() mg DMT. far more than ha.~ ever bem found in .t dose of rlyfllmrura and ar 0.92 mg/kg. nearly triple the trypt:tmine threshold I had .tlreadv established. These tc~ts thus confirm my finding that there is a defini te rhr<:.shold ofl3-carbolinc~ for an ayalmasr.a effect. A~ in C:tllaway's ca~c. these tests show rhe h:umaline threshold may be a bit lower than that fo r harmine, 1.2-1.32 mg/kg in these !itudie)'. but close to the 1.5 mg/kg I had esrahlished for harmine.

Another intere:;ting f·lnding by thi~ psyd1onal1t wa.~ that 250 mg harman hy­drochloride (equivalent to 209 mg base or 3.2 mg/kg) w.1s incffectivt.: as M~O-in­hibitor in JlbarnurhutJSUJ when combined wirh 35 rng DMT (0.54 mg/kg; an ~lctive level). This is surprising. since harman was about as :lctivc as harmaline and har­mine in in ,,ilro tests ofMAO-inhibiti<;)Jl, and is useful a.~ a rlll1~at-it is not alw:1ys possible ro extrapolate tc.~t result~ from the laboratory to the real world, or from one sptcies to another (see' Iitble IV-A. Note 1). Yohimbine hydrochloride wasa l~o shown to be ine/Tcccive as a plumnahwut:a MAO-inhibitor at 54 and 80 mg dose~ in com­bination with GO and 120 mg OM'f.

Of compelling intercH aJso in this p.sychnnautic ~eric.~ were two preliminary ex­pcriments with 150 mg harmalint~ salt (1.30 mg ba.sc; 2.0 mg/kg) in combination with 60 and 100 mg mc.~calinc hydrochloride (51 and 86 mg ha~e or 0.78 and U2 mg/kg n!.~pccrivcly). In the G rst case there were ddlnite subthreshold cHeers of mes­caline. :1 nd in rhe second case a pronounced threshold effect of mescaline was l·dt! While mcsctline is itself enrhcogenic, it is active ar 3.0-5.0 mg/kg. and d1is exper­iment suggests that pr_yo/mmca is possible-a definite potentiation of the roo-weak mcsGtline with ~-carboline$. I bad already suspected thi:.. in~1smuch a.~ Sharan:thua Indians of Peru add pit:c~::s of :tn Opuntia c:1crus to their t~ytllm,uctt, to rn:~kc "the cflt:Ctl> very strong" (st:c page.~ 22-23) . and several Opuntitt ~•pecies are known to

conta.in low lcv ... ~l s of me~<caline, pharm;tcologically insiguifie1nt in absence of some potentiation [Ott 1993]. T his hunch is thereby bornt• om experimentally. Curiously, rhe myth has hccn promulgated in the drug "scene" that Ji-phenethyhmincs like me.~c:1line are a potenti~tlly deadly combination with ~-carbo lines, which i~ clearly

[65]

i\ \',, I I l.f A!\< :.-\ /\ N ;\I .< II; l l l '.<;

not so, as the above-cited experiments underscore (this p.sychonaut had also com­bined B-carbolines with the artificial B-phcnethylamine 2,4,5-trimethoxy-B- phen­ethylamine, bu t there were few effcct.s). Callaway, for example, warned that such a combination "may result in life threatening si tuations'' [Callaway 1993]. ThtT~· is absolutely no evidence for this, as I confirmed by questioning phenethylaminc expert Alexander T. Shulgin [ 1993]. This myth apparmdy results from a confusion between dietary rew:ic tions correctly a~sociated with long-term medicinal u~e of im:-t'e-l~·ib!e MAO-inhibitors. and rhe entirely unrelated, pmcly spiritual, rather than pharmacological, dietary restrictions somuimes associatt~d with the use of tlYtl­

lnMsCII in Amazonia. Wt~ will rerurn to this point after cx:amining- the ust· of ~le­dicinal lv1AO-inhibirors, and their potential as activators in phar~nrtl111asctt.

MEDICINAL MAO-INHIRITORS AND.Pif;IJiMt1/fUASCA

tvfAO-inhibitors are widely used in medicine as ami-depressants, typically in long­term rhcrapy involving daily administration of i rrcvcrsible inhibitors. In order to ascertain whether mcdi~inal MAO-inhibitors might be usdi.d components of phtlr­rnahuasctl, 1 resolved to combine DMT with the pharmaceutical MAO-inhibitor isocarboxazid (5-methyl-3-isoxazole carboxylic acid-2-bem.ylhyd razide) or A1mpfan. T his medicament is ordinarily given in a dose of30 mg daily (once, or lO mg thr~e times), and the resulting chronic increase in serotonine:: in the brain follows a latency period of a few days to a few months and persists ~~)I' alike rime al1:er ceasing admin­istration of the drug. Euphoric reactions to this treatment arc rare, and :u·e con­sidered tO' be adverse side-effects! For E~pcriment 17, I rook JO mglV.!ttrjJ!an in three 10 mg doses a t 9:00, 1.4:00 and 19:00, and an hour after the last dose wok 30 mt,; DMT free base in a capsule . . A mild but distinct DMT effect commenced 35 min~ uteii after ingestion of the capsule, built to a peak hy 1:10, with a plateau to 1 :"tO, de·dining over the next hour. Thus it is indeed p ossibh? tomah: p/Jnnnrrbtftlsca with medicinal MAO-inh ibitors, at: least with Mrlrplrm. T his compound, which is an irrtversible MAO-inhibitor (in contrast to tb1: ~-caJ·bolines. which arc reversible), appe:us ~oreovcr to be.several times the potency of the natural rt,valmds(,ZJlkaloids.

This finding contrasted with an experimem conducted three decades ago, in wh.ich DMTwas adm.in.~ ter:ed after chronic MAO-inhibition had be,!n eHcctcd with the mc:dicinal MAO-inhibitor ipronia1id or Marsilid (1-isonicorinyl-2-i.~o­propylhydraz.ine). This compound was originally ust:d in medicine as an ;~t1ti-tub­<~rculo5is agent, and in 1952 it was observed to be a stimulant in some patienrs, an.

[66]

P.'\Yt;J-lO N,\lJTIC R F.J'(lltTS

..lfn.: r hrt:r <l!'.~ociarccl with its efficacy as an MAO-inhibitor. In this case, subjects wn c pretreated with 100 mg iproniazid daily for four days. Mter two drug-fi·ee , hvs (to eliminate direct effects of iproniazid, whereas the MAO-inhibition would ::l'ii l pt~rs is t), rhe subjects were given 0.35-0.83 mg/kg DMT l'itt. intramuscuL~r in­jl-o..:tion [Sai-Hatisz 1963]. Paradoxically. the subjects experienced decmued effect:; ,f[)M1~ compared to a previous experiment in which they had been given the drug , 1 h~ent MAO-inhibition, and ''had JH odd f(x·ling ofa changed p~rsonaliry'' which 1 he researchers likened to the symptOms presaging a psychotic break. Of course, this w:1s not a pharmnbrttJScn experiment, and rather involved the dtcct of .MAO-in­hibition on injectcd DMT This cx.pcriment had been conducted. to follow up on 1 he finding that pretreatment with the potent serotoninc antagonist mcthysc.rgidc nr UML-491 (1-mcthyl-d-lysergic acid hutanolamide; sec Ott 1993 for details 01_1 rhis LSD analogue), known commercially as Samat; had "a strong potentiating d­t ~ct'' on D.MT [Sai-Hal:isz 1962]. The same subjects had been given l-2 mg "anti­:;crotonin '' (Sansert) orally (or 0.5 mg intramuscularly: either dose being below tht: ··ntheogenic threshold f(H this' drug) 30-40 minutes bef~.H't.! being injecte~ '~irh 0.81-0.89 mg/kv, D MT ( rhe same dose they had already re(:eivcd ncat~sorm~ of the :a.tbjects were given 50-80% of this .DMT dose on the second occa!'ton, :tfter prc:­treatment with Sansert} Even the reduced dose with Smucrtpretre:ttment was ex­perienc(·d as more potent by sonK~ subject!', while most of those who had the s;~mc_ dose with and without Srmsert hJ.d ''very in tense aggravation of the symptoms. Of course, Stmserl is itself entheogenic, but the thre~hold for such effect is well :~hove rhat employl!d in this experiment. It seems that seroronine inhibition potcntiatc.s the dh:ct of injected DM1~ whereas .MAO-inhibition would be rather.cxpectt·d to incre1tseserorouine concentration in the brain. In all events, these e.xpenm<:nts have little npplicability to ayahuaJCtl. where the key .tvfr\0-inhibition takes pbce in the digestive S)rsrem, not in the brain, enabling the DMT ro be absorbed it~to ~he bloodstre:Hn, thence finding it.~ way to the brain. On the other hand, the fmdtng that an MAO-inhibitor decretm:d the activity of injected DMT (and ~hat it \\-'as

serotonine in!Jibition, nor the inaett.,·ed brain scrotonine fostered by·use oflv1AO­inhibitors, which enhanced the efkct of DMT), may be impor~ant in ayalnutJCrl pharmacology. Iris at least possible that, while rlyalmmr.tl MA?-inhibitors enable DMT to survive the rigors of the gut and be thus rendered acttvc· orally, they may exert an anti-DMTejfi'ct in the bl-ain., which might help t~xplain why oral D .fvlT is much less active rhan DMT :-;moked. On rheother hand, Gracie and Zarkov [1985] had reported that smoked DMTwas poten tiated by prior srr~oking o~~-car~oline­cnriched plant extract.~. but this experiment involved smokmg. not mgestmg the

[67]

alkaloids, as would be the case in tiJithuam.t, and is nor applicable here. Not only is the sedative effect of the P-carholines undesirable, but we have at least cause t;J suspect these compounds ofhaving a parJdoxical effect antagonistic to DMT in tht· brain. The lesson here is that the P-carboline component of ayahuasctt should be minimized; rhat ironically, we net·d less ayahtMscrl in our 111'ttlmttsca !

It should also be pointed out that son;c ttyp tamines ar~ themsdve.~ MAO-in­hibi~ors. Both ~L-mt~thylttyptamine (or IT-290) and o:-crhyltryptamine (or etryp­tamme) were found to have the s:une potency as iproniazid as Jv1AO-inhibitors fGrie:~g ctrtl 1959]. :-~nd the latter was mcd in the 1950s along with iproniJzid <l'i a medicinal MAO-inhih.itor before more specific and less toxic: agents were discov­en::d . IT-290 is a long-lasting stimulant in 20 mg doses, whereJs~errypramine has a shorter duration following 150 mg dos~ fOrt 1993; Shulgin & Shulgin 1994]. It is likely ther~'d be oral syneq,'Y bctw<:en either of the~e compounds Jnd DMT DMT

and 5-MeO-DMT show weak MAO-inhibiting effects [McKenna et ttl. l984b]. In a startling recen t devclopmt·nt, a point mutation (resulting in the deletion of

a gh.ttamine residue at the end of the ~lmino acid chain of the enzyme coded by ont~ sccr~on of the gene) in the gene coding for monoamine oxkb.scA in human beings. le:1d111g to a congenital "complete and :.;elective deficiency of enzymatic acri.vit\' (')f

monoamine oxidase A" ha:i hcen corrchted with ''a ~yndrome of borderline me;Hal retardation and abnormal behJvior" including "impulsive aggre.ssion. arson, at­tempted f<lpe and exhibitionism., (MAO-A is one of two types ofl\1AO ; harm:-~line has been shown to inhibit Ml\0-/\) [I3runncr ct IlL 199~~ ; McKenna & l<nvers 1984J. Al.though 1~1edi~ina l MAO-inhibiti?n has nor been correlated with aggression, thts congenital, ltfdong ddlci<::ncy of Iv1AO activity deci<:k~dly is, al though only the m:Jes h:tving this genetic dci:Ccr manil:c.sr dw congenital i'v1AO -inhibition and th~.: consequent mental impairment and aggression. It sct~ms most likely th:u in malt\~ having this genetic defect, DMT and rhe other ~·hort-acting tryptamincs would be active orally, without concomitant :-~drnin i.~trat:ion of MJ\0-inhihitors. This, def­initely, is mdob~tasca or, perhaps more appropriately, congeui/Ju,uc,t, and it would also_ be in ter~st:ing to conduct drea.n~ research with this patienr cohort, in rhe light of Callaway s endohuasct~ldream vtston hypothesis.

\Xlhilc there have long been some attempts to relate psychosis to f:.tulty brain metabolism, and ' though DMTwas early implicated in chis "indolt· hypotht·sis" or "endogenous psychotogen'' theory [Ott 1993], solid data have been h:ud to come:: by. H~re, f~r rhe firs t ti~ne, i~ has been established thar a heritable, single point mutatwn (u . the alteration of a single base in DNA) leads to biosvmhesis ofnon­functionalmono:unincoxid~tse:·enzymes, andconseqm~ntly to pat!H;logical behavior

[68]

JlSYI :JIONt\UTJC RFI'Uif i'S

.111d nH.:mal ddlcicncy, apparently as a result of ayahuasca-type disordered brain 1111·1ahol ism of neurotr:1nsmitters. ~lradoxicall)r, psychonautic research on pbarma­!lfltuc1l chronicled here, which is so f:tr out of the scientific mainstream that nearly li1ro.::c decades had to pas.s before un.fimdcd :tnd independent scientists working 11111krground and in secrecy put the cn:z.yme-inhibitor the01y of ~~yahuasca phar­l llacol~gy to the test, may turn out to he at the center of re~ea~ch o~ the biochem­isny of consciousness and the genetic.<; of pathological bram function!

·r t is also worth noting that a privarcly-fundcd group is examining the bioch(~mi.s­J:ry and pharmacology o fayttbuasca in a group oflong-time users in Brazil (men:bers nl' Unilio do H-geffll, sec Chapter f<)m) and comparing them to a group ot age­matched controls [McKenna 1993]. One goal of th i~ project is to relate long-term u~e of ayahumctl with known therapeutic indices of l\.1AO-inhibition associated. wirh ch;onic usc of drugs like Aktrpla.n. Nor o nly i~; ayalmrtsca research now at the ncuroscit·ntific cutting edge. but the reversible MAO-inhibitors in ayalnul.SCt/. may prove to bt~ viable. less toxic altcrnati ves to the noxious <:ornpounds currently in use!

DIET AND MAO-I NHIBITORS: A SunPtUSJNG C·1V!~4T

As mentiontd above. administration of the irreversible l\1AO-inhibi.tors used in medicine h accompanied by dictaJy restrictions. Since thtsc drug d iminish the (apacity of the brain to metabolize monoamines. it lus ba·n toun~ that certain foods. especially those rich in ty r:1minc (4-hydroxy·P-phenethylamlllc), mus~ b·~ severely restricted in tht: diet, to avoid toxic interactions involving hypcrtcn~aon .. ht~ada~he, nausea. even intracranial blet·ding. T hus tyramine-rich foods such as liver, vt~ast and fermented foods like cheeses, win<:.s, beers etc. must bt' eliminated from ~he dier of patients receiving irreversible .MAO-inhibitors. . .

Coincidentallv, che anthropolo~~icalliterature on (~y(rl•tMWt sh;tmanJ '>m 111 South Amerie<t makes r~il~rence to several dietary proscription~ enfC.m~ed on the: neophyte ayctlmasqut ro [Luna 1984:d984b]. This diet may consist only of plan rains and of ct~rtain fl1;h--sugar, salt, dJik and other spices are usually probib~tt:d, as ;I~C n~c~tts,

eggs and alcohoL Furthermore, scxuJI continenc(· is an ess<:~ntial fe~ture o~: tratrung for 1t}!flllut/s('tt. T he fan that dicraJy restrictions with a pbarmacologtcal ranonalc are an t~:;tablishnl pan of mcdicinal· therapy with l\1AO-inhibitor~ . and th~tt dietary re~>trictions may also bt: a.s.sociated with tt!;e of '~wthu,tsolini\rrMzonia , ;1 potion now known to contain MAO-inhibitors, has led some re:-:earchers to jump to the con­clusion rh:-~t the Amazonian dietary rcstri<:tioiu have :.1 similar pharmacological

[69]

i\.Y;\HUi\ SC i\ ANt\J.()( : IJJ :<;

rational~. ~o:vcver, on exa~~ning ch: list oft?ods restricted to an ayahwwjucm in Amazoma, It 1s cle:u that this 1s a spenous equLValence- obviously, the Amazonia n restrictions arc p~ur of a bland "purificatory'' diet such as is commonly associated with traditional use ofenrht:ogcm elsewhere. like the use ofpsilocybian ;nushroom~: in Mexico (Wasson 1980: Wasson & \'Vilsson 1957]. The collateral restriction of ~cxual :lctivity. such as occurs al.so wirh mushroom use in .Mexico, emphasizes that theAmazoni:ln restrictions are motivated by spiritual, not pharmacological concerns. T he reversible :MAO-inhibitors from ~~vahurzscfl have diftcrent substrate specificirv than the irrevers ible medicinal Mr'\0-inhibitors. greatly different pharmacokineti~s [McKenna & Towers 19R4] and arc a great de:~! less toxic. Indeed , in the aftermath of several of my '~J't1hurum analogue experiments, I have int~nrionally dined on c!1eese sandw~ches washed down with beer and chased wirh dwcol:m: (:t potentially­ncb somce of ~-phenethylamine; Ott 1985). with absolutely no ill effects. It is pro­bable that the transient MAO-inhibition of the r~-carboli nes in l1ytl/ltJllJCtt hascC;lsed or greatly diminished by the time tht: DMT cfft·ct.s are over, h.ut prudence would dictar: not ingesting cheese, beer and chocolate during the trip! Gcntral1y, short­tt:rm f-asting is a good idea bef<m: taking r~yulma.ret.t or any other em hcogen. Not only do these drugs effect nausea in some p;~.tients, but the fulsome feeling of a stt1ffed ~elly is not conducive, shall we say, to a "higher rhalmt experience." T his Sj>iritur;/ factor explains the diet:uy restrictions associated with ,~yal111asc·a and many other traditional entheogcn:;, which is quite unrelated to the coincidental dietarv re­strictions associated with nH:dicinal MAO-inhibitors. Afier all, in the GISt

0{ aya­

IJUtt.sca,_ one is seeking~:xa_ct:ly the disordered monoamine metabolism with resp-ect tO DM r that the restnctton of tyramine in the d iet is dc$igned to /lfl!fJC11t; and we mustn't forget that occasional euphoric reactions to medicinal MAO-inhibito rs arc regarded to be a ne!'1ti1'e side-effect of the therapy!

T he unexpected cavc,7t is not that phenethylamines in fl_y,zhumc,zan: dangerous; we know rhh is not the case. The rtweat here is to be very careful not to ro beyond the data and jump to conclusions. T his applies also to the data on rly,rburm;t and phmnullma,rca prl,senrcd in this book. \Xt have only 25 data points or; chemistrY of ay•t~Jtttl5Cll lia . .nas; o nly 15 on tJyrthu,uctlleafadmixtun::~; only 16 <malyst~~ of ayrdm;IJm ponon:;7 A~ f~r ph~n·11ut.buasm. we have only :.omc three don:n data points involving ;\ small handful of psychonauts. I have milk<:d these data for aU they arc wonh , but am acutely aware of their limitations. E"<trtme mution i.s advisable with regard to psychonauric cxpt:rimentation ... look before you leap, and don't make f~Kilc assumptions. based o n superficial understanding from limited and hagmentary da­t:l! I f you arc m doubt . . . don't jump in at aiL .. leave it to thecxperrs! Gavetltemptor!

[70]

CHAPTER FouR

From Ikn-Amazonian to Ihn- Gtean Entheogerz

· rl1c: first written ment ion of r~yalmmctt appt:;lrs to have been by Jesuit priest Jose C:hantrt: y Herrera ll90 I], who at the l:nd of the seventeenth century alluded to a /Jrci)(Jje diabolico (d iabolical potion) mad<:> of ~~Jtllbllttscrt lianas by the Indians of tht: tvhii;as district, in the upper Amazon area of Pen!. Some years later, another k~uit, J. Magnin, made a similar obs<:rvation in the s~mc area [~!a~nin 1 ?4~] , and i~1 17_37 a Jesuit p rie!lt n;uned Maroni gave more det:uls about an mtoxtc:mng po_non m­gested for Jivinatory ;\nd other purposes Jnd called rly<'tfntttJi'rt, wluch dep~wes one of his senses and, ar times, of his life" [Jimenez de .Ia Espada 1889]. O n the other hand, later naturalist/explorers like C.M. <.k Ia Condamine, FH.A. von Humboldt and C.F.l~ von Martiw; all failed ro mention the ''diabolical potion'' [Reichd-Dol­rnatofT 1975: Schultes 1986b]. As outlined in Chapter One, it remained f(n· rhc pioneering British botanist Richard Spruce to initiate scientiJlc studies o~· the O;Ytt·­

lmr1Jcd complex in 1851-1859. and the fi rst !'ciflltist (>r outsider t~ eKpenence_ the full dtccts of the potion appear!' to hav1~ be~~n Ecuadorian geographer Manuel V t!la­vicencio in the upper Rio Napo region in 1858 [Spruce 1873: Villavicencio 1858]. Archxolo~ical rem;lins in South .America testifY to th(: antilluity of t<JI.dma.l·ta usc [Naranjo '] 986]. In this fi nal chapter, we shall examine the story of ,ty.thwlSctt 's astonishing tnmformarion from an ancient, p;m-Amazonian ethnomcdicine into a much-es~eemcd. modern, worldwide or pan-G:c~m enrheogcn.

The public:~rion by R . Zerda Bay6n [1915] ofhh note!O on travel in Amaz~nian Colombia made references to the alleged telepathic effects of tl)'tr!mtuta, and to the

· early chemical work bv thi's aucho r and G. Fischer Cardcn;ls who, having isolated har~ine from the drug and mistakenly belit:ving it to he a n~vd compou~1d, nal~cd the compound tekp<'tlintl<>r tclcpathine. This inspired the famous Amcncan wnter William S. Burroughs to journey to Colombia in 1953 in search of what he called his «fin:J.l fix." Burroughs experienced ay,thucm·af1rst-hand and made experimt:nts

[71 ]

with Bmriiteriopsis material he collected. In 1963. he published a bookofhis letter~; to poet Allen Ginsberg. as well as Ginsberg's letter to Burroughs from Peru in 19<>0. describing his own ,~yahuas(.'(l experience [Burroughs & Ginsherg I 963]. The 'f.ig,· Ll'ttt:rs were to influence greatly modern consciousness of the Amawnian mm'lll.

and to di.m:minare the idea of the telepathic properties of the drug, 'though neither Burroughs nor Gin~berg had repol'[ed :ll1ything like a telepathic experience.

Eight years later. an obscure mestizo aynhutt,fqttenl n;uned Manuel Cordova-Rios and F. Bruce Lamb published Wizm·dfsic] o_fthe Upper Amazon, an account of the purported boyhood abdu<:rion of Cordova-Rios by Amahuaca Indians, and his subsequent grooming as their chid: including the usc of ayalmtiJCfl that allegedly provol<cd shared group vi.~ions, a poor man's telepathy [C',rdova-Rios & Lamb 1971]. While looking for :t publisher, Lamb had sent the manuscript roAmahuaca expert R.L. Carneiro. who told him that C6rdova-Rio~;' talc wa:; ''an imaginative piece of jungle ficrion" and who later recommended that Natural History Press re­ject the manuscript when they sent ir to him for evaluation. which that pre.~s did [Carneiro 1980]. Atheneum published W!iz4rrd, and when the American writer A.T. Wei! cited it in his best-selling first book Tht• Nnttmrl Minrl [Weil J 972]. it gained prominence. \Veil did not know Carneiro had denounced the book as fictitious, and accepted it at face value, as edmography, citing the accounts of ayrlhun~·ca.st::.~­sions as evidence of what he called "the reality of shared consciousness." Wcil even wrote a laudatory imroducrion to a second edition of the book [Lamb 1974), again referring to the supposititious telepathic powers of rryabwum, and the book was later reprinted as "Ethnomcdicine,'' with a r•erso quotation about "group vision ses­siom" tl·om \Veil's introduction, accompanied by another t•tmo quotation describing "rommtmalvi~ions" [emphasis in the original] {i-om t~ynb7111JCtl. Lamb even milked the interest in alleged "telepathic" tt;udmmca f(>r a sequel, Rln T~vr. 1111d B~vnnd.

Astonished by the success of wh:u he regardt"d. to be "jungle .fiction" tricked up a!i eth nography. Carneiro <"lecidcd "to lift rhe mask of respectability and reveal the imposture,'' :md published :m essay explaining numerous errors and incongruities .in the: rale which led him ro call it Chimera oft!J£.' UpperAm11zon (Cordova-Rios had assigned to rht: little-known Amalmaca composite traits gleaned from superficial observation of variousAmaz.onian Indian groups. particularly tht~ Bora and Wito­co) [Carneiro 1980]. By the time d1is expwhppeared, C<>rdova-Rioswas dead, after enjoying fame and success brought him by thl~ book. Nevertheless. Carneiro quo­ted Ctirdova-Rios admonishing people overawed by his colorful tales: "Don't be­lieve everything I tell you. It could all be a li c." (No cmm todo lo que /t,•s digo. Pucde sl'rttJdnrncntirtt.) Nonetheless, Lamb challenged Carneiro's opinion (despite having

[72]

PA~-1\MAZON IAi" ')'() PAN - Gll'.i\N

TABLE IV-A PLANTS CoNTAINING MAO-INHIBITING ~-CARDOLIN.ES*

AGARJCACEAE Coriolus maximm (Mont.) Murrill [Human

11 APOCYNACEAE

Jlmsonitt trtberwzrmtmttlml W..Ut. [Harminc 1 etc.] Jlpocymnn cmm11binum L lHarmalol] Ocbrosia ual .. aimut Koidz lHarmanl

BIGNON IACEAE Newbotdditl /acuis BenthJlll et Hooker fil. [Harman]

CALYC/\NTHACE/\E Cizivmntlms occidmMli.r Hooker et Arnot [Harmine]

. CHENOPODlACE.AE l-lmmlltltlil !t1Jiodttdtl (Pop) Tljin ['!C:trahydroharrnan etc.] Kocbin scoptzritt (L.) Schrader !Harmine l'tc.]

COMRRETACEA.E Guiera sl71l'f.t1Lmsis Lamarck fHarman t tr.J

CYPERACEA£ Ct1·rx bm,icollis DC. [Harmine l'tc.]

EL\EAGN/\CEAE Elaatgnus tmgustifo/ill L. lHarman etc.] Eltlt:tl,f!11U hnrtrnsis M.B. [ll:rr:1.hydroharman etc.] ELMagnm orimtalis L. [1etrahydrohannan] Elaertgnus spinosa L. [Terrahydroh:uman] Hippopbae rbmmwirln L. [Harman ctt·.] Shepht•rdin ttrgrntM Nuttall [ll~trahydrohannoll . Shepht:rdifl rm~tldmsis Nuttall l"fenJbydrohannol]

GRl\MINEAE Ammlo drmtlx 1 .. [Tctrahydrohnrman 1'/t.]

Fcstuaz arrmdin,uM Schreber [Harman etc.] Lofiurn permne L. [Harman etc.l

LEGUMINOSAE / Jc,lcia bai/eyan(J. F. von Mueller D"etrahydroharman) Acacia complrmata A. Cunn. [Terrahydroharm:m ttc.}

&rkrrt af;·imntl Hooker [Fbrman etc.] De.mJ(Idium pukhrllum Bentham ex. Baker fH:uman etc.]

[73]

J\1ucuna pruri~ns DC. [6-Methoxy-Harm:m] R•ftllostyli.> fabicheoiries R. Brown [Terrahydroharma.nJ ProsopiJ nigrrz (Grise~bach) Hieronyrnu.~ [Harman t.W.]

LOGANIACEAE Strycbnos mr;mbarr.nsis Gilg. [Harman]

MALPJGHJACEAE Hr:misteriopsis r':lrrtpi (Spruce ex Grisehach) Morton [Harmine etc.] &misteriopsiJ lutM (Griseb~Kh) Cuarrcca~;as [Harmine] &misteriopsis muricatrz (Cav;mi!Jcs) Cuarrccasas [Harmine t'ft.] Ct!ktmm rtntijcbrile (Griseh~Kh) Johnson (=Gobi pamrnsis) (Harmine]

MYRISTI CACEAE

Viroltt cwpirlatil (Bentham) \XI;uburg [6-Mcthoxy-l-brrnan] PASS I FLO RACEi\E

Rrssiflrmt rlclinea Hooker [Harman=PassiHorinc], PuJJijlora alrUd Aiton [Harman] Rr.'s~flortt rrff,a Li nker O tto [Hann an]

fhss~f!ortJ IH) 10110irll!S Humboldt Bonpbnd ct Kunth [Hannan] P.w(f/ora mcrulerr L. [Harman] 1

Rus~f/orrt tt1Jimlrtris L. {Hannan] flrssijwm decm'sneana Nichol [Harman] Rus~flom edulis Sims [Ha.rman] flus~flm·lr f·icblaiana Mast. [Harman] Rzss~flom.foctid,l L. [Harman]

Pt1ssijlora ine,trn,rta L [Harmine, Harma.line,' Harman. etc. ] f11ssijlom qurJLh·(.mgulrlris L. [Har.manJ R1ss~f!om aff rub~rosrl L. (Harman) Rm~flortt mhpe!ttlf,t Ortega [Harman] Pm.r~f!om t(l(fl'mingii Mast. [Harman]

POLYCONACE,{E Gtlligmmm minimum Lip~<ki [Hann an t·tc.]

RUBIACEAE LtpMctini tt dr:nsif!ont H<>Oker fi!. [Lepraflorine, t't c.]

N;.uc:fta rlidm·ichii [Harman t'fc.] , 1 Ophim1·hi:z.ti.Jttfonica 'Blume [Harman] ,

RJuridi!mth,t t.rllicmpoides Bremck [Harm;m ] BJurir/i,md,,t tiewet•rei Bremck [Harman] l'auridirmtha (yr11li Bremck ['Hannan)

[74]

P:\N- A MAI .ONJ/\N TO PAN- G rl.AN

l:uwir/i,mtha viridif!om Hepper [H annan] Simira ldr~~ii Standley [Harman] Simim mbm K.Schumann [H:mnan] Uncaritt ttftf'tuull<I Ko rth. [Harman] Uncaria canescms Korth. [Harman] Urwtritt orienta/is Guillemin fHarmanJ

SAPOTACEAE C'hrysopl~yl!um lttcotn·tittnum De "Wild. (Norharman e/c.]

S\'MPLOCJ\CEAE Symp!Ol·<'J mcemoJfl Roxburgh [Harman]

ZYGOPHYl .. LACEAE Fil,~ouitl tretim L. [Harm:~n] . Pe{[anum h,u·n}(th1 L. fHarmaline, Harmine, etc. ] Iiibulus terre.rtris L. [Harmine etc.] Zvgophy f!um /(tbr~~o L. [Harmim~, f'tc.]

NoTES

1 Harman ( 1-mcthyl-'>H-pyrido[3.4-/>]ihdolc ;H J-mer_hyl-P~carbo li n~) ilt by_ f.1~ the. rno~r widc.~pread MAO-inhibiting)3-ctrb?linc, havin.g been found mat k:1srtl) ~pcm~ H1 r~~Jrtcm families. It i~ especially common m rhe Pa~s.tHor:~ceac (15 spee1e .) and Rubtl<:~. te ( 1l species), :1nd is also known by the na~1e .fNWijl(m~r.''· C~rhc:r Jc;~-~c~ mt,l?c.~n ?non~ ms fo1 h;trman :tre: m·ibine, /omtrm 11r, lolimnc and Z;VP!frlbtlf!.111t'. \X'h t!c m .un_o ~c:~u lll'lllg I :"It,

calf and mouse liver and brain bomogenares showed potent MAO-mlubmng effects nf harman (~L·•~ foorn0 te bdow), :1 ~df·~;:xpcriment by ;\ colleague with 250 m~~ harman hvdrochloridc plus j ) mi~ DMT(a potentiallr accivc amount) pro~ok~,d no eftf'ct~ . ~ug-

' t ~ . . . 1 "I . I , jjC$ting or:tl harman i~ inactive al' a hu man J\1;,0 -m 11 H tOI".

? Flarminc (7-metho:-ty-] -nwrhyl-9H-pyrido[3.4-/•] indn~1:) , the m~joralk alc;id of rtptllll{lmt.'

~icquircd th~: wnonym~ br~nhltrinc, u·lcjulthiue and )'•l)tlfll', and IS a.Iso !' ~own as IAwco/lrl! ­minc. This c~mpound is only known fro m eight spc:ciC's in six fanuhcs nurs1~lc ~~f rhc

111,,1!Jww·11 complex, including I~rt;rmum /}(tnJ1ll!tl ;lllcl its rel ative~ in the f:umly 7..y~o ­~;hyllaceac . .Ti'ibulus tcrre>tris :tnd ZJ:l!Of'l~)'flum Jabagn.

Harmaline (4,9-dihyJ ro-7-mct:hoxy-1-mcthyl-9 H-pyr}do I J.~-.1>] it~d<>le: dihydroharmin..::) is &lLllld out.~idc of the ay almttsCtl Malpighiaccac on ly m 0mifiora l1~camoftl and ?r.,g,rmwn /;11rmt~ltt. It is unfortunate that this rare compound, ununportant Ill rtya!Jr.~tlkfl p~:tnna­cology, h:1s received so much phann:tcoltigical, 'a ttention at the expense ot harnune.

t. This rable lists plant sp{;cics containing simple P-carbolinc alkaloids '"'·hich arc known to

[75]

b:_.tv1AO-i~hibitors. Four.sepa~·;1te stu.dics have found potent. rcvn~ibk M!\0-inhihiring ~ffect.s ?f Stmple ~-carbolmes Ill rat hver homogenates [UJenfi:icnd et a! 1958], in calf ltvcr mitochondrial hornogenates [Mcisaac & Estevez 1~>66]. in mouse brain and liver hom,ngen~tcs ~Bu,:kholt:r. & Bogg,an 1977] and in rat liver homogenates [McKenna etfll. 198ttal: Constdcnng the four most important plant-derived compounds-harmine. h;nmal~n c. harman and kpcatlorine-thc "LJdenfi-icnJ. group c:>tablishcd harmine and hanm~lmc :1s roughlycqutpotcnr, fi>llowcd by harman and lcpraflorine: Mdsaac and F.s­tevez found h::t~man to be rhe t.nosr potent (with norharman being more potcm still). fill­l~wtd by harm111c and harm::llmc; Buckholtz and Bogg:m determined that harmaline was sltgl~dy more potent dun harmine. with harman und lcpraflorinc less potent; and the McKmllJ group fou 1~d harmine and harmaline roughly equipotent, ag:1in followed bv harman and leptaJlor.l~lC. As ~ored in footnote 1 on the preceding r~tgc. there i.~ !iOm~· doubt a.~. to the oral etftcar.y of' harm~m as a human MAO-inhibitor, a hom which flmhcr re~c~u·':h ':needed. This t:1hlc is abstracted fl:om th(~excdk:nt rt~view''Thc ~implc ~~-carboline al blt~l~s [!:lien & Holrn~tcdr 1980]. which lis t~; a total of 11 2 species in 27 f:Imilie~ conramt~l~ Simple ll -carbolme.~, and the reader is referred to thi~ paper f(>r 228 rcfcren­c~s to rhts Jmportam h~·an~h. <~t phytochemistry. Data on srructurc-activiry rdarionship~ wHh. respect to M:'\0- llllubmon provoked hy rhcse compounds arc sHmmarizcd. in the McKenna paper [ 1984a]. Sec ~trucruresofharm;m and rclarcd plane ~l-c:arbolines below.

Norh~rman

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....... /........... / ....... -....... ,

l~~?tNJ I'- __ JH ~ "(

H CH :'l

Tctrahydroharman

f~ 11 1-J(J ,_j x---n' _NH

. '"-/ '-...,N/ ......._(/

H CH ~1 Tl:trahydroharmo[

P:\ N- /\M:'\ /U:\1:\N Tt) PAN-G/E:\N

hi msdforiginally sought it) .. arguing one might extract some kernels oferhnography f'rom Curdova-Rfos' fables [Lamb 1981a, 198lb]. More than any other book, this ( :a!itanedesquc rail tale was to inf<>rm modern consciousness of the jungle ttmbrosi11.

In 1970 Ecuadorian scientist Plutarco Naranjo published the first full-length hook on aydmasca. written in Spanish and bter appearing in a rcvi~ed edition [Nar­anjo 1983]. Two years later, Anwrican anthropologist Marlene Dobkin de Rfos published T/;e Visionary v;ne, anaccountofdivinatory use of ,~yrliJu,tsttl arnongurlxm mestizos ofPeru.[Dobl<in de Rios I 972]. \{uious books by the Colombian sdenri~t Gerardo Rcichcl-Dolmatoff [1')71.1975, 1978] further drew scientifk attention to ,~y,llmasctl . .Also important in this rcg:ud was an ()bscurc book hy the fl)ltdmtl.w·a re­:>carcher Dennis J. .McKenna and brothcrTcretH:e K. lvkKcnna. which rd{:rrcd to

a sort of ·~yabur~scrt potion with psilocyhian mushrooms a:; the tryptamine source I McKenna & McKenna 1975]. I m ight mention also in this rcg:ml a critique of col­onialism and anthropology by Michael Tlllssig [1 ~)87], \vhich gave considerable sp~Ke to nyrrhrut.rtrt. None of these books, however, had the popular impact of the C6n.!ova-Rfos c1lc which had been hoosted by the attention Wei! brought to it. \XI;,:il \vent on to publish a popular article on ,~yttlwasnt in H~~h Times, and incorporated this into a chapter ofhis second bool< The /'tdttrriage oft/;t SunandMrwn [Wdl1 9XO]. \Veil described finally s~unpling rhe potion in Colomhia, and admitted he f:ti led to

experience" any telepathic news bulletins of dist;mt event~ . " This aJmi~-.ion wa,~ too little. too late, and by this time rhc supposititious '' telepathic" drug was bmous.

S,iNTODti!MR AND THE lJNIAO DO \IEGETt!L

Well before the cntheogenic "counterculture" began to rediscover the Amazonian mnrtrt, the porion had found :t niche in the modern world. Mcsti10 ~~yabua.rqul'ros, after abandoning their jungle home; for the d ry. continued to pr::tct.icc rtytthuascfl

divinatory healing in urb:tn areas ofPen:i (like lquitos and Lima) [Cc)rdova-Rfos & Lamb 1971; Dobkin de Rfos 1972, 19/),1992; Lamb l~J74] and in the Co lombian cap ital ofBogod [Ram fre--t. de Jara & Pinzon C. 1986], eve n as their indian relatives communed: in cvcr-decrea,sing measure. with !:l~'tdJfl Ru1M (the "jungle man") and other "plant spirits" in ever-diminishing i~Jands of primary rainf<)rcst throughout 1\mazonia. Such usc has even expanded to otl1er Latin /\mcrican cities like Mexico City, wdl beyond the traditional range of shamanic usc of tl)'lthuMm [Ott 199:3].

Perhaps more significant is the contcmporaty syncretism oftt.J'tzlmmca cults with C hristian churches, like Santo Daime and the Unitlo do \fgttttl (pronounced "ooh-

[77]

nyow due vezh-eh-taow"), which started in Acre, Amazonian Brazil. in the 1920s.

R'limLtndo Irineu Serra (1872-1971) had been exposed to Indians who used aya­lmasca during the 1930s, while he worked as a rubber tapper and an official of ~he Brai'.ili:m agency demarctting rhe border with Peru. He mer two brothers, Antonio and Andre Costa. who had been initiarcd into the usc of t~ynlmasctl by Peruvian sha­man Don Cresc!ncio Pizango and later founded a church cnllcd Cfrculo de Rcgen­cr<l<;ao e Fe (C RF) in the 1920s. These brothers introduced Irineu to aynbwuca, and their defunct church is considered to be the precursor of the Jnod.t·rn tlyalmmca churches. Mestre Irineu (as he was known ro his di.~cip l c!:) founded hi~ own ttya­

lmasm church around 1910. called the Centro de Ilumina~:io Crista Luz Universal (CICLU). also known as "/\Ito Santo," in the /\ere town of Rfo Branco. He bet.'dn ro call nyalnwsm''Dr1imt!" from invocations like "D:I-me :unor, luz. for<;a" ("give me love, lighr. power"). Jn hi.'l Stmto Dnime religion (the name might be tr:mslared as "Saint Gi'me"), a_yalmtlsca or Daime is the~ solar. maKuline aspect; Nossa Senhora

da Conceil)fto o r Rainha d:t Floresra is rhe lunar, ft-mini nc aspect. symboli1ed by c/tatrOml, rhe tryptamin<.:-rich Psyd;otrirt vi1'irlis leaf added to the potions.

O ne of Mestre Irineu 's disciples, &basriao Mota de Mclo, who became a disci­ple at Alro Santo in 1965 whe n Mestre J rineu cured him of a liver ailment, started his own sect of the cult at his ranch Colonia 5000 near Rio Branco, where Mestre

Irineu authori1.ed him to produce Dnim~and ciJttcrontl with the understanding that half the production go to Alto Santo. When the two groups split over political dif­ference~. the Colonia 5000 branch began to introduce Cmm11bis (m,tconhn or Santa ll1ttrfll) and other enrheogens inro the liturgy. Thi.~ provoked a police raid in Octo­

ber 1981. t<'lnporarily putting Colonia .'5000 out of com mission and l<:adinr, to the illega.lizarion of rlJWimPiCtl in Br:r1,il in .1985. In January 1983. Padr.inho Scbastiao

and his group moved further into the fin·cst away from the road. and started a new colony called C~u do Mapi:i on a trihutary of the Rio Purus, poli ridy abandoning the me of Cmmabis. By 1982, the Hrst urb:m branch of Srwto D?imcwas founded

in Rio de Janeiro. the Ch.amou-se Ccn tro Edectico Fluente Luz Universal Scbastiao Mora de Melo (CEFLUSME). called Ccu do Mar for !ihorr [MacRae 1992].

Meanwhile, there arose an independent ttynlmascnchucch called the Centro Es­pirira llencficcnte Uniao do Vegetal (UDV ). fimnded on 22 July 1961 by Jose Gab­riel da Costa. also in Acre star.c [Centro 1989; Henman I ~>861. This soon became primarily an urhan church, which moved irs headquarter.~ to Bra~i.lia in the 1970s. 17>day it is the largest tJ_VIlbmuctt church in Brazil, with more than 7000 members . There are ocher ayPIJtlasta-u~ing churches in Brazil, such as the C<:ntro Espirita Culto de Ora~o Casa de Jcsu$> Fonte de Luz {later called Centro Espirita D:micl

[78]

P!\1\'-A.MAZONIM\ TO PAN- Git:t\N

H.:n:ira de Matos). the Centro Ecltctico de Corrente.~ da Luz Universal (CECLU) and Centro Espirim Fe, Luz, Amore Caridade, all derivatives of Alto Santo and a ll li-01n Acre state. ln May of 1989, a meeting of the Snnt(} lltimc groups at Ct':u do Mapi;i led to the establishment of a central Dttime church . the Cenrro Eclcctico de 1 :luente Lll7. Universal Raimundo Irineu Serra (CEFLUR IS), w ith the late Padriuho

Scbastiio as head [M'IcRat• 1992]. In 1985 the Brazilian Divisao de Medic:unenr.os do Ministe rio da Sattde (or Di­

med) and Consclho Federal de Enrorpecentcs (Con fen) added Btmistaiopsis caapi to che com rolled substances list. The UDV petitioned the government to annul the ban, and a commission was appointed to study the issue. After two years of field work among urban and rur:tl UDVand Daimf' group!i. during which ritual use of the sacrament was observed and commission m embers t/Jm!Srlvrs tried it. the com­mission recomm.cnded overturning the ban! No evidence of social disruption was observed, and rhc crhicnl and hboral behavior of church members was ex.empl:uy. Accordingly. in 1987 ayahwtscawas removed from the contro lled substances list . . /\

year later there occurred an anonymous dcnunci~uion of the n,rabuasta chu.rchcs ~o Confen in Rio de Janeiro. The preposterous complaint alleged there were 10 mil­lion "fanatic., " of the sects. rhe hulk of whom were ''to:xicomaniacs or ex-guerrillas" (we get a notion of the right-wing political origin of rhc complaint). ~ivcn to smoking Cumabisand taking LSD during the rites. Confen once again appoinred a commission to study the issue. :md the aynbullsCII churches again received a dean bill of health. Not only did the second commi~sion re:tffirm the 1987 decree legali­

zing sacramental rt,)ttlhtJtl.fl'tl in Brazil. but it recommended permanent exemption of ttyabuttsat from Bra7.i]ian controlled substanc<:~.s law~ [MacRae 1992].

T his is the state of :tf'f;tirs today in Brazil; where ~~yn/tuasc,1 churches conrinue ro grow and prospt:r. In wedcly mass , 'f:)'tllmasc,z is dispensed in lieu of the Ew.:h :u'i.~t ti·om a sort of ''Fount of Wisdom," and in Sa11to D<u'mr groups singing: :tnd dan­

cing. may follow. In the SmliQ Daiml' liturgy. those communicants most heavily af­fecred by the potion arc taken into a back room, where church "Mestres" have their own a.lt:us, for individual cmm~clingand ministry. Pl:uunrions of Bnnisterinpsiscllapi and f>J)Ichotria r•iridis have been c.srablishcd in Amawnia to ~upply urban group.~ with ingredients f(>r tht' potion. tbc largc-scale preparation of which is supervised by church oftlcials [McKenna 1992]. Large qwtntities of t~Ytthurrscil (hundreds of lircrs) may he stored on the premises of the churches [Lowy 1987]. It is expressly f~n·biddcn to sell the porion, which die ,'ianto D.rime mem bers call Drime and which the UDV members call CIHi HotJ.sr.tJ [Centro 1989]. Nevt:rtheless, t here is some pro­selytization of the faith. especially by Santn Dnimt enthusiasts. There has lately

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been celebration of introductory IIJtllmasCII sessions in Splin, Catalunya, :tnd orl11.:r European countries. For a modest "donation" to the church, curious would-he members are a..llowed to participate i.n theayalmas''" liturgy. Surely this is bt:ndin~ the proscription against selling t~ytlhumctt! Attempts by Santo Dairm: proselytes to

spiritually edify Americans have rhus f.·u been frustrated. and there is at least one case in which U.S. Customs seized and destroyed quantities of the sacr:.ment, on attempts to import it into the Uuired States. Nevertheless. there is at least on(' "underground" chapter of the Unirio rio I~(CtaL now in the United States, and thl· potential f(.JC expansion of these churches in thl: U.S. is vicru;llly limirless. Un­fortunately. rhis is :1 country in which freedom of religion is much t~tlked abourand seldom allowed! Indeed, the U.S. Constitution doesn't separate church and state; ir merely separates church from the .fi·ril·ml state, reserving religious meddling co sr:ue governments. Despite the f:tct that 23 stares exempt sacramental use of plyotl from controlled substances laws, and a 19791-Cderal court decision established that sacramental use of fit:yot! cannot be restricted solely co Indians. the U.S. Supreme Court bas consistc:ntly shirked it.~ responsibility to e:.t::tblish some uniform judicial policy tmvard minority religions cmploying,(enuinc•, and not p/acebos:H:ramc:nrs.20

A litHUASCA ANALOGUES AS B\N-G!fAN .ENTHEOCFNS

Running in parallel with long-term expansion of ll)'t11mmcn use in South America. has been an ever-increasing interest in nyalmmca among members of the "counter­culture," stimubted by the popul:Jr publications oudined above. There has been an unfortunate trend toward oynlm~tJrn rourism. which commenced at lea.~t as early a.~ 1980-transporr:uion of tour groups to Am:t7.onia with the implicit purpo10c of obtaining t~yrdnwsca l Ott 1993]. This i.s attracting the wrong kind of am:ntion ro the Am;t'l.onian mnrtrt, and contribttting to the accelet\ttcd decrcs(ence of~hamanic

usage of tJytdmrtmt hy turning the porion into a tourist commodity. Mushroomic tourism in Mtxico in rhe 1970.~ contributed to the premature demise of ~hamanic usc of tcolltmticad [Ott 1975], and :t ~imibr phenomenon is occurring today in Mexico with regard ro plyvtl [V:1ladt."L 1986] . Wherl·as popular dissemination of inf(mnation on cultivation of psilocybia.n mushrooms and idt~ntification of non­Mexican species helped diffuse mushroomic tourism [Ott 1993], the possibility of making ~~v"lmn,fcfl analogm·s is having a similar eHect on r1Jtt1hul'liC'tT tourism. The present book is designed to encourage and foment this welcome trend.

As my analogue experiments amply demonstrate, the readily-available and lega.l

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I'A N A I\IA/1 l N li\ 1' T\l PAN-(~NAN

TAULE IV-B PlANTS CONTAINING ENTHEOGE.NIC litYPTAMINES*

ACANTHACEAE }mticiaprctomlis]ac. var. stmop/~yl!tt Lnd. 1 fDMT,l) [Schultes&Holmstedc 1968)

AGARICACEAE Amanita citrinn Gray 2 fO.iv1'f.5MD.w] [lyler & Gr(iger 1964] Amanita porpl~)'ria (Fries) Secretan~ [5MD.w) [Tyler & Cruger 1%4]

AIZOACF.AE Delospama sp.~ [DMTl fOeulofeu 1973; Rivier & Pi lc:t 1 ~)71 ]

Gl~INEAE Arundt' donn.d .. l [DMT,l.r.f] [Ghosa.l t'tttl. 1969; Ghosal a a/. 1972dl Plutlrtris amwlintlcrl'l L. fOMT.5MD.Lw] [Barnes t't ttl. 1971; Culvenor ct ,t/.

19M; Gander ct,tl. 1976; Marten rta!. 1973; Williams et rd. 1971] Ph,tfm·is tuhemstt l.. (=.fl. ttqnatiat) [D MT.5 MD.l] [Culvc:nor et aL 1%4: B:\.xtcr &.

Slavtor 1972: Fr:thn & Illm;ln 1973; Moore l.'t t1l 1967; Mulvcm & Slayror 19S2; Oram & 'W'illi:uns J.%7J ·

Pbmgmiw ,mstrttLis (Cav.) Trin. ex Stcud. [DMT.r) [W:ts~el tt ld. 1985] LEGUMINOSAE

/ 1cacir1 cou(usa Merr.l fDM'f,sr] [Arthur ('t a!. I 9671 Acttcirt nu;it/{'1/ii F. von Mudlcr lDM'f.b l [fit7.gera ld & Sioumis 1965] Acacia tmbiw Bcntham 2 [DMT.l] fWhhba Khalil & Elkheir 1975] Acacia pbitbopl~yl/n F. von Mueller [DMT.l] f_Rm·clli & Vutghan 1967] /1ct~.cia po~yriClmtha \'<'illdenow suhsp. t:nmpylaconrlm 2 Hochst. ex A. Rich

[DM'!;I] [W1hba Kl1alil & Elkht-ir 1975J Acttcitl .rmtgtll (T .. ) Willdenow 1 [DMD] l\X~thh:1 Kldil & Elkheir 1~)75) ;krzcitt simp!h·dvlirz Druct: [DMT,b.l,stl [Poupat ft a/. 1976) Anadcnrmdtrrtl cofubriua (Vdlozo) Brennan var. dhil (Griscbach) Altschul

(=PipMtlt•flitl macromrptt) [DMT,s,p] [Fish ct,d. 1~>55] . Anodnumthrm r.>.xelw Grisebach [D.MT.s.p] [Iacobucci & Rt'1veda 1%4] AnndcnrmtiJmtpm·grinn(L.) Spcg-.t7.zini [DMT,5MD.b.l.s,p) [AgW"ellt•tiiL 1%9;

Fish f't nl. 1955: Legler & Tkhcsche 1963) Dcmumt/.tus illinomris (Michx:.) MacM. [DMT,r,rb] [Thompson eta/. 1987] Desmodium ttwtf,rtmn DC. [DMT.r.st] [Ueno ct al. 19781 Dmnodimn g,mgrticwn DC. [DMT.5MD.w.r,st,l] flhnerjee & Gho~all 96~> ;

Ghosal & Banerjee 1969: Ghosal & Bhattacharya 1972] Desmodium gymm DC.2 [DMT,5MD,l,r] [Ghosal l't ,tf. 1972c]

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;\ \'r\H l !t\SI :,\ l\ N i\1.1 ll , l l l'.S

Dt·mwdimn pulciJf:!lum Bentham ex Baker [DMT,5MD.w,r,st,U] [Ghos;ll & Mukherjee 1964,1965,1966; Ghosal ettzf. 1972a]

Desmodium mcemosum Thunberg [5MD,w] [Hsu 1970] Desmodium tt·~florum DC.2 [DMT-N-oxide,r] [Ghosal et nL 1971a .. 1972b] Lespedu~l bico/orutrczaninow var. japonica Nakai [DMT,5MD.I,rb] [Gotu et

aL 1958; Morimoto & Mat:mmoto 1966; Morimoto & Oshio 1965] lvfimosa hosti!is Bcnrh:1 [DMT.r] [Gonc;alve.s de Lima 1946; Pachter et aL 1959] Jvfimostl .rtrtln'l?!!a Bentham [DMT.bJ [De Morae.~ et al. 1990] Mimostt tcrmiflortt (Willd.) Poir. [D.MT.5MD,b] [Meckes-Lozoy:~ ct a!. 1990] .Mucuna pruriem DC. [DMTSMD . .I,s,sr.r] [Bhattach:uya tt a!. 1971; Ghosal

1972; Ghosal N aL 197lb] .Peta{ostylis k1bicbeoidn R. Br. var. ctweoidesBcnth. [DMT.I,st] [Johns eta!. 1966]

MALPJ G HlACEAE Bnnistaiopsis muriwta (Cavanille) Cuatreca!ias2 (= B. rtrgmtM) [DMT:sr.IJ

[Ghosal & Mazumder 1971; Ghosal ctrtl. 1971c] Diploptnys cnbmmtn ( Cuatrcca~as) Gates ( = &misttriopsi.r rmbynna)

[D.MT,5MD.ll [Agurcll etrtL 1968; Lkr Mardero.~ ian eta!. 1968; McKenna et aL 1984a; Poisson 1965]

MYRISTJ CACEAE hyanthem ulci\V.trburg 2 [5MD,h] [Holm~tedt: ct rd. 1980] OsteopMoem plmy.lJH!rrmnn (DC.) Warb.5 [DMT.5.MD.b] [Holnmcdt t:fttl. 1980] Vim/a calophyllrl \'\1;1rburg [D.MT,5MD,b,r.l,s,f] [Agurell el rtL 1 %9; Holmstedt

et td 1980; McKenna tt al 1984b] Vim/a tt'tlopl~ylloidea Mukg~;tf [DMT, SMD.b,l] [Holmstt~dt ct a/. 1980] Virotr ,·arinrrttt (Spruce ex B(.!ntham) \V;trburg ~ [D MT.I] [Holmstcdr eta/. 1980] Vim/a dim>l;r(tnS Ducke2 [DMD] [Holmstcdt eta/. 1980J Virol<l dongrtta (Spruce ex Bentham) Warhurg2 [DMT.51vlD,b,l] [Holmsredt

ctaL 1980; McKenna ettll l 984b] , Viroln mclinonii (Benoist) A. C. Smith~ [DJ\1T:b] [Ho.lmstedt r.t flL 1980] Virola multinemia Oucke2 [DMT.5MD,b,r] [Agurdl et t~l. I%9; Holmstcd.t et

al 1980] Vim/a ptwonis (DC.) Smith [D MD] [McKenna <?t a/. 1984h J

Vim/a per/17Jiana (DC.) W.trburg [DMT.5MD,b] [Holmsrcdt tt a! 1980] Tlirolarufokl(DC.) \XZ-u·.[D.MT.5MD,b,r.l) [Ar,urdlettrLl%9; Holmstedtcttd 1~180] v'im!a .u·b~fortt Aublct [DMT,b] [Corothic & Nakano 1969] , Virofa theiodom (Spruce ex Benth:un) \'V:uburg [DMT:5MD,b,r,l.f] [/\gurell ('t

aL 1969; Holmstedt et aL 1980]

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p,\1':-/\MAZONIAN -rn PA:-\-G:EA:'\1

Vim/11 fleno.ra (Bentham) Wu·burg2 [D.M'f.5MD.r.I] [Agurdl t t tll l%9; Holmstedr ct rd. 1980]

OCHNACEAE 71:stulet1 gabanemis Pcllcgr. [DM'I,b,rb] [Leboeuf ct ,t/. 1977]

POLYGONACEAE Erigormm sp. [DMT) [Schroeder 198G]

RUBIACEAE Psycbotritt carthrt'(i.nensis JaC(}Uin [DMT:l] [Rivier & Lindgren 1972] r~:ychotria t'iridi1:Ruiz et Pav6n ( =P p.~ychotriaejb!itl) [DMT.ll [Dcr Mardcrosi:m

. ct rd. 1970; McKenna r:t a/. 1984a; Rivier & Lindgren 1972] RUTACEAE

Dictyolmnn intttnesc-ens DC. [5MD.h] [Pachtt-r et a!. 1 959] .Dutrtil(y('tf dmpaccr1 (Baillon) Hardey [5MD.I] [Bnudouin eta!. , 1981) Dutrril(yM oreophi!tt (B:Jillon) S~vcner-Pusset [5MDJ] l&udouin et tJL 1981] Etl()(iifl. mtm'f'll1j>rl Bentham [5MD.fr). [T:tkagi et al 1979] Limonirt tJCirlissimu l.2 [DM'Ist] [Abu Zarga 1986] ivfdicopc lcpif.KOC{'tl (lhillon) Guillaumin [5MD,l,st] [Skalrsouni:> et 111.' 1 98:~ ] Pilom1jJIIJ' m;~;mensis Rizzini et Occhioni [5MD,I] [Ha.lsam & Voigtliinder 197S] vFpris ampody H. Pcrr. [DMD] [Kan-Fan eta! 1970] Zrmt/;mqlum mlHwscms Rost·6 [Divn;I] [Grina et 11!. 198:2] Zrmtbox.Jilum proccmm Donn. Sm. [DMT,l] [Schroeder 198(J]

NOTES

t Alrhough preliminary t~:sts indicm:d the presence: ofDMTin this :~romatic additive to cnthcoicnk Virol<r ~nuff; used by .~omc ,\V.tik1 lnclians [Sd~ul rc~~-& Holm;;tedr 1%8], subsequent t.:s ts faikJ to confirm th i~ [McKrnna ctaL lWllJ.b) . l hcrplant may be: used simply ro Havor or pn.:~ervc tlw snuHs. On tbe other hand: the M.cl<enna group found DMT an d 5-MeO-DMT .i n a bnranic:llly-undonunentcd Yanomami) snuff~<tmpk from Yi~ne:r,uela, m tb·h a huri, C\'idtnrly p;·cparcd exdul!ivdy from .fustic-i,tpectomlis. Tbe author~ noted the anonuly, and spt:culatcd thar there might have hetn an unknown additive, or a tryptamine-rich chemical ra.:c ofjusticirtpettiJI'Irli.l'.

2 These species contain trace amount~ 1)f enrhcogenic rryptamincs (i. e. belen.,; 0.(J2lY.l), :tnd arc probably unsuitable for use in tl)'tiiJIItJ.ti'll analogues.

J I have hecn unable to locat1: the primatT rc:port of rrypt:unines in thl' Ddo.(pcmut specie~ ((:>t:ulofeu 197:\). As rhis is widely cited in secondary reports, I include this species here.

~ In preliminary chemical study of .MinumJ ho.<tilis root used a~ the basis of the Brazilian

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enrheogcnic pot~ on 1fin~o d ·Jw:cm((, an alkaloid named rtigyrimt or nigerin -= w:1~ isol:t rnl [G~ns-al~~s de Luna 19116]. Thrrtecn y~v.s h tcr DMTwas isolated in good yield :It rlw Smrth, Klme ~md French pharmaceutical laboratories in the United Srarcs fi·om roots of ~Mi~nosa hos~i!i-~ provided hyGo~lc_;:tlve~ de Lima, and it is widely thought rhat 11igerinaw: 1 ~ tn fa,ct OM 1 (P:Jc~t(~r eta! 19)<)]. Although .M. ~~~~m and J~f. verrucosa were repow.:d by Gonc,:alves de Lrma as alternate bases for porions, the.~e remain unstudied chemically.

\v'hcn Holmstedt's group conducted cxtt·nsi"c chemical analvses ofnwrisricaceous snuff plants d~u-ing the Alpha Helix Amazon Expedition of 1 ~177: they rep~rted enrhcogenic tryptammc-.~ Ill many specie.~ of Viro/a, inlrv;mthtttl ulei , and in (),·tMpbloem p/,t~)'Jjlrrmum [Holmsredr t l til. 1')80]. T~e name of the latter was written in a table a.~ 0. plrttypl~yllum r11(J11U'f! "!Jdmn], ;~! though I t was corrccrly spelled in ;Ill appendix. Analysis of a single s:tmplc ol l;~IVe~ of· t~1s plant derccred only N-rnethylrryproph:tn methyl esrer (McKenna r: rd l9l:Hb l; tn, ellis yaper. a~as._ the name was incorn~cdy spelled in rhe t:1ble ~ts 0. !'"'~YJjiCI:um~ml. S~p of th1 ~ speCies 1s used hy Quijo~ Quichu::t lndi:1ns as an oral enrhcogen m comhmarwn wuh a BmgnMII.rim;pecics and 'fttf,ermtl'montan,J J'tm1m/1o [.Ahrdml9~)0].

r; Xrmtl~o-~ylum ~~~rrrtiuict'IJf'_ of~he C:trib~can is~aici to be "narcotic" :md is tL~ed as an ingn:­(hcnr u~ the H:Htlan .::wm/Jr ~01s_on [DJvts 198~], and may also be a source ofoyprarnines. B:uk of a Zrmtl~~~~-"l?'m sp<:cJcs 1s used as a r<>p1cal analgesic by Amazonian Kotan lndian~ [Schulre.~ & Rafbul 1 <J90], and ~imilar use is made of bark infw,ions <lfa North 1\ mcricm :/rmtltoxylum specie~ known colloquially a.~ the '' rooth:tchc tree."

• Sec also the review by 'I: A. Smith [1977], which lists n spc·cies or gcncr:t containing one t>r -~cveral of 19 nyptanu~cs, wirh :1 bibliography of 119 -~ourccs. Lcrtcrs in square brackets refer to DMTand 5-Iv~d~-J?fv~T [5MD] in leave~ riJ. ~ccds [-~] .pods [p] , seems [st], bark [b_). roors_ [r]. flowe~s [l'j, tnm_(frJ, roor ba~k [rb] or whole plant [w] . Exdudc:dis rhc n:p<Ht of Dl'v~T r?-1}-r.rtr>mrumlffz<JIIt!'tr [Hnchstern & Par:tdies 1 ~57], (sec Nore 17 and Schultes &Raffaut_l9~0). :his is rhe only report oftrypt:unirlt;s of any kind in rhc hmily Apocyn­aceae, whrch rs :t nch source of ,;;pccicl' containing indole alkaloid:; of the ibogaine: series [Ott ~993; V..m Beck tt,tl 19~1]. Also excluded are anima( species. ~arch a~ rh~ ro:td. H11j ) afmrms, whose: venom cont:uns 5-MeO-DMT. since the literature in this area is rudim­cr~rary. The evidence indicates that virtually fl!l mammalian species will be f()llnd to con­ram D~rr, probahl~ a ma~1malian n_curorransmittcr. Any attempt to li~r :lflim:tl specie.~ poss~~SSlng DMT. a lm wluch would r_nclut~e T-fmno.fapim,-, would be hopelessly selective and m:tdcquate. See 1'/Jamtttco//teon for references tO this incipient field [Ott 1993].

N,N-D imed1yltryptaminc

CH}O(cb1 , _) I N

"'--v/ N ./ ~ H

5-Med10xy-N,N-Dimethyltryptamine

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I: :~ill/11111 hflrma!tt or Syrian rue seeds can efficiently and s:-tfely replace BaniJt<'riopsi.f ~pecies as a source of the MAO-inhibiting ~-carholincs . Indeed, these :;eeds contain roughly ten rimes the concentrations of ~-carholines f<mnd in Banisttriopsis stems. Th1~y are used to dye text-iles and ~1s incense, and are easily ;1nd cheaply available ti·om Mid(Ue Eastern groceries, under the Ar:1hic name csplumd, for approximately $25-30 p(!r kilogram. 'I'•ble IV-A lists 67 ~;pccies of plants which contain known MAO-inhibiting P-carbolines, some of wh ich might also be useful in formulating '~}wbuast:a analogues. T he reader i!> also referred to the excellent review by Holm­stedt and Allen [1980], which Jist!' 112 species in 27 Etmilics known as of 1<)80 to contain ~-clrboline alkaloids, and fc:amcs an excellent bibliography to this litt:ratun:.

T;iblc I V-B li:>rs 62 species of plant·s reported to contain either DMTor 5-Mt:O­DMT, with indications as to the appropri~tte plant parts. Not all of the~c speck s an:

suitable for ayalnuJ..fCI/. analoguc~-fiftccn were reported to contain only traces of cntheogcnic tryptamines, :1nd for some (e.g. }ttstidtl pectoralis var. steJWfihylla and P~ycbotritt cm·thagiuf'n.~is) , there is contradictory cvidenc<'. O n the other hand , the following; ten species have been reported to contain substantial quantities of en­thcogenic tryptamines: 1) Phtdaris tubcmJtl , one ltali:m strain of which has been said to contain higher levels ofD1vfr than arc known from any other species [Samorini 1992]: 2) Acacirt. m,ridenii, the b;trk of which contains OJ IJ<Yo DMT [Fiuger;lld & Sioum is 1%5]: :3) A·atia pUebophylla, whn~c leaves contain 03 % DMT [Rovdli & vaughan 1%7]; 4) Acaci11 simpfic~{ofi,r, reponed to contain 0.81% DMT in the bark [Poupat ct aL 1976]; 5) D ?J/lJ(mtbus i!linomsh, found to have 031% DMT in rhe root hark [Thompson eta!. 1987); 6) .Mimosrr. hostilis, ~hown to contain 0.57% DMT in the roots [Pachter tt fiL 19)9]; /') Vim/a thciodom, reported to contain 0.44°!1) DMTin the flowers [Holmstcdt ct a/. 1980); H) M(:fimpt· f(p ococra, with 0.21 <Y,l 5-McO-DMT in the leafy branchc); [Sl< alrsouni~; et aL 1983];'9) Pill><·,·trpm orgmu·mis, having 1.06% alkaloids, chiefly 5-McO-DMT [Baham & Voigtl:inda 1978] and l:.t.~ tly, 10) KpriJ flmpor(y, shown t:o contain 0.22<?!J DMT in the k1f), hranchc:s [Kan-Fan et 11L 19701.

Potential cxperimt~nters are warned of several t:fl1' t'fltf . First and fo remost. there is relatively li tt le dat:t on any giv<!ll piant, and we must not put roo much faith in solitary reporrs. Strain :md habitat diflt:rences may drastically influence alkaloid conccnrrarions within a given species. Moreover, many of these plants contain other alk tloids or phytotoxins ofdiffenm t chemical categories, ap:ut from the uyp­ramines. The inactivcN-methyltrypt:tmine (MMT) often accompanies DMTand/ or 5-MeO-DMT in plants (for example in D. i!!inomsiHQ()ts, of which 25% ofthe uyptamine fiaction is MMT), which poses no problems, but the noxious bufotenine

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!\ YA III I :\.'iCt\ !\ N A I ! H; I J F .. '\

(5-0H-DMT) is found in some plants, like .Amrrlrnanthmt.~pp. [Fi.~h rl ,t/. 1955: Pacbrcr rt a/. 1959]. Some specie.~ contnin other: alkaloids of known toxicity. for example the psychoactive p~yotlalkaloid hordenine in D~smodium gongrticum and Dutail(yM ol·tophi/4 [Baudouin l!t al 1981 : Ghosal &. Banerjee J %9]. Worse still, numerous lmown and novel alknloids of obscure toxicity h;tve been found in some of these plants, like /Vft!icopr lrptococca, which contained eight alkaloids apart from 5-McO-DMT and its tV-oxide [Skaltsounil' et t.ll. 1983], and Vtt)ris ampody. with seven alkaloids apart from DMT [Km-Fan ct tiL 1970].21 Most dangerous of all is the pos.~ibility chat some trype;unine-concaining species might al.~o harbor highly toxic compounds yet undiscovered. \X!hac if: f-i)r example. it were to turn out that PilrJcllrpm or~rmmsiscontaincd rhc highly toxic imidazole alkaloid pilocarpine, al­ready !mown from several species of rhc genus? Or what if aliiendly neighborhood herb ocaler mi.~ rook a toxic Pilocm1>US for p orgmuwsis? The would-be discovert"f of a noveioynlmasca analogue just might become an inadvertent discoverer of a new deadly-poisonous phnt! Bcfi.>rc ingesting 1111)' phnc or "herb" do your homework. consult rhe litcr:mm:, make certain that there is at least !iOrnc rr:~ck-rccord for hum­an ingestion of the plant, which can give guidelines as to potemial tox:icity and dos­age. Look bcft">re you leap; usc your head before blindJy ingesting rmy unfamiliar pbnt, for any rca.~on ! 1 cannot emphasize chis too strongly .. _ chis is a dangerous bus­iness, and c:tsualtit:!i arc all- too-pos.o;ible. My advice is ... if in doubt, do11t: tlt1 it !

On the other h and, in time :~nd with careful cx:perimemation, we arc certain to discover additional safe and effective tryptamine sources for ayalmrLfta analogues. \.X'c already know Acrtda phltbopi'Jlla and Dmwmtlws illinoensisacc suitable. and I think it p robable that Acrnirt simplicifnlill, Acm:i11 mrtid£'11ii, Pbaftlris tuherosa and possibly ~>omc of the ruraceous species will p rove robe safe ;md effccrive sources of rrypramines for ayahruucrt analogm·s. Computer bulletin boards like Alt. Dmg:; on the fntrruet arc excellcru fora for exchanging information on psychonautic ex­periments, but Cat•e Fmtem . .. beware that Big !JrQthrris listening, roo [Levy 1 ~>91; Stcrli ng 1992]! Th~ marked adv:t mage of ~~ynlnuw:o analogues over other emhcogens, like LSD, mescaline or psilocybian mushrooms. is that even city apartment dwel­lers, with no land or chemical or botanical knowledge, and not need ing the long­term commitment of cime and energy required to master tricky procedures like culrivation of cntheogenic mushrooms, e m theoretically prepare a safe and effec­tive entheogen in less rhan half an hour. using technology and equipment already available for making caffeine-enriched extracts of coffee beans! Furthermore, rather than run risks by having to purchase and usc watched chemicals or equipment, simple dried herbs, some ofwhit:h arc already available commercially and havcvar-

[86]

p,\N-A~~i\Z(lN IAN TO PM\-Gti'.J\N

iouii licit uses unrelated to ~~yahuasca analogues, can be instantly transformed into cntheogenic potions with water, lemon juice and heat, with no danger wh:uevcr co the consumer! The cosmopolitan nature of potential source plants for ayalmmca ~malogues is another distinct advantage-no smuggling required! Ay,thu.rmt hotealis can be made, afrcr all , from R!ganum hamltl!,rsceds and Desrmmthus iliinocnsisroots. northern shrubs from semi-arid climates; ecologically and morphologically as dif· feren t as can be from the rain-fcm'St I ian as U!it'd to make ,~y,t/•uttS(.'tt tUtJtralis! \'\ie have here indeed, the potential for a pan-Gxan enrhcogen for the new millennium!

EPILOGUE: A PANAC/£A FOR.~INWf:it?

Exactly two hunch ed years ;1go, on 10 October 1793. a 35-year-old London engra­ver offered for sa.lc productions of ten of his own "illuminated" wor.ks: "of equal magnitude .utd consequence with th t: productions of any age" including, for rhe price of 7 shillings G pence. a rern:trkJ.ble "Prophetic Book" with 14 illu~>tr:ttions. entitled Tlu: Marri11gc rifHmt•m rmrl Hell.lf anything. William Bl:tke ·was guilty of understatement. l~r rhis wide- ranging satire of politks. religion :md philosophy is nothing bs than one of the greatest poems ever penned, in English or any other language .. Appalled by the spiritual materialism of his contemporaries, and hau~ted by rhc spectre of rhc Industrial Revolution then casting irs long shadow over Eng­h od . Blake's poetic words are :1S meaningful and actual roday :ts two centuries ago:

All Rihlcs or sacred codes have been the causes of the following Errors: 1. T hat Man has two real ex i ~ting principles: Viz: a Body & a Soul. 2. T hat Energy, call'd Evil. is alone fi·om the Body: & that Reason. call'd Good, is :tlone from the Soul. 3. T hat God will torment: Man in Eternity for following his Energies. But the fol­lowing Cormaries to rhr!ic are True: L M:tn has no Body distinct fro m his Soul; for chat call'd Body is a portion of Soul discern 'd by the five Scn!'CS, the chief in lets of Soul in this age. 2. E nergy is the only life. and is from tbc Body; and Rca.~on is d1e bound or outward circumference of Energy. 3. Energy is Eternal Delight.

Bbkc spoke cl ircctly from rhc logos, cas ring in English words and engraved designs what he saw ... nothing seen with his ''mortal and perishing" eye, but "organized and minutely articulated'' visions perceived by his "imagin:\tivc and immortal organs"

[87]

1\ \'AH l li\S I ' t\ /\Ni\ 1,1 )( ;1 Jl ~'i

and "in stronger and better light than his perishing eye" could !\ee. Blake saw rha r there wa.~ no conflict berween Flesh and Spirit, Body and Soul; rha.t it was a qucnion rather of a dynamic interplay between matter and energy; that the materiali.~tk perception of solid bodies was but a crude distortion of th e all-encompassing reality as filtered through the five senses. "the chief inlets of Soul" in a materialistic age. Recall that to Blake the five senses closed humankind to rhe "immense world of delight" that is "ev'1y Bird d1at cuts the airy way" (Blake 1946]. Again. Blake:

Bur first the notion that man has a body di11 tincr from his soul is ro be expunged; this I shall do by ... melting apparent .~urfaces away. an d displaying the intlnite which was hid. If the doors of perct:.ption were cleansed every thing would appear to man as it il' , infinite. For man ha.~ closed himself up, till he sees all thing~ thro' narrow chink~ of his cavern.

BJal<e was anticipating by more rhan accutury the physics of relativity and quantum n:~chanic.~. Phy~ic isrs, applying their "imaginative and imrnor r:-~ 1 organs" ro rheir VISIOn s from radw telescopes, electron microscopes and particle acct'lerators. have come to sec sciemifically th:tt "Energy is the only lift:.'' and that our ewryday per­ception of rhe universe as nutter is ~l sort of hallucination opera rive o nly ar a ~ery gross and superficial level of perception. Solely by a counrerinruirive process of ''melting apparent surf:1c<::s away" c:m the scientist or the mystic di~covcr "rhein­finite which was hid." In rhe psychopharmacology of rhe entheogens, we have the means to reconcile rhe unseen, mystical worlds of the physicist.~ and poet$. For rh e enrh eogcn$ constitute, as Albert Hofmann asserted. something like "cracks in the infinite realm of matter.'' ancl operate "at the borderline where mind and matter merge" [Hofmann 1980,1989]. They arc to philosophy and pharmacology what the raclioacrive isotopes are to physics-crack~ in rhe marcri;tlisric edifice of reality, when· matter spon taneously transf(mns, or profoundly altc~rs consciousness.

Planer Earth, Our Lady Gxa, is suffering mightily rhc consequences of our m:tt­f'rialistic world-view. l:specially the Judmo-Cb ristian tendency to ~ee hum:tnl<ind as a spt:ci,tl creation, apart from all ocher Gcan life-fi-mm, and as enjoined , moreover, to ~~~~due ~nd domiJ.late other creatures. T his horrendous dual ity is a modern sup­erstttJOn, for thccc IS overwhelming scientific and experiential evidence which as-sures us rhat we <~re buc one strand in the warp and weft of life; biochemically kindred to every other G.:ean lif!::-form and descended from the same primordial anccsmrs. T his is a treacherous superstition, for placing of humankind above and

[88]

p,\N- /\1\1!\/..0N IAN TO PA~-GIEAN

beyond Nature has led to rhe objectification of our planet and all her G.ean crea­tures. lnstead of revering our pl:tncrary mother, from whose cavernous, salty womb we have miraculously leapt forth, we sec only property ... things to be bought and sold. Rather than marvel at the etcrn:tlly ephemeral, living miracle that is each and every one of our feathered, furry,leaJY. spiny or !'caly brethren , we sec only dinner, resources that c~n be exploited. And exploit them we do, so ruthlessly that the extinction of plant and anim;tl species. nay, of entire habitats, is an cveryd:ty occur­rence, and by rhe time it dawns on us char we, coo. art: on the endangered species list. it may be a triHe roo late! Th~tt is where nyrduutsm comes int.O t:he picture, as a healing h;tlm for the lesions

of materialism ... a.~ a prospective }'t1171JCI1'11 for our great sweet mother P.mg.rtt. For the CS$cncc of the entheo~~enic experience i:; ecstasy. in th(; original sense of the word fk-stnsis- thc «withdrawal of tilt: soul from the body." It is an indhble, spiritual, non -materialisricsrate ofbdng in which the universe is experienced more as energy than as mat:t:er. It is Blake' ~ Erernal [)(-light, the! :m;hetypal religious experience, the heart :md soul of shamanism. the pin nude of human ac:hicvcmcnr in the ;~rcha ic. prelite::ratc world. It is co sec. as did Blake, that "every thing that lives is Holy," u.r included. aucl especially Our L::ld}' Gxa. chis living, breathing. growing and evol­ving biosphere ... to rcali7.e that· i'l't'ry place is a sacred place, for t he universe itself is divine, iris our creator. \Xie arc G:t:,ln creatures every one. woven of the day of this watery blue planet (seasoned with a bit of star dliSt), but the Earrhen atoms thar continually tlow and plait themsclvc~ chrough our bones and blood and sinew are animated into this ec.~taric dance of life by thermonuclear srell:u energy.

Shamanic cc.~tasy is the rCIII "Old Time Religion,'' of which modern churches are but pallid evocttions. Our forebears discovered in many time:; and places that in the ecstatic. cntbcogenic e~xpcricncc, suffering humankind could reconcile the cultivated braininef.s, which isolatccl each individual human being from all other creatures and even from ocher human beings. with th~: wild and feral. beastlr m ag­niflcent bodies tb:tt we also arc. Bbke said it beautifully, that this Energy oflik rhis Et~::rnal Delight is from the Bodr . . this Body which mig)u be ~cen n.~ an elaboratt· energy-proce~sing machine workinr,to maintain consciousness in a. biocomputer .. . or perchance the Body and the biocomputcr alike arc just d abJoratc mech;u1isms f(>r perpetuating rhc replication ofsowe invisible. diaphanous strands of nucleic ac­ids! This m)'Jterium tn•mmrlum. chis tmitJ rnystica, chi:; eternally delightful experi­ence of the. universe as cn<:.rgy, is a Jim: tjlltluon of religion. it is wbnt religion isfiJr! T here i1> no need for £'lith, it is the ccsratic experience itself that giws one hith in rhe intrinsic unity and integri ty of the universe, in oursdve.s as integral parts of the

[B9l

whole; that reveals to us the sublime majesty of our u nivcr.~e. and rhe fluctua nt, sciJJ­rilbnt, alchemical miracle that is quotidian consciousness [Ott. in preparation].

We must come down h om the juda::o-Chrisrian pedestal and revd in our k inship with our fellow plant and animal creatures ... we must repudiate religions which difendtJgttimt relig iom <c>xpcricnccs, wearily celebrating communion with a plncl'lm sacram ent, which requires flith and gives none! We mu.~t foster the Entheogcnic Reformation, rc.~toring the vcty heart ami soul. yea, rhecorc mystery to exsanguinated, purely theoretical rei igions which hnw lost touch with spirituali ty; hence all mean­ing and rdcv:1nce. ~ m ust reject w hat Bhk1! called 'pale rdigious lcrchery'' that h t:als not the gaping wound between Body and Soul, bur would rear them a$under!

Entheogens like ayrilmnsat may he just the right medicine for hypermaterialistic humankind on the th reshold of a new millennium which will determine whether our species continues ro grow and prosper. or de!'troys it$clfin ~l massive bio logic:tl Holocaust unlike anything the planet has cxpericn<.:cd in the last 65 mill ion years. Most of us really don' r believe in chc god~ a ll)' more: f<.:w among 11s have much ttith in our governments, nor in science and technology ... bur we do hclieve in the magic of drugs! \Ve believe that .shors t:an cure 'most anyrhing ... we don't want to he told

that smoking, drinking alcohol. lack of exercise and poor diet may lead ro coronary disease, we want a "magic bullet" rhal willm:tlu: it go away instantly. ~ counr on

drugs to heal our ill.~, assuage our pain, to immohilizt• the violent, to wake liS up. to put u.~ ro slecp, to make us sociable, to entertain us, to relax us, ro make us smarter, to make m stronger athlct('S ... drugs we believe in, 0 y<.·s ! It is n supreme irony rhat a material subHance, a drug, could be the effective medicine against materialism:

Perhaps with all our modern knowlt·dgc we do not need rhc divine mushrooms any more. O r do we need them more rh an ever? Some arc shocked that the key even to religion mighr be reduced to a m ere drug. On the other hand, the drug il' as mysterious as it ever was: "like tit~.; wind it cometh we know not whence, nor why.''

I venture to answer R. Gordon \'%sson '~>rhetorical question: precisely buausrof our modern Jmowlcdgc. t(le nud 1h dit1ine ('lltbcngrm morr thnn t:tJer. Eu from raking

the mystery out of religion. the restoration of gmuincenrhc::ogcnic S.3cramcnts put!' the Iv~ystery back into rdigion, obviating the necessity of faith in sophi!Oticnl doc­rrines. The Entbcogcnic Refi>rmation is our beiit hop~ f(1r healing Our Lady G:ca. while fostering a gemtine religious reviv:tl for a new millennium. That revival is un­derway in the vast tent of this watery blue planet . . . Gi'me that O ld Time Religion!

[90]

NOTES

1 Jn 1978. R. Gordon WJ.._~on convened au informal committct· of rc.,c:_trchers i~Hcrestcd in rhe crhnophannacognosy of shamanic incbriants. to look for a s~1bsmu~e fiH madr~u­:tte terms like "hallucinogen ic" (which implied Jelu~ion an~/ or f.ds1ty. hcs1Jes SUf!.SC,~ttng p:ttholog;y to psychotherapists), "psychotomi~1ct.ic." (implymg.al~o pa~hology) am~ P~Y-. chedclic" (besides being a pejor:trive r<:rrn preJUdtcmg sha~1:tfl iC mcb~l:llltS ll1 the ~yc~ o~

~ 1~ ttnf'-• n1'1li·tt' with the ticld this term had become so mvc~t<.:J wtth connor:tnons of pcr.,or ., • · • k r 1 · · 1960s western ''coun tcrculture'' a.~ to make it incongruou.~ ro ~~~t':l or as 1a~1an rn~~s t1 ng :t piyclwlelic plant). 1 have summarized the his torr of psychrtleltcan~ IMllucmogmtc tn m~ recent book PIJrtrmflcothum. Members of our commitrce were cla~steal schob~s Carl A. l. Ruck and Dmny Sraplcs of Boston University, and iml~pcndcnt erhn<~botan 1s ts Je~~~my Bi£,•wood, \'(.';1sson and rm:. One of Huck's early su~gesnons wa.~ tf'Opttc ~rom,_rhe lttecl.~ t /lflf!UHo dc.~cribc initiates ro the Eleusinian My~tencs who had seen trt hrmr, rl~: holy. w.~.~.~on didn't like this term ... as he sctid, it sounci~d like ' 'po~, go~s the we:1.~el ! ~ pr~>­po!ied f'httrmflrtltlmm, which had the adv:mta~e of al~:cady belllg 11~ the o~~rd Et~((,lr.rh D;ct;071ary. but it seemed too much of a mouthtul, bes1dc~ not adapnng gnccfully to the adjectival form. \'«: finally seni~J on rhc ne~lot;ism mt~Jt'ogm/ir/ •. fr~m ~he ~reek tntlm•.r. a term used by rhe ancient Greek~ to dcscrtbe prophettc or poer1c 1 nsp1ratr?~ · The rerm means literally "r.::tli7. ing the di\'ine within," and mn he seen a.~ rhe. user re:1lt?.mg.~h;1r. ~~ t: •·: , · c '·c· ·til <l ftll" l·re:nion or ~pccific:tlly that the entheogtrurpbnt ts rrself tnfim:J Ul\·11\l. lllrU., ·•· ~ ·· ' ' . • ' d · O' ·

with the divine. It is 110t a rheological term. makes no referc~cc to an~· cu:y, an . IS not mcam w be a pharmacological term for designati ng a spccdlc chcmtc~l class o.t .. ~r~•gs (f'.tychrddir, fi>r example, has come tO be sec~ by some .<~nst~ sfl'lt'fll ~s ·~ t<.rm _ro J~~IJ,'~·~te mescaline-! ike [i-phcncthylamines or DMT-hke tryptamrnes). R1thcr, tt 110 a c~~tuul tc 1m.

co i ncludc all rhc sh:una.nic inebrianr~-~:1craments. pbnr reach~rs , the Mock.-rn-trJ.de of ·h . · rltP ,vorld over. As Bernard Ortl7. de Montcllano h:ts po&nted out, tlus word best s :tm.ms , . 1 • • t · N' l 1 rcHeccs traditiona l conccpti()ns of sham:1nic inrbriari?n, a.~ J~<u~~teu oyanc1ex~t . :~,~~:It: t<~rms iw:h quineh1111 "it take~ po.~.~e~sion of him" or Jtr'CIJ q11t::tl It c?me~ out rn hr m tO.

describe rhis [Orti~. de Montellano 1990]. We b unched the ncolog1sm m the }ilurnal (1 l~ydmlelit· Dru,?,.f, in an i.~suc which I cdirrd and in whic.h I ~ug~cstcd the name hechan~ct to joumalu{ Entht:oKmic Drugs fRuck tf ttl. 1979]. Th1s drdn t come ~o pa5<, but I thm it i nAuenc~d the rdirors to change the name to }oum.1/ of Ryd,o,rctn•e Dru.~s two years

[91]

J\YA I J\1 1\'\C'/1 J\N:\ I ,ll C;I JI ·, \

b rer. cousigningpsychrdelir ever more to the ob~curity it dewrvc~. 13y my counr. our new word has appeared in print in at leasr se\·cn language5; the major Europe:tn languages plus Catalan, and has been widd y accepted by leading experts in the field . I expect the recent publ ic:~ tion of my Phrtmlltcotbron to e~rabl ish rhe word solidly in the English-. German­ami Spanish-speaking worlds.

2 Even with the lim ired availabili ty of sr:trring materials and chemical reagents under rht· modern "\X/;u on Dmgs." LSD can be manuf1cturcd fcH· a pi trance. J\t the peak of irs dem:1nd as the si xtie.~ gave way to the seventies. LSD ~o ld J\1r :thour U.S.$4000per gram in the United States. A gram repre~ent!l 10.000 dose~ of 100 meg. or a wholesale cost of about$0.40 prrdosc. At this rime, ergotamine rarrrau::. the mo~t rational starring material for bl:t<:k-markcr manuf 1crure of LSD. was selling fo r ahom $30.000 per kilogram. from which L<;D could be made ar :thour a ] 0% yield in primitive and large-scale conditions. A~mming 3 kg ofergoraminc tart rare and $10.000 worth of ancillary reagents, equipment :tnd collateral costs. one kilogram of LSD could be rn:mubcrurcd fill· roughly US. $100,000. T his kilogram of LSD would rcprc:s~n t 10 million Jose~. or a production cost of$ 0.01 prr dose. Even when the: whole.~alc value· ofT .SD dmpped below $2000 ,/if'r gram in th<: late 1970~ and e:u:[y I ~80s. this sr.illrcprc.~cnted 20-fold value tHidcd. a si'l.abk profit margin. L1 the early days of rhe LSD marker. doses of250- JOO mq; were sold. but the typical dose quickly dropped to I 00 meg. then below. and today more likely hovers around the 50 meg lcvd [Brown & Malon<' 1973: Marnell 1993: R.atdiHc 19731.

•1 As I summari7.(.'d in great dcr.til in Pht~rmtJCntbi'011. there is much confusion in lay use of

termi nology relating; to rhe provenience of drug~. The term .~ynthrtinefers to rhc manner of manufacture and is nor a <j ll:tl itarive term. Drugs may he either l lfthmtl (if they have been found to occur in plants or animals) or tJrt{(fcilfl (if they ba\'e nor). Even 1l!ltllml drug~ may be .~yntf,rtir·. if they arc manuf:tcturcd by human arrifit·l;. Psilocybin c.: and DJ'vlT :uc c::x:tmplcs ofsyntlletiolrlflll'tllj'rorlllt't~-. a.~ rhes~ have mostly bl·cn labor:uory-rn:1de. Any rlrt[/iciri/ drug can be as.~umcd to b<! so only prol'isionally. as lllt(fiti,lf compounds. crea­rio ns of the laboratory, 11·np1endy arc· f(,und. with furthl·r re~c.1rch . to he 1111ftm d drugs. Again. DMT is :t perfccr. <'X:un pk. F im~yn thes ized in 19Jl, itc'<istcd as :m .mificial drug fllr 24 years, until it wa~; dd in itivrly ~hown to he J 111111md drug ancl an ac.:rivc principle ofmiJobll or Y'1'0 snuff (~ce Chapter ·[\vo and Phtii'JI/tiCl)/b(tJ/1) r r ish ('/a/. 195'i: ;\{anske 19J 1: Ort 1 9~l 3 ]. It is rhe height of h>lly and prcsum prion to em bmcc ~omc· drugs. on the basis of their being nttturtll. aml w rO!jecr others. in rhc hdicf they arc ttrtijici11l-we c:tn­nor know which pre~umabl}' nrtijicitd compounds will larcr. like DM'l; \.Mit WI and poly­c:ster, be tcmnd in 1:1ct to he narur:t l producr~~

~ In the :n1cienr lndi:1n I~~· H·dtl, tht· oldest ofche four !.{·das:tnd :t fimd:tmcnu l sacred scrip·· turc of Hinduism. which d:u:<:s fr.om the middle of the sC"cond mi.llcnnium befc>rc tht~ Chri.~ri;1 n cr:-c.. exalted po<:try i~ dirl·Cted ro &mul\vhich wM, :1t once, a ~od . :t plant, and the juice of that plant. R. Gordon \X':tsson dc·voted tbt: better part of:1 drc:-c.dc to concerted swdy of Som11, and hi.~ book Sum11: [)it,inr MmlmJom of lmmorMiiLy. be~ ides being a m;merpiece of rhc writer's and bookmaker's :trr. is one of rhe greatest and mo5t important

[92J

NoTE~

scientific books of all history [\V.1sson 1968]. T he Rg \Ma repeatedly refers to the Soma potion- most decidedly an cnrhcogcn. as Vedisr Wendy Doniger b:ts as.~crred-by the name r1mrtfl (sometimes writrcnmnrit,1 or ttmrrcftl. :tS ir would he pronounced) [Doniger O'Fbhcrty 1982]. This word would be translated as "ph:trmacotheon q or "cnthcogcn," 'dwugh the Ox:fordEng/if/.1 Dittit'llilry give~ '' immortal. ambrosial.'' Indeed. the cognate term in Greek is mn/Jrn.~in , rh<: lcgenrh ry t(Jod or. more precisely, drink of rhe Olympian gods, which \.\'as obviously in origin an cntheogcn like Sow a, if nor idcnric:1l ro it (indeed. the evidence would indic tte rhar both.SOmdltlnn'/a and nmbrosi,r/ucclttr were ori~in:tlly encheogenic mushrooms) . T he int.::rc~red re:tder is referred co my yet-unfi nished fJIJ,Jr­milcuthum IT: E11tbtoi(mil' Pbuw nud "'" Ori,~im njRdit:itms [Ott. in prep~1 ration].

1 From the time of the R~ IJ.d,,, circttl500 B.C. t<> the end of the fourth ccntuq of our em. there wa..~ celebrated .u~ annual initiation into the sacred My:.~eries ofEicusis at a temple ncar Athens. Anyone ~rcakin~ Greek and having the price ofadmi~~ion was accepted tor initiation. hut only t>nce in a lif(: time. Most of rhe leading intdlccru:~ l s of anri<tui ty were initiates. and many te~t i l·i ed to the value of rhc rxperienc<: which was "new. asroni.~ hing. inacce.~siblc to ra tional L~ognition.'' 0 1· rhc cxpcricncc ini tiatl'S or wpt.·.~ could only .~:ty they had sec lrl hir1·rt, "the holy"·--·it was f~1 rbidden by hw. under pc·nalty of death . to say more. from the Fragnwnr:1ry hint:: of sevc.:ral wri ters . from :tn anonymous <:ighth century B.C. pl)rm calkd the /Tomu it H_ynlllf() Dmu·ti'l' (which described the foundinr, of rhc Mystery by Demeter. w id:.suicken over the abduction of her daughrer H:r5ephone by Hades). fro m a fresco at Pompeii, we know thar che initiatl'S drank a potion t:a lleclthc J.J'If('(m or "mixtw-e" pn:p:u arory m experiencing a ~!>u l -~hattcrin{; vision which was for­e,·er tO enrich their lives ~md convert them into l'popw. those who had seen. ln 1978 R. Gordon \Vt~Sllll. Albert Hofinann and Carl A.P. R.u(.'k unveiled the hoary sr<:rcr of rhr Mysteries which had hcl'll guarded. f(,r 3500 years, when they pwposed that rhc: I!Jtl.•roll was an cmhco~;eu ic potion containing LSD-Iik<: ergo line :tllcaJoids. 'fhe reader is referred to rbeir book :f/,~ Rr1111Lto T:lr.usis: Unvrifingt/Jc' Scm~t oftl'r .A~)'strriN [Wa~l'on eJ ,t!. 1978] for Jccaik anti to my l lf.!itrrmu:otf:,r.on [O tt 1 ')~31 f(>r :t summary of this theory.

<· T he nLunc of the ancient d assical Mother Earth Goddc::l' is spelled either Gai:t or G:ta. T he former i~: pronounced as in German Giia . '' gay uh," although the suJng<: mispro­mmciaticm ·• guy uh ~ has t,tkt:n root in the Enr:lish-~pc:t king world. making the name of rhc most teminine of dl'i lies sound :tlmost ma~cul inc! The :t lrr rnate orrhography. Ca.;;t. i~ pronounced "jc~ uh" (as in Tlm.(.ta. the:: primorcliahupcr-conrinent of geological [G:ca­lo~;ica.l] plate-tectonics theory) . Since [have suotirlc:d rhi$ hook Thng.trm EnthtOKI'f1J to highlight the cosmopoli tan n.uurc of dyrth urHCrt analoj~ucs. I have decided to spell her nJmc Ga-a (Grrt in Sp:tui~h). An obsolete name f·(>r t:he O ld World is fhf...,ogd'a. I refer ro the "evil :1nd hrpocrirical. fi.frecn-hundred-:md-ninety-cir;ht-ycar-olcl crusade ro climi nat<: rhi~ class of clrufi.s from rhc f·~cc: ofdw Earth;· darin~"t from rlw de~ rructionofthe Eleusin ian s:~nccuarv bv Ah1r i ~\ Coths in J%A.D. This even; marked rhe de: mise of organized f>Jf;:ln religion in ;he i'vtcdi terrancJn b~t.~ i n. mtd che decisive downfa ll of the classical world.

7 Authors of the earliest treat i$C~ on l~nthcogcnic drur,s. dating from the middle of the la~r

l93]

cenrury, cho:.e tO call rhese substances "narcorics.~ Ern~t Frcihcrrn von Bihra's ~em in.rl Dir Nnrkotisdwt Cmufi'mittrl unddrr /trfmsc!J(Mrrcolit Dtimits rmd 1-/umnnkind) l1851], James F. Johnsron's Tilt! ClmnistryofCommon Lifi:, with eight chapters c>n "The Narcotks we Indulge fn" [1853-1855) and Mordecai Cub itt Cooke'.~ Tbr 51-vm Sistm ofSirtp. Jl,p­u!ttr History oftht !>i'IJ(fl Prt't•ttili1lg lVttrcotics oftbr \'((Jr/d [1860] all made this association. When Richard Spruce first reported his studies of ay.1hutuca and entheogenic muffs, he called them "remarkable narcotics~ [I R73] . T he word nnrrotic. however, derives from che Greek word vap~ec•m ~o:-riJ.I . "co benumb. to stupefy," supporting the definicion of uarcotir as: "inducingstupor,sleep. or imensibility" fOifordEng/is!JDicti(mmy. Compact Edition. P·. 1R95l. This is pr('ciscly the opposite of the effect of enrheogen~. which :~rc potenc stunulanr> :mtagonists ro sleep. and sensitizing agents! 1 have summarized the modern rrususc o~ nm·cotic in this context in flhtlmlltcotlmm. commenring also that rhc word is decideJJr _Pejorative in that it ha.~ a~~uired a modern seme of"an i lli~it suhstancr." Any­one scnMtlvc to the nu.lflces :1nd pol1t1cs of langu:1gc would be loathe ro ;1.ssociate the r.crm wm:ntitwich the cntheogens [Oct 1993] .

H Chemical an_alyscs of~ bot:~nic;llly-undocurncntcd entheogcnic tpolfi muff pre.• pared hy Venewelan Sunu:1 lndrans found hannmc and ri-kptatlnrine. plus rract-s ofharmaline in rhc po_wder f~crnaucr 1961: Holmstedt & Lindgren 19(i71. Although various ~-carboline alka.lords arc mdecd known from Viro!tJ. species used in rhcsc :;nuHs, rhcsc three have never been ~ound in Vim In and arc ddinitc signatures of Brmisttriopsis and orher Malpighiaceae used 111 ayrllmrm·11. These ~:~me three ~-carbo lines were also isolated from cbc stem of a li ana-cvicl c.n_rl~ Btmistr~iopsis-:-said to have been u~ed in preparation ofparid snuff by Tukano and l:mana lndrans of the Rio Negro [Biocca t l ,11. 1964]. T hen· is rhus ~ome evidence for rh~ involvement of flmli.rtl'riop.ci~· in the S<>uth Arncriclll snuff complex, and Holmsre~t & Lrndgren [1967] comrne.nted on the possibili ty of an fl)'lrbtfllmt-rype phar­macolo~lcal synergy between ~-carbolrne.~ and rryptarnincs in rhc snuff$ (~ce page 19).

9 The mural~ in the great Mc.w-American metropolis ofTeotihuacan are eloquent graphic r~~ms t~ the sacred enthcogcn.~. Disembodied ercs abound, which W;"'!>Son has propos"d robe a srmple and natural glyph representative of rhe visionary eye of the serr i nebri~ncd with entheogcnic plants (W;asson 1980] . The lovely mura l ~ arc f-ound in numerou~ low. labyrinthine buildin g.~ which evidently served a.~ a·namkt for the sJcrarncnt:d inp_cscion of wondrous mush_rooms. nlnliuhqui, Ska f>ustor.tand the other Mexicnn eurheoAcns (.~ee my P!Jt~rmm:otiJron h>_r det:1ils on Mexican sbarnanic inebriants; Ott 1 1)9;\). · L'hc murals depict rovmg d1sembodred eyes, and enrheogenic plants whose flowers are "all eyes" and from which flowers exude dmpler.~ of entheogcnic potion with appcnded Ji~cmbodic:d eyes. I~~ecd. whar_cou.ld r!1c:sc _"Ji~cmbodicd eye drops" repr~;scnt. other rh:1n rh..: cntheogcnic VISionary porron 1ssurn,:: from enrbeogenic flowers fOrt & \'\:,sson l'HU]? To the ancient Aztecs. ''flowers" (xochitl ur ihuiuti ) wa.~ a metaphor filr cnthco{~mic plant.~. :tnd even flowcrle~s mushrooms were called xodJirumrJcrzd-"flowcr rnu~>hrooms," emht'Ogenic mushrooms. When rhe murals show "speech scrolls" adorned with flC)wcrs. this must represent the logM or oracular speech of the pricsr immeDed in a temit:..:och or "nowe1y dreJm"-cnthcogcnic dream~as cx.prcs:•ed in tccpi!!t~tol/i, the ~acrcd l:111gtrage of priests

f94]

Ncrn.:'i

and of poets [Ciccres 1984: Leon Porrilla J%1; Ordz de Montellano 1990: Ott 1993].

' 0 .During the 1977 Alpha Helix Amazon Exped iticm, extract.~ were made of fresh mare rial of Brtm.ftlsin grrmdijlnrtt .~ubsp. trhuftr . .-ii bark. which "con rained large quanti tie.~ of sco­poletine which was shown to proce~:. [sic] psychopharmacological activity in mice." How· ever. the scopolcrinc-frce fraction was furrhcr fract ionated. and appeared also robe active. The pharmacolOf.'Y of these intriguing plants remains to be complercly resolved [Schultes & Hofmann 1980].

11 Besides rhe problem of rhe :Ul:tl}'Sis of a sample of nynh111urt1 which had been kept more than two years without refrigeration. rhe 1970 paper by the .Der Marderosian group is difllcult to imerpr<:t owing; co St)ll1C apparent typographid "rrors. Although the porion reportedly contaim:<.l ().007% harmine and O.Dl l% harrual inc, the :tmhors claimed to h:tvc efkct~:d "the separation of CI)'Stall inc DMT and harmine from it." 1-hd hann:1linc in h ct been present :lt a concentration 50% greater than harmine. it !'cem~ most unlikdy that rhc lcs~-conccntrarcd of these t\vo :dkaloid~ (which arl· vc'JY similar chemic~tlly) would have crystallized. ollt. In their condusiClll~; tht: authors vaGudy St:\tcd the typical dose conr:tinni "about 0.02 g of harmim· or b:mn:tl inc," notint; that "frequently t\vo or three times this dose is consum<:d" [Dcr Mardc.:rm:i:ul etrtl. l ~J70] . Given the other evidence ~bowing harmine :tnd rl- l cpt~1Aorinc ro lw the m.1joc :lll<alnids oftt)ltlhtiiJ.~IIl, with harmaline a~ a trace con.~titucnr. and thc.~e author:~· rc.:pc)rr ofh :win{~crysrallized bt~rmine, not hanna­line from the potion. the report of SO% more: harmaline than hannin,; ~cems anomalous. The fa ilure co report detection of d-lcpcatlorinc is another anomaly.

It Ikside~ Btmirtrriopsis rc1npi samples li·om rhe Culina and Sharanahua Indians. R.ivier and Lindgren [1972) <lnal11.ed ~~tmpb fmm mesrirA>I~)'IIlmasqut"rosof19uiros and "faraporo. Po.:ru, find in~ 0.57'Yol and O.RJ!•.;, alkaloids rc.~recrivcly, with bves of cir/o oy.1lmt1sett from Iquiros containing 0.2'5%. McKenna later reponed :t rirlo "'Jflbumca sample from Iquiro.~ ro cont:Jin 0.17% a.lkaloiJ :.lMcKenna rt rtL I 9R4a]. Rivier and Lindgren aho an:tl}'?.cd a mc.niw ~ample from Rfo lbyali. and ~amples from Ecuador and Bra7.il, as well as from Piro Indians of J\:r(t and Marinahua Indian:. uf the upper Rio Punls aro.:a.

u McKenna·.~ f1 ')84aJ group also :m~lyzecl 11·cerc-dried ttyn/.Ju,,Jr.u samples from Iquitos and 'T:Lrapoto. H:n'•· hue provided no information on pn:pauti011 or dosage levels. The sole sample hom 1;\r:tpoto ~.:ontaincd 0. 2~J% tot.tl :~ll<:tl oid~ (~0% harmine, 3M1o d-lcptaflorinc, 14cYo h::~rmalinc and no DMT). T his sampl..: had been prepared with l~ychotrirt mrth· agmmsis [sit] , a.nal y~ is of which had f~1il..:d r:o detect DMT Three different !'amples of JquirosayaiJtW.if,tcontaincd 0.()7. O.Jl :mel 032%, alhaloids (avcr:\ge 0.4JI}b), of which 42, 3:3 and i7% (average J4'}o) w:r.~ harmi ne: 3R. J.1 :'nd 30% (;rverage } '1%) d-lcpr:~Oorinc: 9. 17.20% (average 15%) h:trmaline and 1 1, 8. 2'Vo (:wcras c: 7%) DMT Assuming a dose of 100 mi. these would ave.: rage I) \I t ro 3~lmg rot:ll alkaloid.~. with 135mgeach ofharminc and d-lept::tAorinc. (iO mg harmaline: and 213 mg DMT

1" Even an old ~unple of crystalline harnuline from a large Germ:ln (;hemical/pharmaceutical

[95)

company was found on analysis ro consi.\t of a mixture of mu~h ly rwo parr~ harm a I i 111 to one parr harmine, the latter t:videndy a decomposition product [Shul~in I ()~J5j.

1~ Tt.trncr and Merlis conducted experiments on 14 "schizophrenics'' in a New York mcnt :d institution, whom rhey treated like so many guinea pigs. T hey bcg;m conducting rem with bufotenine, a nmciou~. non-entheogenic trypr:mline (5-hydroxy-D MT) whi~h hod already been ~hown by Howard D. Fabin1; and J. Robert Hawkins [1956] to provoke Jill· thre-atening circulatory crises. turning the face.~ of four unfortunate Ohio Stare Penit('ll riary inmates "the color of an eggplant" diluted! 1itrner anrl Mer! is also found dramati-. circulatory cri sc.~ following intravenous administration of 10 mg buftltcnine to one nf' their helplc~s ''paticnrs," and only ceasen abusing bufotenine when three of their "pa­tients" nea rly died after rclati vdy small Jo~es of the d n tg. Unbelievably, Turner and Merli~ injected their charges with the dan gem us drug "as they were coming out of insulin com;1 or to llowing ~T" (dectroshock ~o-calkd "therapy"), a.<t well as :tfrcr prctreatmem with chlorpromazine and rc.~erpinc. In che two cases involving rrscrpine and chlorpromazine. "each of these [bufotenine] injections almost prm·cd f.·ua l in small amoums (between 2.'i and 5.0 mg)" with cessation of brmrhing and the characteristic cyanosis, c:~va licrly described as a ''plum-colon·d'' f;Ke! Th(· ''patient.~ becam~~ fi·ighcened roan extreme degree," which inJicJtes they weren't wo br out of touch to percrivc that their physicians (and jailers) wer"' ttying to kill them ! Ju.~r getting warmed up. the Drs. Hyde proceeded rn experimcnrs involving intramuscular injections of DMT imo ten "patients." Although 5-20 m~ DMT intranasally and up w .350 mg orally were inactive, 25 mg intramuscuhr injections of the drug were impressively active, with "one or more evidences of fear'' in each of rbc nine suhjccts receiving this dose. One "p:Jtient" reportedly said aCrer a 25m~ injection ofDMT. " Yc>U frighten me. Wh:Jt have p>u done to me?" Nevertheless. the mud Joctor.~ f('Sponded /~y inrmuing t/Je dosl' ro 50 mg in suhstlptenr tem. Only when a female "patient" almmrdicd from cardiac arrcl't alter a 40 mg injection ('\·x treme cranosis quick­ly develop,·J"), hcing without pube f()r .30 seconds and necessitating cardiac ma~sage to

:;ave her. we fl.: the good doctors scared inro a ~>cmblance of caution. Fifteen minute~ after her ncar-f.1t.tl injectionofDi\tiT, the wretched woman was "able to scewdl. and to re~pond to a microphone by ~aying: '"Edte that away. I don't like rhcm. '"Even 'though Iitrner and Mcrli~ trcarcd rhcsc ill-sr:mcd "patient~·· like so mmy laborar01y animals, by their recorded n:~pnn.~c~ they .~und quit(: rarional Jnd aware of what was happcning to them. Naturally,1ltrncr and !vferlis did not ny rhcsc murderous experiments 011 them~clvc~. their only psychonauric foray w:ts with a Peruvianyopo ~nul-l obtained from Siri von Hci~. with which 'one of us ftr:.t endeavored [unsucces~fu lly] m produce an inroxication in himsclf.1"hcreafrer,schi7.0phrcnicsubjectswere tested throughout." I call thiHxperimenr unethictl and cite it as an example of drug abuse, hccau~c the only ethiCJl w:ty ro teM prospc~tive psyclwacrivc drugs is on oneself, in sell·~expcrimcrm, to establish ba~ic parameters of toxicity and dosage (sec Note 18). Only when the sakt:y of a preparation has been thereby t'Stablished. could it be ethical to condm:t funhcr tests iu fully-in forml'J volunteers. The Niirnberg \X':u Crimes ]ribunal ~cnrenctd some German physicians. who h:td experimemed on concencration-ctmp prisoners at Dachan :tnd elsewhere, to the gallows for experiments similar to those conducted by Fabing and Hawkins at the Ohio

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NOTES

St.ltl' Po.:nitmriary. and by Tttrner and Mcrlis at rhe New York mental "hospital." The tri­bunals led to a code of ethics g<wcrninr; all medical experimentation, mandating full voluntary consent on the part of human subject.~ of any medical experiments [Annas & Grodin 1992). No prisoner nor mental patient can be said to consenr freely to ~uch ex­periments, their confinement and destitute condition pn:cludit~g rhc pos~ibiliry.of t~e i r deciding objectively and frcdy. The U.S. government, tnl'anwlule .. undcr. the :-c~ts of. r.he CIA project MKULTRA, was experimentin~wirh some 800 drugs, mcludmg buforerune, on prisoners at the U.S. Public Health Service A~dic~iox~ He~ea.rcl_J Center ~ospit:~l [.cicJ in Lexincrron, Kentucky. ln rhis publidy-fundcd tnsrrturrnn, <'X ISttngo~tensrbly to cure dmg addiction, 1:1:mi.~ S. Isbell obt;tincd "voluntary con~cnr." fi·om his "p:tticnts" (.~incc the institution was ofllcially categorized as a penitentiary. perhaps they might ~cttc r be called "prisoners") by offering payment in kind- injections ofhcroin and morph1nc were administered as p:tyrnem lor coopet~ttion in the experiments [Lee&. Shlain 1985: Mark.~ 1979)! These arc .tll cl:mic C'Xamples of how ro abuse enthcogrnic drugJO-j.;iving them to unwilling (or unwitting) suhjects--and arc all textbook example~ of unethical ex­perimentation. EthicJI procedures for human resting of n~lVcl psychoact~ve a~cnts h:wc been admirably esrablislwd and fi>llowcd by the group of· Akxandcr T Shulgrn. whose human testing ofsorm: 17~) novd psychorropil' agents is described in his recent book with wife Ann Shulgin. P!HKAL: A cz,emiml Lot•r Stm:y [Shulgin &. Shulgin 1991] .

1• There h:1s been a l:unenmblc confusion in the scientific literamrc between harmine, the main alkaloid of ,ryabfl(tst'IT, and harmaline. which has received much more :mention. A~ 1 explained ina derailed footnote in J>IJflrlllltfotheon, at least~ix publications ha:c contitsed harmine and harmaline, espt:~ially lttcr Srafford's f~ydmlrlic;Em:ycloprdi£1 [Stafford 198.3]. One of the papt:r:; most responsible for rhis confusion was Claudio Na r::llljo's l97J paper (ba.\ed on experiments already described from an earlier paper) "Psychological A~pccrs of the J~~~r [sic]hpericncc in an Experimental Setting" [Naranjo 1.967.197:>]. T his paper wa$ rnistided, as it did not involve experimcm:t! tcsrs of yap ar all. hut ratht:r detailed pre­viously-publi~hcd human studies of ~-carboline~. chi cAy harmaline. Not?nlr is harmalir~c a trace constituent in r~y,tfm,tscrt beverage~ srudied, and appears to play ltttle or. no role 111

tl )lflllluJmt pharmacology. bur, ;IS we will see. it is rhe DM.Twhich accounrs for the en­rheogenic propcrti~·~ of ;~yabumnl, not the 13-carbolincs. N:tranjo's paper in reali ty. had nothing ro do with th•: rhe pharmacology of ·~vttlmmcrl, and .~ h~)llld hav~ h~cn .~JC~ed ''PsycholoJ?;ic:tl A.~pecrs of rbc Hamurlint Expcncnce m ,111 F.xpenmenral Scmng. 1 he rcJdcr is refcned to J>h,mMcoth<'OJJ, Chapter 3. NotC' 3. for a study of the incredible con· fusion spawned by N:1ranjo's error LOu 1993).

17 Alrhough Hochstein and P.tradies {1 957) were the tim chem.ist.~ ro a.'iSociare DM_Twith ll)'tli•lltliC•1, which later proved to be ,m important and key discovery, not only dtd thcy l·~ il ro deposit "voucher specimens" of the source plant (these ar:c dried :md prl!%ed bo­tanical specimen.~, suir.tblc ft>r later bomnical identification, Jq)ositcd in a recogni·T.ed herbarium, enabling scientists later to "vouch'' for tbe identiflc:ttion). they in.fJcc never even saw ir. l n their paper, these Americ:\1\ drug company (Pfizer. Inc.) chenusts stared: "A s<'cond plant, 'Y:.lf.e.' Prt'sllmia rmut:umicum (Haemttrliffytm ttmrt:.onicum Spruce) was

[97J

I,

I

made available to us as :m aqueous extract of the kavcs." Thcr wcr~· ahk rc 1 i .~n l:tf(' a sub­stantial quanriry of DMT. purified as the free base, from this extract. The cxrracr w:t~ collected by a D. H. Allen on the Rio Napo near Tquitos, l.tn'1, and supposedly repre!'enrcd an infusion ofle:IVes used in ayalmmca, bin the belief that rhe ... [leaf admixture] suppre!'­sc~ the more unpleasant hallucinations associated with pure B. caapi extracts.'' Supposedly a Dr. R. Ferrcyra of the Universidad de San Marcos in Lima, Pen'i m:tdc rhe botanical de­termination. Although, a.~ I pointed out in Chapter One. the name Pnslo11itl amazonim h:~s long been :t.~.~ociated with fiJtlbuasca, this plant ha.~ never been documented robe u<ed in the potions :tnd Schulte~ w.ts brer wid by Ferreyra that no bmanical specimens existed to support this idenriflcation (this botani.\t had evidenrly$uggc.~tcd to Hochstein and Par­adies. based on tht lerroneous] lircrature. rhat P. amn;;onica was :1 possibk identification for the ·~yiiiJIIIIJ'I'I7 i eaf admixture) [Schultes & Ra.fl:tuf 1 % 0] . DMl: moreover. is nor known from authentic material of this sprcic.~ . nor from any other specie.~ of Apocynaccae. Al.rhough Bri.~rol [1966] su~cstcd char /1,mislrriopsis rusiiYtllltl (=l>iplopw.w cabl'rrtlna) mtght have hccn rhe source ol the leaf extract. a more probable sourcl: was fls_yri•otri.rllit·idi.r or a related J>s.ydJ()/ril7 specie.~. which :trc much more commonly u~cd a.~ aynlturlSCil :td­mixru res in R:: n.'1, particularly in the Iquitos area. than i~ Diploptays r.thl'mflla i McKenna ' t 11!. 19/:llta]. .

IK T. tmploy the rcrm "Hcffrerl l·chn iquc'' in honor of German chemist Arthur 1-:!effrcr from Leipz.ig. who isohrcd four pure: alkaloids from dried peyotl, Lophopliol'll williamsii. in the ~lid-1~90s . Si nce animal experiments wcr~ worthless w sorr our rhe cntheogenic effecr hom other pharmacological noise, Hcff'rcr rested his alkaloids on him.~clf, in an heroic series of sclt:.expcrimcnrs culminating on 23 November 1 R97. when he ingc~reJ 150 mg of 11-fr:;clllm (coda)' ~pel led mescal in [e]) hydrochloride which he correctly identified :L~ the entheogenicprinciple of the drug [Heffrer 18%,1898]. Thisw:lS the world's fir.~t rrip with a purified chemical compound. A self-experimenter Like Hdl"rcr was Iarcr aprly ch.1r­act~rizcd by fumed G<:rman writer &nst Junger. in hi~ logbook of personal drug cx­pcrunenr:won.A!Iniibrrungm: Drogm wui R-msch(Approximntiom: DmgYnlltl/nr/Jritttion), as a p.rychourltll. a voyat;er employing cntheogcnic d rugl> a~ his vehicle [Jiinger 19701. There ha.s l~ng been scientific controversy regarding the validity nf self-experiments by sctenmts, who supposedly thereby sacrificed their "scicnrific objectivity'' (whatever that is). As R. Gmdon W,l~son. himself a~.:cused of such lo<s of sciemifit· obj<:ctivity for hi~ p~ydtonau tic exped i rions with mushrooms and psilocybine. 1:ommen ted: '"Thus ir come~ about that we are all divid<:d into two da~se.~: those who have r~tkcn rhc mu~hroom :tnd arc disqualified by our subjective experiertCl\ and those who have not r:tl<en rhe mmhroom and arc di~quali fied by tht'ir total ignorance of the subject!" [\'q,1s~on I ~>Ci ll. It sho~lc-1 be ~lotcd char no~ only mescaline, but the rwo other primary cnrhcogcns LSD ~nd ~)sdo~ybm~. were all d1scovcred hy psychonauts, chemists evalnating their chemical tracr.1 ons Ill self-expcrimems. Chemists. like Louis Lewin, who ar.tempred ro i.~ohtc rhc e~rheogcnic principle nfp~yotl, and like James Moore, who tr ied to isolate: the active prin·· ctplc~ of u ourm,/catl mu.~hrooms. by relying exclu.~ively on animal a~say~. uniformly [tiled. Similarly, on tht· basi~ ofanimal rests in 193R. pharmacologists at S:mdoi'. Ltd. had determined th:ttAlbcrt Hofmann's LSD was oflittlc pharmacological intcrcst. I twas only

[98]

No'J'F.S

because Hofmann had a "striking pre~entimenc'' that LSD pos~essed Jctivit"f which the pharmacologist.~ had missed, that he decided tO prepare a second batch of the drug five vears Iacer. This hunch, combined with his 5erendipitous discovery of its effects in him­~lf. quire hy accident, led him ro conduct a bioas.'>ay with the "intact Albert Hofmann preparation .. rhree days later, leading ro rhe discovery that LSD ~vas rhe mo~t powe~ful cntheogenic agcnr known [Hofmann 1980; Ott 1993] . Nor only 1s sdf-cx.penmcnratwn by scientisrs a valid procedure on scientific grounds. it likely is rhe 11nly bioas<>ay that worb- rhc effect being sought may be specif-ic to the human nervous srsrcm. Scientists have wasted much rime and eftorr in vain pursuit of an elusive animal model of~ hallucin­osis." havin~ used spiders. cats, simians, even dcphants [Cohen 1964; Diaz 1975] . Not only is che Hcffrcr'Ji:chnique rhc he.\r and pt).~~ ibly only valid bioassay for entheogcnic cft~crs, it ili , as we saw in Note I 'i, the only t thitttl UI(IJ t11 couduft tbis sorr ofn'sCilrch. Of course, r.hosc opposed ro use of animals as research subjects would agree, on crhicJI grounds. There are thus compelling practical. sciemitic :wd <'thical rca~on~ for my choice of the "inmct Jonathan Otr. preparation" as bioas.~:t)' to re~olve ~~vnhtMsc'J pharm:tcolog}~

~'1 T have chosen to call my psychonautic cxp(;riml:nrs "tr:JVd s in the universe of the soul'' ;tftcr the title of a moving ann important p:tJX:r by Rudolf Gclpke,"Von FJhrtcn in den Wdtraum J cr Scd e: &:richte Ubct· Sclbsrversuche mit Ddy:;id (LSD) und l~ilocybin (CY) ," a pioneering and heautifully-wrirrcn account of 6 of 19 p~ychonauric experiment~ with pharmaccurical Dcly.rirl"' (LSD) and lndtiry/Jin )) (psilocybine), originally publi~hed in Antrtios under the editorship of Ernst )linger and Mircea Eliade [Gdpke 1 %2] . Since I felt thc~c were some of the most poclic df~cription~ ofentheogen ic voyages yet penned, I laboriously tr.m~lated the paper into English and published it in ]tmrnal ofnydJOi/Ctivc Dmgsunderthesamc title, "lravels in the Univer$cof the Soul: Repurtson Sci~:. Experiment~ with Delysid (.LSD) and Psilocybin (CY)'' [Gclpke 1981]. T commend aho to my reaJers attention Dr. Gelpkc' s superh hook Vom RtlU.frh im Orient rmd Okzidmt(On ln.-hrifllinll in thr Orimt mul Occidmt; al~o puhlishcd under the tirle DroJ.t,c>n tmd !it:drntm•tittrtmg or Drugs and Jo.,find-&p~tnsilln ) (Gdpl<c 19ll6]. This Islamic scholar tragically d ied in 1972, aged 44. Gclpke was a friend of Albert Hofmann :tnd Ernl>t JUnger. and JUnger described LSD and psilocybin<' experiments he conducted together with Rudolf Gelpke and others in his cxcdlcnr book Atmtlhmm,'{m (see previous norc) [Junger 1~)70] .

zo 1\s. J outlined in mv recent hook !Y11lmtamtlmm [Ott 19931. the current leg;ll sratu~ uf re­ligions employing illegal entheogcns as s~tcr.tment:: is confused by legal conm.dictions and :unbivalem judicial decisions. Whcreal> 23 stares speciflc:\lly ~:mupt members of the pi­yotl-t~o~ing Native Amcric:U1 Church fro.m cone rolled subs L:ttlCC~ laws (pfyotl and its mJin :Ktivc principle. me:;caline. :~rc & hedui<: l drugs), :tnd wherc;:ls the ')\mcrican Indian Re­ligious Freedom Act" [42 USC 19%. I~ I.. 95-:H-1] of 19'78 allegedly pnm:cts Amcric:m Ir;d ian~' religious freedom, rhcrc have been sporadic arrest.~ of [ ndian peyotl ists. T he State of'lexas adopted a law requiring at. least 25% Indian blood as a prerequisite for Churc~1 membership, and the n:uion:li dircctor:\te (but not: all lucal chapter~) also adopted rl11s racist standard. i\ 1979 feder:\l court ruling in New York [Native Americ.an Church n U S.D.C.N.Y. 1~)79. lt68 F. Suppl. J 2ti7. affirmed 63:S F. 2.d 205] held thJt '' the usc of

[99]

1\ Y;\ll ll i\SI J\ i\N !1t I II : 111 '•

peyote for sacramental purpo~cs ... is nor to be rcsrrictn l to rhe Nat iw t\mcric.m Church." The s:m1e year. the all-race 'The Peyote \'l{;l;ly Church of God" was charrerctl in Arizona (where peyotl doesn ' r grow). and the following year Church members were arrc:m;d i 11

Texas (the only U.S. sratc where j>~votl grows naturally) for posse!;sion of the ~acramcnt! Charges were suh~equencly dropped. and the Church filed a discrimination complaint against the Scare of'Jcxas. What is sorely needed is a uniform ruling from the U.S. Su­prcmeCourt, which dodged the is!>uc in a rcccmcase [Employment Division, Department of Human Resources of the State of Oregon. et al. v. Alfn:d L. Smith et al.; No. 8~94Ci l involving the firing oflndian pcyodists (ironically. from ~tate job.~ as drugcou n.~elor~) and ,,ubsequent denial of.\tate henefit.~. T he U.S. Supreme Courc first rematH.led che case w the On:gon Supreme Court f~ >r a ruling as co lcg:ality ofsacr:tmc: ncal p<yotl usc in Oregon. e.m·nrially upholding states' ri~hts wirh regard to religious exercise. 'fhc Oregon w urr, which had fo und agaiusr rhe Stare. conceded that Oregon had no legal exemption ti)r sacramental ptyotl usc. The U.S. Supreme Coun rhm reversed by a G-3 vote. holding that there w:t~ a diJl'cccnn : bet\vccn rcl igiou~ beliefs and practices. and that an anci-dmg law not intended ro restrict rd igion wa~ consriwrional. cwn if it hao that indirl'Ct result! Justice &ali:~ wrote rhe majority opinion, and Jmticc O'Connor concmrc·d but argued over tcd~t~icali tics. The court ruling ba.~ically ~l:tted that "compelling" srare~ceuriry interests (in this case. the '' nccc.~.~ity" ofillcgal ii'.ing "oangcrous drug~") rook preccdcm;e over details of religious practic.:c (in this c:tsc, the lt~e of a re11/. :IS opposed to apf,1cfi,o . . ~acrament!). Tn a strong d1~scn t. Ju$ricc 131Jckmun (joined by Justices Rrennan and Marshall). alleged that "hysteria" over drugs had unduly influenced the Court to ovcrrurn a tradition of pcorection of rel igious practice. Rlackmun also pointed out that, inasmuch a~ there is virtually no unlawful conuneru.: in p~yatl, and the ~o.1 ls and ideal~ of the N~uive American Church were not incompatible with values promoted hy tbc St~ttc, that tbc:rc wa~ no ~ tate security inrercsr to rake pn:<:c,.knn· over rcli f:iou~ freedom. TnstC'ad of taking rhi~ oppor­tunity to clarify and standardize fcdcml ;Lnd M:uc law with regard w religious l'acramcnr.' that happen ro be ille~al drugs, the Supreme Court choSl' imrcad obfuscation and le~al sophisrrr. in rhe procc.~~ eroding still further our constitutional rights. How could rhc Supreme Court hear rhis Clse and nor so much as mention the 1979 New Yi>rk federal court ruling, which sri !I stands as a prccedcnt. aml open~ tbe door ro thc sitH.:erc, ~:tcra­mcnral me of f!l']tl tl and other c;nrhcogeus by ;wyon.: in rhe United Srares?

11 Hortlcnim:. ot: pcroc:tctin, is :t stimubnt f(JUnd in whole D('i11111dimn.~imgnic·um :tt :1 lcvd of0.05'X> and in Outni/~yf'll llrtopiJif,J lc.tvcs at O.O]J% [Baudouin t t11i. 19H1] . f n addition to rryptamines, br.mchcs :ulll k:t\'CS of' AMict>f't !.1JIOI'flt'l'll courained acronydinc. l<eku­.~:~gi ninc. acronycidine, md io.:upicinc, mdicopidi ne, :tnonycine. G-methoxy-2-meth)rl­tetrallydro-li-carboli nc and 3-dinu:rhrlamino;tcl·tyl-5-mcrhol'yindole. While 5-McO­DMTwas rhe principal alkaloid (31% of alk:tJoid f1~t c rion), it was f(JIIowcd closely hy kokusagininc (:10% of total alkaloids, or 0. 18%). Koku~:1ginim: i~ of unknown tc)Xidty. and also oc\:urs in lc:tvcs of DuMil?vul orf'ophila :tnd stem bark of D. t lrttfltl l'M [Bnudouin t l ((/. 19811. Kokusaginine occur.s in lcavl's of Hpr i.1 111f1{11Jt/y together with evoxanrhine, phenylacetamicie, 2,4-dimethoxy-10-methrl-acridauonc and three nov.:! quinolone alk­aloids. ln thi~ C:t.~e. DMT represt:nrcd so~;.) of the a1Jcaloid fr:tction ll<an-Fau na/. 1970].

[100]

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Swa. S.l. 1 ()61. ''Hallucinogenic dfi:crs and mc;r:tholism of trypt.tmine dcriva1ivcs in man" lhfmllion Procm li11g:;20: 8HS-R88.

'TI1J<agi, S. ct a/. 1 ~)7'). "Minor basic consti­ttterm of Er·odia fruits" SIJO)'ttlm.~rd.·u Ztts­siJi 33(1): 30-34.

rraussig. M. 19!!7. Shnmnui.<m. l.o/quinli.mr. and tl.w Wild Man: A Study in Terror mrrl Hl'llling. Univcr~iry of Chi~go Press. Chi­c.lgo. IL.

Thompson. A.C. rl ttl. l9R7. '' lndole;Jkyl­amines of Dr.immrJims illiuoen•is ;md chcir growth inhibition activity'' ]ot~mnl o.filgri­culwml f111dTvod Omnimy:S 5(3): 361-j(,).

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V.mBeek, T.A. rtal. I ~J84. ' '71tltr mtWIIOIII'fl1111

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Villaviccnc.io,M.l8S8. Ga~f!''!'fl<tdtu;. l~jnib­/irn riel Ecllttdol'. R. Crai!•5hc~td. New '\i>tk

W.:thba Klla.lil, S.K. and Y~M. Elkheir 1975. "Dimerhylcrypt.:uninc from the k~wcs of cen:a.in Ac11cirl specie$ of northern Sudan .. Lloydia3R(2): 176-177.

[117]

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[118]

INDEX

Almttr gl'undij(J/in-21)

Act1Citl IMiltymrrt-73 Ac•1''iil mmp!.mt(lti-TJ lk.tcia coJifimt- 81 Am cia mctidmii-'d 1,85-G Amcia uubim-81 Amda pM·bop!Jyllt~-·G3.81,R5-6 Afttda poly.1c;m tllfl subsp. tttm pylt~cnll tl~t~-81 Atacirt Stllcf(fll-81 Acrtcirt .•implicdolia- 81,P.5-G A~;uarun;t Jndians- 21 Agurd l. S.- 48.50 Alb:urad n , L.-33-'1 ,1khomrtt ctlsttmdfillitt-20.2],28 Alrhornt•;t.flnribmultt Mucll. -Arg.-23 Allen. D.H.-98 Alpha Helix /\mnon Expcdirinn-~5 11/t.Drugs [bumw BBS]-6J.RG Alttmtmlhrm ltiJJuamrii -27 /1/trm.mtht·m sp.-26 AmahuacJ lndians-72 Amtmitrl citrina-P.l Amttnittt f'Oipl~vritt-!! 1 Amaringo. 1~-56 rtmbrosin-10.12,14,:i0,77. 9:i rtmirumpm~((ll [sami mc~z]-23- 4.55 tiJUI'ttJ [mmtt'M I mnritrl ]--11,12.72. 80,~13 Amsouirt Mbrrmlcmrmtrmrt-73

A11Adenanthmt tulub,·intt-46.81 AIJJtdenanthcra t>.·cr.lsrt-13 1 A 11t1dmanthtr11 pm:~rint~-4651. 81

Atmrknuntf,t t·a sp.-·i9.8C1 Anr,:m·ro lndians-U Amborli.(c'll.f piloms- 27 AfJIJt')'!llll/1 atmuthinum-T3 :tribiuc [harman]-75 Al'istoim/ti,r sp.-1().3:'1 Arnold, O.H.-47 Arundo dollfl.x-7:},81 fl)'ttl•umctt-·1 0-21:31-G 1,6·i-72.75.77-80,89, . ~10.91-~. 97-9

11)'ttlm•l."t',t :~dmixrurcs-1 5. 19-31. 56.98 ~,·,tf~u.ut·n :111 alog~-12, 50-63.70,80.8·i-7. 93 nynhtttllr.1 ottrtrulis-12 nynhtttl.(t'fl /Jorra/iJ-12.87 tl)'tTIJtiiJ.~t'fl capsules-12.50. 52.58-67 nyniJUtLfCil tourism- 10.12.80 Aztec [Mexica]l ndi:ms-18

a.mistfrin tmti{t/Jrili.r Griscbach- 1534 lJ.wistcrifl uurj•i Spr. ex Gris<:b.- 13,14,33.43 /Jmrisltria dnysophyl/,, L:nnarck-3'1 bani~tc rin[c)-J3-ti.IJ3. 75 /Janisu riop.•·ii m-gl'fntM (HBK) Rob.-15-6,38 .l1111 i.rtn iopsi.< rll'/f,)'YOjJI~vlla Uuss.) Ga te~-1 5 llnt~i.~tt·riopsiu.:ttpi-8, 14, 1 ~7.19.2~-4.3 1.34-

:~9.4 t .. 2A9. SJ-'~.%.74.79,95. 98.127 lh niJtcrioJ•.·'is inl'brimu .Morr.- 15-6.35-6. 39 BrmiJ'tt riopsiJ !tmgialatn CNJ7..) Garcs-15-I 7 Brmisteriop.tii /utra-15-17.38.74 B:.misttriop.rii marti1zittnrt (Juss.) Cuatr.-15 B. mtJrtinianrr v:~r.lttcvi5 Cuatrccasa.s-15. 1 G

l119]

H. mPrtinim!tl var.subrncrl'ia Cuarr.- 15-17 B. met.1llicolor (Jw;~.) 0 'Do nell et Lour.- 15, 16 BtmistrtJiopsi.r rnm·ie,lM-15, 16,38,71,82 B. nitwsiodom (Griscb.) O'Don. etLJw-.- 16,38 .lwnisltriopsis quilmsis (Ndz.) Morton- 15.16 B. msbymlfl (Ndz.) Morton--:15.23,3').R2,98 Hanistaiopsis sp .-17-19,24.26,3638,44-5.

48. 55.85, <)4 Baras:w:t Jndians- 21. Barriga Villalba, A.M.- 33-1 batsikrtWtl-25.30 B"uhinia f.Uianemi..r-28 Beer, A .. G.-ti4 Beringer, K.-<13 birt.di- ·l9 Bihra, E.F. von-94 Bigwood, J.E.-51-3,91. 127 Blake, W.-87-<JO Boggan. \Y.0.-44.76 Bora lndians-2.3.72 bomuJJero-22 Bii.wiirmcnyi, Z.- 47 Bristol, M.L.-49.55. 98 B11~v:,mansia ilwj(nis-30 Brugmamia sp.-16.20-2.26.30.M Brugnumsia swn,eol('ll.r-22.26.50 Brugmawia vmirolor L<gerheim-2G Bmnec;ker, G.-11:7 Bmrif,:·hia chirimspi- 30 Brrmj'Airl p,randiflorll-22.30 BrunfoL.i,, K''flndif!om sub~p. sdmlmi i -20.22.

30,95 Brwifr:Lii(l sp.-16.21-2.2.6 Brm~Msia tm!f/om {Pohl) D. Don-22 Buckholtz, N .S.-~'1,76 buf()(enine-39.H .85-6,96-7 Burkert rifi·icll!ut-73 Burroughs. \V:S.-71-2

mapi- 13-15.44 Ctbi p.-mtensis-15,16.29.34.39 Gtbomb,t ftquatim-29 cac41tuatl I Cili'rtMqtuiuid-19, 57 Cu.<ttqJinia Nhinat.t- 28

caffein<~-20,2 1. 55 ctJjf-15 Cllttthm sp.-26 Cf1~11hra t1eitchiitna- 29 Caluu'lfm tlntifi'brifc-15-l Z29,3139. 74 Callaway . .J.C.-63-6.68. 127 Gt!lirtlldm stllgllcJ'Iifolifl- 28.3! Crdligtmum miltimum-74 Crt/)'t,ilrttltus occidC1/mlis-73 Ctivcopf9,flum SjmlcMnrtm-29 Cunpa Indians-21 Cinu;,sr:-mtlm ftllll'{fo!iii- :?P. CmnabiJ sp.-78-9 Ct~f'inma dcs'tJI'ti!ims-29 Crtpsimm sp.-30 13-carbolines- 1 2. J G, 21.2(~:'7-44.46.48 -<), S 1-

55.57-8,(j0-8.70.7.}-6,85.94.97 Cmx hn•Pico//i.f-73 Carl. A.-4··'* Ctrlud(JIIim dirwy;ms-2S Carneiro, R.L.-72 Cashinahua I ndi:Jns-17. 25,36.39.41.45 Gmmifltsia /rylot.eitMt - 27 GmmiffL.sia umbduttst-27 dbil-46 (}r/rdi11:5fl CfltidNC(/(1mli.<-2R

(}ibtl J'mltmd,.a-27 chttamrP I ch,m-rma- 21-4.J 1,78 dl(/f,'rl)jJifllt;,'l-2:~.<19 Cf.,;i 1-Jod.f;IJ-Il ,/'') dJttlipm~wr-2j Chantrc y Herrera, J.- 71 Chen. AL &. KK.-.34 Che;rokce l.ndiam-20 Chindov. S.- 19 chiric-s.;11t111ht>-22 c!Jir~~Utiylt.ili-22 ChqriJitt iluiKnis- 27 Chorisilt spn'io.<st-·27 dJtJ-tu-r.i-nc-18 Cl7~1h'(JpiJ]!Ilum la~:ou rl irmum -75 dtlo aya/J:Msm-9~) Clinq~wrr, E.-33 Clu&ist sp. -28

[120]

INDEX

COt~1-2J

cocaine [methyl-benzoylccgonine]-21 Cocama Ind.ians-21 cohob:t- 4.6.1.8.92 Condaminc, C.M. de la-71 C:onfcn [Bm7.ili a.J1 government agcncy]- 79 congmilm<tf:m-68 Cooke, M.C.-9·} C6rdov:l-Rios, M.-72,77 Coriolus tll(J;.I'imm-7:~ Gmnlliaodonrtil-30 Costa, A & A.- 78 Cosra, J.G. da-78 CmmmpiM guirwt·miJ-·28 CowJ(IfM tl'SSIHsllmii-2~)

Cuatrcc;:tsas. J.-23 Culina Indian~-17, 36.40.%.5 A. 95 c:Jtpem,; digitaws I CJypaw prolixm-28.31 C:ypems sp.- 26,28.:H

dtlbocurf fcast:-U Dtlimc.-77-80 rltJj)(t-14 De/(J.fjJtrma sp.-8 1.83 Del)'sid~>[ I .SD r:utrate]-99 De;· Marderosbn. A.H.-36,48.50.1)5 Dt)'mrlnthus ilfinocnris·-57.62-3.81,85-7 De Smct, P./\.G.J'vL- •18 Dmnorliwn ,·tmd.'111tm-8l De.m111diwn grmg,.timm-S l,R(i, 100 DNmodium gl'ttllls-81 DtJIIJ(Idium pukl•cllttm- 73,82 Dtmwdium r~ltemNurn-R2 Df'S1rlfJdium Jrjflorum-82 Oici)'O!(Jma i11~<mcscms-83 N;iVdicrltyltrypramin~: [DEl: T-9)-63-4 1.2-Jihydroharmaline [leptaHorine]-42 3,4-dihydroh:uminc [harmalinc]-'12.75 Jih yd roru ine·-:34 dihydroshihuninc-38 Dimed lBra7.ilian government agencyJ-79 N,N-dimethyltrypt;.lmine [DMTH 1,23.% Dip/rptt'i')'S mbn'l"s1ruz-15.2:;;-4,2(i.29.39.40.

4S-50.63.82. 98

Diploptfry•s im,oluta- 21.29 Dip/opt cry's sp.-25-(i,39 disembodied eye drops-94 DMT- 11.12.21-6.3<,-41.43.51-(i8.70.75,81-

83.84,85-6.91-2. ~)5 -8. 100

DMT-N-oxid.<~.-:~8.&2.86 Dobkin Je Rfos. M.-77 Doctrine ofTi·ansubsrantiation-9,11 Do niger [ <YFia.hcrry], W:-9.3 Dutail{vert dmpat·c.r--8:),10() DutrJi/(yol Ot'COf'hiltl-8:3. 86, 100

HLa t't~~1111s tmgustifl;lia -7 3 ElaMgmJs /Jortl:tl.I'J~<-73 ElaMs,nm I)J·iouafir-7.3 Elaet1SW'J Ipinos.1-7:'l Elcmini~u1 Mysrc·ri<;s.-~)J

El~;er. E-:U-·i Eliade, M.-99 Embera lndians-14 ,, ndol•u rl!'tit--(; 3. ( j 8 cncmr~~. mrhcogcnic- 17,21.4H Enrhcogenic Rdormation-9-12.90 epmd-1•7-9,5 1.9•} .Hpip/~1'/fum sp.-2},27 l:}'lljJii'J-91, 9:3 ergolinc: :llkal<)ids-67. 92-J ~~rgoramin<: t~u·tr:lte-92 Erigomon ~p.·-:n .l:.r_ythriiUI.((Iaucrt !Rrytlniuo poepp~fJ,i.111ft-28 .Erythmxylmn r:or.-l var. iJ.~ttdt~-21 . 2 R. :1 1 e.rp/umd-85 Esrev(,.'z, V.- !Jtf, 76 rHthyltryptarnine [ cuyptamine]-Ci8 Evodia mtneacrpa-83

Elbing. H .D-'X) Fi_;grmirt t.·,·,1ti,.·,t-·75 h:rreyr:l, R-~8 Fmum ,rmmiimrcea-7:~ Ft~'tts ius;pirlt~! Ficus rui;:iamt- 29.31 FictL~sp .-29,3 1

Fischer-Cirdenas. G.- I Ci,J3-4.71 .floripmvlio-22

[121 ]

Friedberg, C.- 24,39 Frit?.sche. J.- 31

Ciilf I Ccrt-93 Gxa I Gaia-12,5(i,88-9 G.ttcs, B.-15,1 6 Gelpke. R.-99 Ge~hon, S.-45 Ginsberg. A.- 72 G'nrtum llrJrlif/orum- 28 Gon,alvcs d~ Lima, 0.- 47,83 Gr,tcic- 53-4,67 Gua.hibo Indians- I J. I 7. 2<1 gu.mmd- 20 gunyustt- 20- l.y i Curtrnrda flmx-30 Gu i m t .fi'III:C::ttft• JJJIJ'-73 Gunn, J.A.-·44

Ha~mndirtyrm tlllutzonimm Bcnrh:un-1 6.~17 Halpern, L.- 43-4 HrtmmtuiJt leptorl.·trltt- 73 harmaline-J4-3~. 12,1-3.14-6, 50.52.54,56.

63-6 5. 7 4-G. 91 -7 h:umalol-34.37.76. 73 harman- lt1.(i5,73-5.76 f,amleL- 57-61 harmine- ll,l6.18.34-9.42.43Ait-6,4K50.

52.56.5R-61.6~-).73-6.94-7 harrnol- 34.37 Hawkins, .J.R.-9G Heffrcr, .t\.-50.9H-9 Hrlimnia ~p.-17 Hcrn;1ndez. F.-19 Fldcmpterys chrysophy/111 (Larn ~trck) HBK-39 Him;tf.i11ztf,us Sllt'ltuVrl-27 Hippophne r!Jmml!Jir/e.r- 7.'} Hod t, P.H.- 44 Hochsccin. F.A.-35. 39..19. 97-8 Hofiuann, A.-9.88.!)3.9R-9,127 Hofimnn, G.- 47 Holmsrcdt, B.R.- 35.49.50.84-5 Himw·ic H ymn to Dnnrl<'r- 93 hordenine. [peyoc.-tctin)- 86, 100

f,urmto- 22 Humboldc, F.H.A. voo-71 Hum (?'epitmiJ-28 5-hrdroxy-N: N-DMT -3~).R5-G.96 4-hydroxr-~·phencthyl:uninc r tyramjne)-o~) hyoscine- 22 hyoscy:unine-22

ihogainc-81. irnros- 18 i/minti-94 fir."<: nwb~<;~lll (Mich~ tL'I;) Chapm~n-20 1/r.~: gtulyu.rrJ- 20,27,:1 I. 54 l lr:• p:tmgum·imsis S:tinr-Hilairc- 20 llrx vomilorin Aiton-20 lndoryhi11 "[p~ilocybine)-99 lng:1 Indiam-2;1 Jngano Indians-22 fntt'mcl [computer ncrwork)-G3.8(, loclll'omrt jiu:hsioitk.s- 30 {;w-Itt [Ama70nian t fl(fl ]- 21 ipron i:~;rjJ_ft,1 . Ci6,68

Imine sp.- 27 lrineu Serra, R.- 78-9 /rynllllm·,1 u/ei- 82. 84 Js.bell. H .S.- 97 ishpi~~~o-27 isoGtrboxa7id [!1-fttrpf,m ll>]-66 itnh quinrhut~ I iuch quizn-91

Jivaro [sic] Indian~-l(d9 John.~ron, J.E- 91t }ummllort oclmtcrtt-30 )linger. E.-98-9 .fu•tit.'llt pn·tomli.r var .. ltCJWf'lty/uJ- 81, 83, H5

Koch-Gri.inberg. T.- 15 KtJI1Jia sCof'mitt- lJ KoHn Indianr 22·1f,39.50 koku~;~gininc-100 ~:ykcon-11.12. ~)3

Ltmb, F.B.-72 Lamisra Indi:-10!;-21

[122]

I NDF.X

L1ng. WJ.- 45 Lrptncti1U.1 tkmijlorfl- 3 5. 74 leptaflorine-.34-S. 4 5, :-o, 56. 74,76 tl-lepraHorinc- 35-B, 12.43.44.tl(i , till, <)4-5 Lt:Jpet!rza bico/m·var.japonic,J- 82 Lewin, L.-33-4.42-3.47, 98 Limonia acir/i.;.<i 11111- 83 Lindgren, J.-E.-~)-7,40.49.50, 56.58, 95 locururin~.: [h:t rman]- 75 /ogo.r- 19.87. o/1 Lolium p(7'Cnue-73 Lomariop.ris j ttpltrtmi< - 28 L"plm11tlu:ra klctcsrms DurkC'- l) , I 6 Lophop/101'11 tl'illimmii (Lcm.) Coulrcr-98 lon1rine [harm:ml- 75 L.SD~9, I0.46.8G. 92-3.98-9 Luna. L.E.-14.56.127 Luther, M.-9 ~YKodium t'mwtum- 30

Machigenga Indians- 2 I Mds:tac, W.M.- 44,76 McKenna, D.J.- 37-B.ti I -:~,46.50.52-4,56, 7<i-

77.H3.95. l27 M tgnin, J.-71 Mai Huna Indians- 22 mtti!tott- H>. 22. 2(i Malo.i InJi:ms-15 Mnwutti.1 tmn.uptarinu- 27 mtmtuti- 22 Ma11J011 1tllh1n:n- 20, 27 MAO-inhihitors.Jvi.<IR-52.60.(Ii-70.75-6,R5 Marinahua InJ ian~-95 MarklL~, M.-6tl Maroni. E-71 Af11rpl.tt11 '·~ [isocubnxazid]-66,()9 Mnrsilid 'l [ipronia~idj-(i(j

Martius. C.F.P. von-71 A1tl..-cll,'('lill psilopiJy/kl var. rmti.fi:/Jrilis-1 5, J. (,,

29,34 mtl.<l;n/uni snuff- 83 matsi kawa- 25,39 Maurt:r. M.- 45 fltfttytm w ebcnifolin- 20, 213

M:u:ln Jndians- 13 Ma:z.arec lndi:Uls- 9 mcrlicammtum divinum- 18 Me!impt· lrptocoa'iJ- 83.85-6.100 Merli~. S.- 114,96-7 mc.~c:Uin[c)-23,43.46.G5.RG,98-9 5-met:IJoxy-N,J\Ldimcrhylri)praminc-2J,J9.

51 . 6J-Ii .68,8 ! -3,84.~5-6,100 (or 5-MDl (;.rnethoxy-llannalan- m -'t r.-nlcrhox>·-harman- 74.76 5-mcchoxr-tctrJhydroharman-3!1 6-mcthoxy-tryptamitle-37 1-mcthyl-d-lpcrgic acid but;lnol<tmidc-67 2··mcthyl-r<:trahydro-11-carbolitlc- tl0 N-mcdlyl-t~.:tr;thydro-~-cru·bolinc-39 N-mcrhyl-tccr.thydroltarnmn-JR <t-tnl.': thylcryptaminc ll1:290]-6S .N-r.nc:chyl-trypr;tminc[MMT]-39.<10.62,85 J\Lmcchyl-nyprophao methyl c~rer-M Aft:unfin- ')8 Mczin indudms (Bentham) Cuatrect sa~-2~i

Michiels, M.-33 mfi--15.:HI Mimosrt/J(Jftilis- 4 7. 51,8 2-5 J\1/imosan~e;ra Huber II01Jit'TI mulum- 83 MimoS<J mtlnt!la- 82 t\-fimosrl sp.- 47,51 Mimo.ctt tmui{1tJ1~1-8:! MimosrJ tJtrrucoslt Bentham-83 mish.1- 22 MKUL:TRA-CI? Mocoa lndians- 23 monoamjne oxida~c [MA0]- 41,Ci8 Jl-fomrich,trditt ~trhomcmr-27 l\<1oorr. J.-~>8 Mot;t d" Mdo, S.-78-~J J\ftu:untt prurims-74, 8)

Muin:unc Indian.,.-23 mt t~hrooms , entheogcn ic- 9-1 1.69, 80, 86, 94,

98

mli ltarm-25.30.39,4{) Nar.mjo. C.- 45-6,52.57,97 Naranjo. 1~-77

[1 23]

narcotic-94 7tdtem/it}- l6, 24-5,36.39 Native American Church- 99.100 Naudea didun'idiii-71 Newbou!tlirl lae(!is- 73 lVicotianfl ru.Ytz(·(z- 21.30 Nirotiann sp.- 20-1,26 Nicotit11111 lrtbamm- 2 L 30 nicotinc- 22 uigerinrt [nigerinc. probably DMT]- ;i7.8:1 nixi pru·-25.36.39 Noanamil Indians- 14 norharm:m-75. 76 Nlirnbcrg W,u· Crimes 1libunal- % -7

OdH·osin Jlflk:~iarul-:p, Ocimum micrtmt/Jum Wilkknow-2<1.28 1)(1)-)'iljl - 23 ololiuhqui [Tt11·binrt to~ymboJrl (L) Ral':]-94 Omagua Indians- 21 Op!Jiorrbi:::.1jtlf•OtJic,'l-74 Optmtitl sp.-23,27.C1:~ O rtiz de Montcllano. B.-91 Orteophlot'm piA~J'>jJCI1JIU11J-82.84

pabini-1.8 Pakrogi\.'a- 9:3 l'\mg,\'a-87-90.93 P.1radies. A.M.-35.39A9. 97-8 pctricli-47.49.5 1.91 P.u-kinwnism- 43 Rwiflorrt al'tillM-74 Jlw i f!mn fl UJ/a-74 nusijlom ltlllt1-74 Rusiflom btyonoidrJ-74 lhssi{!oM cacru!CJJ-74 Rtsslflom crtpsulttris-7'i P,m·ij!om dt'tltisnMnrt- 74· RmijWr.1 tdulis-74 fltssi/lom eicUerimuJ-74 P:wij!rmrfbrti£1.1-74 Hwif/nm i1111lnJt1ta- 5 J, 74-5 nmlf!ora qtuldranguftlris-74 f ku{flom aff ru/Jr:rosa-71

Rrssiflolil sp. - 2(), ·1'i.5l 1

Rmffiom .rrebpe!ttltil-74 Rwffhra w.1nningii-74 passiflorine [harman]-74-5 flmflinitt tupttntl HBK var. sorbi/is Duckc- 20 Rwlfinitl ym·o- 20.30-1 nwridimJthfl ml/icmpoides-74 f?wrir/i,mtiJti deil't'VI'f.l- 74: lfmridiantl•a/ya/li- 74 flwridi.1ntha ~·iridif!om-75 f't~ytf-IS

ll-grmumllltmlltltr [l}('[rmd]-.H-5.4 5. 54.57-8,60. 6:~.75.S5.87

Rnnes, H.H.-44 ltrroc. E .. -:n Il:takmyfis !tdJidttoidts var. cil,ss('oir/cs-7t.i, 82 l~tit•rrfrt t~!!it~cefl-29 pq ohttttsttt-G) peyotl-23.<:•2-3, %,80,86. 98-100 f¥,af.11·is rmuulinfltM- 81. PINtlm'is tubero.t:t [=?. nquatirit]-81.85-G P/.trrmuu·otlwm-l2.25.3 I.84.91-·L 97;99 Pharmacratic Inquisirion-'12 pharmrtl.•u,rfcrt- 52.59.61.63-7. 70 11-phcncthyLun incs - (i:)-(i, 70.91 .!¥.m~r:mitc~( rtllstraft:,.-81 Phrygifautlm.> et~tt.,mioiri<'S / va r:. rolmsflM-28 .. 9 Pl1tims,1 pyr[fl!litl-29 piltle-14 PikJc,trpus 111f.i111t?11Jis-8J.85-(; Pinkley. H.V.-243 9.50 Piper sp.-2,9 Piro lndians-21.3(; pi.dJI'ktJu•,1--25. 30 Pifl,~,·ct!lohimn !(Jt'trnn-'28 Pi:~;_~ngo. C.- 78 plant f(~tche rs- 1 8. n Pletscher, /\.-44 fbis.~on. J.-39.4R-9 Ttmt.·deria corriuttz-29 f>J'btonVI trnut.:<tmim(Bth.)lvfB- 1 (iJJ; '\9,84,97-8 hasopis 11igrn...:-;4 Psiloqbc cubeusis (Earle) Singer- 10 p.~ilocyhine-9. I 0, 92.98-9

[124]

INDEX

p~ychonaur[ic ]- 50, 52-()7, 6 9,70. 96.98-9 HychotrirJ a/bt1 Ruf7, et Pav(in-"l5,J9 riychotri,l bactcriophylfa- 40 Rychon·it~ Cill'lhag,inmsi.r-25J0,39.40.S3,85.95 Rychotrit1 r:mt>tica-"iO Rychotri,z /!rn7zonlft!i~ Swam-25. 39 l~ychottiil insularum G ray- 25 f~J•chol1'ia marrhmttl Swartt-25. y:1 T~•chohitt f•tHj.pigirtntl Mud.-Arg.-26 ?. p!!Jd!lltrit~r:j(J/ia (Seem.) Srand.-2530.Jl}.83 Jtydwrirz sp.- 25-6,30.3639.40-1. 50.6) Rvchoh·irrunt!u/,?ttl-10 Ih•cl;otri'J r•irirlis-23-6,30. 3 2.37. :~9. •iO. 4R, 55.

- (iO. 78-1).8V J8 Putt. E.-33

Quiwa,·i/;erl sp.--27 Quijos (,'luichua Indians-21-2,54-5,84·

Haymond-Huncr-3:\.4·1 Rcichc.:I-Dolm:ltofl; G.- 77 Rei!; [i\lrschul]. S. von-% R'{ \{>d,I-92-J Riuon'tl TJirid[flrmt-JO Rivier. L.- % -7.40, 50.56.58. 95 Rouhicr, A-42 Ruck, C.A.l~-9 1, ~~.~

Nur{~fa n'l({olia-)0 ruin.;:- 31 Rumpf; K- J3

Sa!Jh·c,4 rtmrJJ.:(!nm,,·is-.30 Sahina, J\.1.-9.11 f(UiJfl IIJifhUt/.1'1~1-I 538 S.tdttl. Rmlil-11.56.77 S:ti-1-hl:~sz. A.-17 Sf111JtW-l8

sam i mm- 2 4 Sandoz Lrd.-~> 11 Sanst·rt"' [ UlvfL-491]-Ci7 :Ymto lliime-11. 37.41,77-80 Schultc'l', RE.-14-5.17,23.25.355:~.8·1.98, 127 Schw;tcr. P.-43 Sderobiwn se·t(fomm-28

Stoptzria dukis- 30 scopolaminc-22 scopoletinc- 22.95 Sccoya In&UJs-21 sedativc.~-26.15.55-6.60. 64.68 Scil, H.-33 scrotonine-{i6-7 Sharanalmt Indians-17.22.25- 6.J(i,t!0. 5(,,

58.(6, 1>5 SIHf'lmrlitt argeniM IS. c;zr117tknsir-73 shihuninc<~8 Shipibo Indi:ws-:~1 Shu:u lndians·- 1G,20-2.21i-6.}(),3') Shulgin, A.T- <!6.97,1 27 Sibtt~doy Indians-49.55 Simi1¥l /.:lugii-75 .Simir£1 mbm-75 Siorn Indi<ms- 2 1-2 Skt1 l~st<mt [S,,.,{uitt dirtinomm Epl. cr .Jar.]-94 snuiE. cntheogm.ic-17.21/l6-9,51,S3-4. 9~.94 Swm-92-3 Spruce, R.- 13-15. 17,26.3:5.42,71 SraHord. E-97 Stapks. D.-91 St~~mttf'/~J!/lon.fit(~tm-2.9 sdmulants- 20-1.2(i,j 1 ,(i().(j8

Stroph,rritJ mbemi.,· brk -·1 0 Sttv,.fmos us,mtbrtrr.tt.>is-74 Su;:ar:l. Indi:m,, - <lti ~ytnjJfoco> mumosrt -75 S·t:~r,t, S.l.-46-/.'t')

Titb,·htJitT I T.f,tttroj•Otll-27. :31 :t,ilJt.fmitt inmfltl-l7 :ftl /;cm,tr.moiiltrM I TJ,11ulllhll R. ct P.- 27.84 :/;'r/;mumtbr: ibc[::l l.)aillon-23 Ul l•it'r.1-~) 1, 9J ':Etriana Indianll-94 Tlll~l>i£;, ~v1.-·77 teq•ill~ttdli-- 1 R, 94 "l(;kuam I ndi:Uls-21 tr!ep,zdntt [tdcparhinc. harmine]-33-4. 71.75 lNiost;uhya ftlfU'Ml1tl1 var. r.ri$pt1- 27 temicxocb-18.%

[125]

(\y ,\I l UliSI :,\ 1\ 1\1 ;\I . I )I ; l l F..<;

tr.ontmdcatl- 56,80,98 Tcotihuacml- 94 Testulefl g.'lbonensis- 83 terrahvdrohannan-73-4. 76 terrahydroharmine-:H-5,43.45 terrahydroharmol-7:,, 7 6 li:trnpll!ry.>' methy tim Schulres- 15.J(i 7l;tmpwy.>' mucm11tttr1 Cw~milles-1 5. 16 7l!tmpMJ•S sJvwptt-rtl Jussieu- 15-17 17./('olmmw mmo L.-19. 57 robacco- 13, 17. 21-2 7lmm~fimitl ,mgllstijiJ!i,t- 27 .7tJI'()mit;1 sp.-28 .Tribu!ttJ· temstris-75 2. 4, 5-trimcthox.y-~-phenethylami ne- 66 7rip!tnis surin1n11msis I var. chrtmissorma- 29 tropane alkaloids-22 · trypramines - 23-5.'i9.51.51.62.(i8.81-4,86,

') 1 , <J4, 100 1itkanoan Indians-1.3,17, 94 1itrner, WJ.-44.%-7 ~fnuantlms pammmsi.r-27 tyramine [4-0H-13-phcncrhylaminc]-69, 70

Uden6·icnd, S.- 11/18-9,76 UML-·491 [.Srm;ert'" J-67 Uncaritl attemtafll-7.5 Uncaria titlu'f!ctns-75 { Jncoria guiammsis- 30 u~wtria l)rienmlis-75 Uniiio do {{-gctaf [UDV]-69.77-80 Urubtt-coir:t- 13

~{-pris mnpot(i1- 83.85-6.100 vik a [huifctz]-4() Villavicencio. M.-13,54.71 l 1inbr1 de jurmlfl-ti7, 5l,8t.i Virola c,;/opbylltl- 82 Vii'()M ctt!opf,yf!IJidea- 82 Viro/11 carinam-82 Vim/a cmpidattt-74 Virola dh,ergens- 82 Virola rkmg:ltrl- 82 Virol.l mdillonii- 82

Viro/11 Jmt!tinen•i,t- '62 Virokt pawni!>-P.2 Virouz pertJtJiana- 82 Virofa ruji1fa- 82 Vim/a scbifrm-82 V'im[tl sp.-29,47.·49, 51. 83-4,c)4 Virolfl surirlllmensis- 23 . .29 Vimftl theiodom-82.85 Vilvlrt fl f.//Wt-83 Vite..\' lti/!ora-?>0 Un~~tcapotlll rnnericana- 28

W:1ika [GuaiJd ] Indians- 83 \'V:10rani [Huaorani)Indiaus-1538 'Whs.ron, R.G.- 9-11,90-3,98 \~:il, A.T-72,77 Wilbert, J.-21 William~. L.-31 Wilmanns. K . .JIJ Wicoro Indian~-1 5.17.23,38,5 1 ,53.72 \Xhlfl'S, 0.- .H

xochinmulcatl I .wJchid -94

)'ild}(d-18 )'t~l(!-titi)-2)

_vujc [y lge]-13,1,1SJ39,50.72.97 )'ttjt{intl I y:tjl'inc [hanninc]-:t~-4,42,75 )'L?jtnintt I yaj~ninc-:33-4 Ymomam5 lndians- 83 pwp(m-20 11/)Cfl- 20

yohimbine-6:; yopo-46.49,<.J2. 9(i

Zmthoxylmn rtrbm·escens- 83 Z mtlwxy/.um martinicemt: (Lun.} DC.-8-i Z mtho.:rylum pl'otcruw-83 . Z:iparo Indians- U. 14.21 Zarkm·- 53-.:1,(17 Zcrd;l .8nv6n, R.- 33,71 1

zombi{e/ puison-81 tygofabaginc [harman]- 75 qgopl~yllum .ftl!llg()-75

[1 26]

AcKNOWLEDGEMENTs

I arn beholden ro Dr. Robert Montgomery of the !Jotrmif,rf Prescr/Jfltiou Gnpr for bibliographic assi:>tance and many valuable discussions about tf:yalmrtsm analogues. I am abo indebted to the f(>llowing specialists who have shared information, re­search and insights: Dr. Jeremy E. Bigv•oodofGuatcmala C ity. Guatemab; Dr. Jame.s C. Call::tway of the University ofKi.topio, Finland; Dr. Ronald M. Cook of Bjosearch Tt:chnologic.r in San Rafael. California; Dr. herman de vries ofEschcnau, Ccrmany: Dr. Mark S. Donnell of Silver City, New Mex.ico; Dr. Joscp M. Fcricgb of the Uni­<'ersidttd cit> Barcrlona, Catalunya; Dr. Jochen G:utz of Leipzig, Germany.: Dr. Luis Eduardo Luna of the Suwlish St·hool ({Economics in Helsinki, Finland (whom I also thank fi)r the slide of Pablo Amaringo's painting which graces the front cover); Dr. Dennis J. McKenna ofA11etla in Minneapolis, M innesota; Dr. Edward MacRae of Sao Paolo, Brazil; Dr. Jonathon S. Miller of G•ntro de .lrwest igaci,)n de Bosques 7i·opi­mk.\' in Quito, Ecuador; D~:. G:1.lo Pichama ofMorona Santiago, Ecuador; Dr. Ber­ta Ramirez of Los Angele~ . California; Dr . . Alexander T Shulgin of L::tf:tyettc, Ca­lifornia: Dr. C onstantino Manuel 'Iorrcs off lorida International University in Mi­

ami. Florida (whose photograph of &misteriopsis etlllfJi app~ars on the back cover) and Dr. Steven .A. V • .tn Heiden of.Austin, Texas.

I rhank Dr. Martin I.l~ Vinaver ofSan .Andr~s Tlanclhuayocan, Veracruz, for the

line drawings which appear on the title and colophon pages, as well as Harvard Uni­ve rsity for permission to reproduce the botanical illustratiom on pages 8 and 32.

I thank Dr. Albert Hofmann ofBurg im Leimcntal, Switzerland together w ith

Dr. Richard Evans Schultes of Melrose, Massachusetts, for their coiJ[in.uing advice and inspiration-it is always a pleasure to interact with rhcsc two great pioneers.

Saving the best for last, I thankmydearwife Djahcl Vinaverw ho "moves in ~;oft

beauty & conscious delight . . . '' She nwght me to kiss "the joy as it flies" and to live ''in eternity's sun rise." This book is dedicated to her in honor ofhcr 30th ~irthday.

[127]

This first edition of !IJ'fJimtJJtfl .AnfJ!O£'tW

consists of five thous:md copies, printed by Br:mn-Bmmfield on w hite GO pound book r<:cyded, acid-free paper.

with ~cwn-:1nd-glucd bindinp:s f(.>r pernuncncc.

One dJOu$:tnd copies were Smythe-sewn l\nd cascbound:

of which 200 boxed copies were ~igncd and numbered 1-174 and A- Z [the letr<~ red copies hrm ror..rmw·ce].

Priming WJS finished in March. 1994.