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Why does the year 585 BCE

come before 584 BCE?

The First World Empire

l LEGEND HAS IT

that the parents of Cyrus II were a Persian nobleman and the daughter of a king of the Medes. So when Cyrus conquered the Medes, he actually defeated his own grand-father. On his Persian side, Cyrus traced his ancestry back to Achaemenes (ak-uh-MEEN-eez). According to leg-end, Achaemenes had formed scattered groups of Persians into

Thousands of years ago, the land now occupied by the countries of Iran, Iraq, and Afghanistan was home to many dif-ferent groups of people. The Sumerians, the Babylonians, and the Assyrians ruled the area in turn. Around 3,300 years ago, a new group arrived. They were called Aryans, and they came from central Asia,

r THE AREA WHERE

the Persians lived was Fars, or Persis, a region in the south of present-day Iran. From Fars, the Persians built an empire (orange on the map) that stretched east to the borders of India and west to the Mediterranean Sea. The language of modern Iran is called Persian, or Farsi. The name Iran comes from the word Aryan, which is the name of the group from which the Persians descended.

r MUCH OF IRAN IS

a plateau – a high flat area. It is encircled by the Zagros Mountains in the north and the Hindu Kush Mountains in the east. Deserts cover much of the plateau. Some fer-tile valleys exist in Fars and provinces farther east.

a small nation. The line of Persian kings that descended from Cyrus is called the Achaemenid dynasty. A dynasty is a series of rulers from the same family.

Ancient_Persia_2-3.indd 2 3/13/17 2:27 PM

3

d THE ANCIENT

Persians didn’t write much about themselves. Some of what we know about them comes from sculptures and inscriptions on

north of the Caspian Sea, an area that today is divided between Russia and Kazakhstan. The Aryans were made up of many tribes. One tribe, the Medes, set-tled in what is now northern and western Iran; their land was called Media. Another tribe, the Persians, made their home farther south, in an area called Fars. By

monuments. But most of our knowl-edge of ancient Persia comes from the writings of Greeks, particularly Herodotus (left). This Greek writer lived around the 5th century BCE

and is sometimes called the first historian. Greeks and Persians were enemies for many centuries, and this may have affected some of the things Herodotus wrote about ancient Persia.

612 BCE, the Medes had conquered the Assyrians and become the dominant group in the area. But the Medes didn’t rule for long. Around 550 BCE, they were defeated by Cyrus II, king of Persia. From this tri-umph, Cyrus went on to build the largest empire the ancient world had ever seen. He became known as Cyrus the Great.


4

Kings of the Persian EmpireFrom 550 BCE until 465 BCE, four kings built the Persian Empire. They also defended it against rebellions by people they had conquered. But the last two kings reached too far and failed to accomplish their goals.

r CYRUS THE GREAT

was a fair ruler. He allowed each group that he conquered to keep its own language, customs, and religion. The Cyrus Cylinder records his conquest of

Babylonia, an area that lay between present-day Baghdad, Iraq, and the Persian Gulf. In the text on the cyl-

inder, Cyrus vowed to allow people the Babylonians had enslaved to return to their homelands. True to his word,

WHEN CYRUS DIED OF

battle wounds in 530 BCE, his son Cambyses II (cam-BY-seez) became king. In 525 BCE, Cambyses easily conquered Egypt (where he is shown below, under umbrella). In 522 BCE, he left Egypt to return to Persia to stop a rebellion, but he

died under myste-rious circumstanc-es along the way. The leader of the rebellion was killed by seven nobles. One of them was Darius (da-RYE-us). He became king in 522 BCE. Darius was from another branch of the Achaemenid family.

Cyrus allowed captive Jews to return to Palestine, which was also under his rule.


5 W

hat does a marathon race have to do w

ith the Battle of Marathon?

u DARIUS SPENT

a year stopping revolts in differ-ent parts of the empire. He then had a large memo-

u DARIUS WAS

determined to extend the empire into Europe. He got as far as southern Russia but could

u DARIUS WAS

succeeded by his son Xerxes (ZURK-seez), above. Advisers persuaded Xerxes to avenge his father’s defeat in Greece, and in 480 BCE, Xerxes put together an army of hundreds of thousands of men from all over the

How did the troops of Darius and Xerxes “walk on water”?

r THE PERSIAN

rulers divided their empire into 20 satrapies, or provinces. The king appointed a gover-nor called a satrap to rule each one. A separate military commander for each satrapy also reported directly to the king. This way,

r THE PERSIANS

borrowed from the people they con-quered. The sea-faring Phoenicians provided Persian kings with ships to use for trad-ing. Imitating the Lydians, the Persians replaced a barter system with coins, mak-ing long-distance trade easier. Coins pictured the king and spread his image through-out the empire. Trade required record keeping, so the Persians hired Babylonian scribes. The scribes kept accounts in their language, Akkadian, which became an official language of the empire.

empire. With these men and a naval fleet of hundreds of ships, he invad-ed Greece. The Persians defeated the Greeks at Thermopylae, and Xerxes then marched to Athens and burned down the city. However, after that, the

neither the civilian nor the military leader could wield too much power. Under Cyrus, each satrapy sent gifts to the king. Darius made the arrangement more formal by estab-lishing a system of taxation for the satrapies.

Persians lost sev-eral battles and had to retreat to their homeland without having subdued the Greeks. Xerxes was assassinated in 465 BCE. He was the first Persian emperor who had failed to expand the empire.

rial carved into a cliff at Behistun (BAY-his-TOON). In the inscription, Darius states his right to the throne

and calls himself “king of kings,” a title adopted by later rulers of Persia.

not subdue the Scythians. At the same time, Persian scouts mapped the coasts of Greece and southern Italy.

Darius conquered Thrace, an area north of Greece, but he failed to take over the Greek mainland. In 490 BCE, a large force of Persians attacked a smaller Greek force at Marathon. The Persians were defeated. Darius retreated to Persia, where he died in 486 BCE.


Persian SocietyPersian society was strictly divided. At the top was an all-powerful king. Below the king were a few thou-sand wealthy nobles. Even nobles had to lie facedown in the presence of the king and avoid eye contact with

l BOTH MEN AND

women wore long robes gathered at the waist. Noble men dominated Persian society, but some wealthy women owned property and trav-eled far to manage it. To keep the

l IN NOBLE FAMILIES, mothers cared for their sons until the age of five; then the boys were placed in their fathers’ care. Boys learned to ride horses and to shoot with a bow and arrow. Some sons of nobles learned

him. Below nobles on the social scale were mer-chants, who traded purple dyes and textiles from Phoenicia, perfumes from Arabia (present-day Saudi Arabia and lands north), timber from Crete, grains

and glass from Egypt, and spices and gold dust from India. There was a small lower middle class of skilled workers – bakers, butchers, carpenters, and artisans. At the bottom of society were millions of poor people. These farm-hands, herders, servants, and laborers worked hard

Rich Folk

Persian army large, men were encouraged to marry young, have more than one wife, and have many chil-dren. Families were rewarded for having sons.

to read and write, while girls learned to spin thread, weave cloth, and play an instrument. Children were taught to always tell the truth. Lying was the greatest shame.


7

u THE HOMES OF THE

poor were built of sun-dried bricks made from mud and straw, and they did not have much furniture. Families sat and slept on rugs that covered the floor. In contrast,

u EARLY PERSIANS

prayed to many nature gods. Sometime between the 9th and 6th cen-turies BCE, a prophet named Zarathustra (Zoroaster in Greek) introduced the idea of worshipping one god, Ahura Mazda (above right). The religion grew in popularity. King Darius made

l BARLEY WAS ONE

of the main crops that Persian farm-ers grew. It was ground into flour to make flatbread. Other major crops were lentils, beans, peas, let-tuce, figs, grapes, sesame seeds (for oil), cotton, and flax. Herders raised cattle, sheep, and goats.

read, but they enjoyed stories and poems recited from memory. Music was an important part of the culture, and harps, flutes, and tambourines were popular instruments.

but made barely enough to keep themselves alive. Most Persians lived in the country. The king owned all the land, but he granted large estates to nobles, who had to supply the king with men and weapons for his army.

Poor Folk

Zoroastrianism the state religion, but other religions still existed. Zoroaster preached that life was a struggle between good and evil, and each per-son could choose between the two. Some people follow Zoroaster today, particularly in India and Iran.

the homes of the rich were made of limestone or bricks baked in ovens. There were beds, chairs, and tables, and some homes were built around a courtyard with pools. Many Persians couldn’t


8

With the taxes they collected from people they ruled, the Persian kings financed mas-sive building projects. These projects includ-ed palaces, royal roads,

Royal Roads, Canals, and

Palaces

and canals. They brought workers, craftspeople, and materials from all over the empire to build their royal palaces. The palaces were dec-orated with brightly colored tiles and gem-studded reliefs.


9

u CYRUS THE GREAT

located his capital at Pasargadae (puh-SAR-guh-dee), where he built two palaces. The buildings had huge halls supported by col-umns and were decorated with monumental reliefs (figures carved into a flat surface). The Persian kings were crowned at Pasargadae. A tomb there (above) is believed to be that of Cyrus.

l TO MAINTAIN CON-trol throughout their vast lands, the Persian kings needed to move troops and send messages rapidly. So they built a system of royal roads. The roads also encouraged trade between different parts of the empire. Most of the royal roads have dis-appeared, but we know about two of them – from Persepolis to Susa, and from Susa to Sardis. The latter was 1,600 miles long, 20 feet wide, and made of hard-packed gravel. Stations every few miles had stables for donkeys and fresh horses for royal messengers. All along the roads were places for travelers to eat and sleep. An ordi-nary traveler could make the trip from Susa to Sardis in 90 days, but royal messengers, riding in relays and stop-ping for nothing, could make it in 15 days.

u WHEN DARIUS

became king, he began building a new capital at Persepolis (pur-SEP-uh-lis). Xerxes and his son Artaxerxes continued the con-struction of this new city.

u DARIUS BUILT

another palace at Susa. Like other Persian palaces, it was a blend of styles and building techniques from all over the empire. Materials included

r THE PERSIANS

built large canals. Darius had a canal built that joined the Mediterranean Sea with the Red Sea, shortening travel from the Mediterranean to

timber from Syria, gold from Sardis, and silver and ebony from Egypt. Stonecutters came from Ionia, gold-smiths from Media and Egypt, and woodworkers from Sardis.

the Arabian Sea. The canal was 125 miles long and was used for more than 1,000 years. Xerxes, in planning his inva-sion of Greece, had a canal dug

through part of a Greek peninsula. According to Herodotus, two warships, side by side, could pass through the canal at the same time.



STAIRWAY TO THE KING D arius’s palace

at Persepolis was built on top of a plateau.

Two stairways led to it, and they were wide enough for 10 soldiers on horseback to ride side by side. The apadana, or audience hall, was big enough to hold 10,000 people. Pillars 60 feet high supported the gold-rimmed roof, and the palace complex included an elaborate water-pump-ing system.


12

Art of Ancient PersiaThe art of ancient Persia was a mixture of artistic traditions. The Persians borrowed from the various peoples they conquered. They combined Greek, Egyptian, Assyrian, and Babylonian styles with their own to create some-thing that was uniquely Persian.

u THE PERSIANS

decorated many of their monu-mental buildings with stone relief sculptures. They borrowed this idea from the Assyrians.

l FROM THE BABYLONIANS, THE PERSIANS

learned to decorate with glazed bricks. These figures from Susa are made of bricks that were formed in molds, paint-ed, and baked in a kiln (oven).

l THE TOPS OF

columns wereoften decoratedwith animalfigures.

However, while Assyrian reliefs showed mainly scenes of war and hunting, Persian reliefs often rep-resented proces-sions to the royal court. This relief at

Persepolis shows many delegations (selected groups) bringing gifts to the king. Each del-egation wears the customary clothing of its region.


13

PERSIAN NOBLES LOVED

to adorn themselves with gold. Bracelets and armlets were often decorated with animal heads where they joined, and necklaces and

u WEALTHY

Persians dined from plates and drank from vessels made of gold and silver. This distinc-tive horn-shaped drinking cup is called a rhyton. It has two openings. As the drinker held the cup in the air,

l THERE ARE FEW

remaining ancient Persian carpets. The oldest is in a museum in Russia. It is thought to be 2,500 years old. However, since Persian rug makers continued to use the same techniques and designs for hun-dreds of years after the end of the empire, rugs made in the 15th and 16th centu-ries are believed to be very much like those made in ancient Persia. Fine carpets are still made in 12 rug-making cen-ters scattered around Iran. Each center has its own distinctive designs.

u SOME PERSIAN

tales were passed down by word of mouth and later written down. The Shahnameh, or Book of Kings, is an epic poem about 100,000

earrings had elaborate designs. Rings and clothing ornaments com-pleted the well-dressed Persian’s costume.

lines long. The Persian poet Ferdowsi recorded it late in the 11th century CE. Its sto-ries of kings, gods, and demons orig-inated in ancient Persia.

someone poured a beverage into the large opening at the top. The drink-er would catch the liquid in his mouth as it poured out of a small hole at the front of the animal.


14

After the Persians failed to conquer the Greek mainland in 479 BCE, the Persian Empire and its Achaemenid leaders began a slow decline. The kings who followed Xerxes were weak rulers. At the same time, the Greek city-states grew stronger after Philip II of Macedonia organized them into the Hellenic League. He named himself and his descendants leaders of the league. Philip was murdered in 336 BCE. Two years later, his son Alexander, later called Alexander the Great, invaded Persia.

AFTER THE PERSIANS

lost to the Greeks in 331 BCE, Darius III escaped with his bodyguards. Meanwhile, Alexander burned Persepolis as revenge for the burning of Athens by Xerxes some 150 years earlier. Darius III was stabbed by one of his satraps and left to die in the des-ert. The Persian Empire and the Achaemenid dynasty had come to an end.

r ALEXANDER LED

his troops as far east as India, where he defeat-ed a large Indian army (right). However, at his soldiers’ insis-tence, he turned

l ALEXANDER WAS

tutored by the Greek philosopher Aristotle, who taught that Greeks had a right to rule over all barbar-ians (anyone not Greek). Alexander wanted to avenge the earlier Persian invasions of Greece led by Darius and Xerxes. After crossing into Asia, his

back. Reaching Babylon (the cap-ital of Babylonia) in 323 BCE, he died unexpectedly, pos-sibly from malaria, at the age of 32. For 40 years after that, his generals

Invasion of the Greeks

r BY ALL ACCOUNTS,Darius III (right) was a mild-man-nered ruler who wanted the best for his country. After his family was cap-tured at Issus, he wrote to Alexander, asking that his family be released. Alexander sent a haughty reply, claiming to be the

king of all Asia. While Alexander was in Egypt, Darius III raised another army. When Alexander returned to Persia in 331 BCE, the Greeks and Persians again did battle – and again, the Persians lost.

army defeated the Persians at Issus. During the battle, the Greeks captured the wife, chil-dren, and mother of the Persian king, Darius III. Alexander then marched his army to Egypt and defeated the Persian troops there.

waged a series of wars over who would take control of Alexander’s empire. Finally, they divided up the lands into three large king-doms. The largest,

which included the Persian heart-land, was ruled by Seleucus I. The Seleucid dynasty spread Greek culture through-out Persia.


u BY 141 BCE, the Seleucid rule in Persia had been replaced by the Parthians, nomad-ic tribesmen who had taken over the old Persian

d IN 224 CE, THE

Parthians were conquered by a leader from the old Persian heartland of Fars. This lead-er claimed to be descended from a nobleman named Sasan. Thus, the dynasty he found-ed is called the

satrapy of Parthia. The Parthians tried to reduce the influence of the Greeks. They experimented with new kinds of buildings and

Sasanian dynasty. The Sasanians wanted to restore the glory of the old Persian Empire. They often waged war with Rome and Byzantium (pres-ent-day Istanbul), and they restored Zoroastrianism as the state religion. Sasanian kings liked to be por-trayed hunting, as on this silver plate.

invented the iwan, a three-sided brick hall with a high curved ceiling (shown here). The open end of an iwan faced a shaded courtyard. The iwan brought cooling air into the house during hot Persian summers. The Parthians traded as far east as China. They also periodically battled with the Roman Empire in the west.

u SKILLED PARTHIAN

archers could shoot arrows over their shoulders while riding away from the enemy. Today, a Parthian shot (or “parting shot”) is a sharp remark made while walking away from an argument.


16

The Legacy of Ancient PersiaIn the 7th century CE, in Arabia, the prophet Muhammad started a new religion, called Islam. The religion spread rap-idly throughout western Asia. Around 642 CE, Islamic Arabs defeated the Sasanians and took con-trol of Persia. Soon Islam

replaced Zoroastrianism as the religion of Persia. However, while Islam changed Persia, contact with Persian culture had an effect on Islam, which was enriched by Persian art and poetry. Ancient Persia left a legacy for the whole world to enjoy.

Persian StyleTHE MOSQUE OF

Imam was built in Isfahan (now in Iran) during the rule of Shah Abbas (1588–1629), a leader of the Safavid dynasty. Built over a period of 18 years, the mosque shows how Persian archi-tecture and design were incorporated into Islamic wor-ship. Mosques (Islamic places of worship) often have an iwan. During the earlier Sasanian period, the Persians had discovered how to make domes. They used these rounded structures to cover their most important build-ings, such as palaces. Today, many monuments and mosques all over the world have domes.


17

u FROM 642 CE, Persia was ruled by: Arabs (642–1055), Seljuk Turks (1055–1157), Mongols (1219–early 1500s), and Safavids (1510–1722). Then came Nadir Shah (1736–1747), the Qajar dynasty (1796–1921), and the Pahlavi dynas-ty (1925–1979).

A revolution in 1979 brought in Islamic religious leaders, called ayatollahs. Today the government in the heart of the ancient Persian Empire is the Islamic Republic of Iran. The area was named Iran in 1935, in rec-ognition of the Aryans, the original Persians.

l OMAR KHAYYAM

(c. 1048–1131 CE) was a Persian poet, mathemati-cian, and astrono-mer. He was part of a movementto change the calendar to a 365-day year. He is best known for having written a book of poetry, The Rubáiyát, which people still read today.

l THE THOUSAND

and One Nights (or The Arabian Nights) is a story collection that includes the tale of Aladdin and the magic lamp. The stories come from Egypt, Iraq, India, and other places. The earliest ones – perhaps first written down in the 10th century CE – are Persian tales with an Indian influence.

r THE ANCIENT

Persians loved to fill their gardens with fragrant flowers they found growing in the wild. One spe-cies the Persians cultivated was the damask rose. This type of rose

l ENGLISH BORROWS

from many languages. More than 150 English words have Persian roots, including lemon, orange, sherbet, paradise, magic, and bazaar.

was later taken to Europe, and from there to North America.

Badshahi Mosque, Pakistan

Blue Mosque, Turkey

Taj Mahal, India

Azadi Square, Tehran, Iran


18

Imagine you are Cyrus the Great. In an effort to help your son Cambyses II rule as you have, you decide to explain your method of ruling to him. Think about the ways Cyrus the Great ruled his empire. For example, how did he treat people the Babylonians had enslaved? Using details from this magazine, write a paragraph explaining Cyrus’s methods of ruling. Include a description of how his methods helped him gain the respect of those he conquered. Research to find information that adds to what you have read in this magazine.

WRITE AN EXPOSITORY PARAGRAPH

MAKE A TABLE

Activities

Creating a table can be helpful in keeping track of facts and details. Make a table similar to this one about the early Persian kings. Use the infor-mation you learned in this magazine to complete the table with facts about the four kings who built the ancient Persian Empire.

The Kings Who Built the Persian Empire

KING

PERIOD OF RULE

ACCOMPLISHMENTS


19

HSS 6.4 Students analyze the geographic, political, economic, religious, and social structures of the early civilizations of Ancient Greece.

6.4.5 Outline the founding, expan-sion, and political organization of the Persian Empire.

Historical and Social Sciences Analysis Skills:

Research, Evidence, and Point of View 2. Students distinguish fact from opin-ion in historical narratives and stories.

CALIFORNIA STANDARDS

• As shown in their sculptures, the Persians depicted themselves as noble. This matches their idea of themselves as the masters of a vast empire and a great civilization.

• The Persians got ships from the Phoenicians and the idea of coins from the Lydians. What else did these two influential cultures contribute to ancient commerce?

• Historians don’t know exactly when Zarathustra lived, but most agree that he was a priest in the ancient Persian religion. As a young man, he had a mystical vision of Ahura Mazda (“wise lord”), who told him to preach the truth.

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Indian EmpiresIndia’s geography, with its steep moun-tain ranges and long distances, made it difficult for any one ruler to unite the country. But in 320 BCE, Chandragupta Maurya founded India’s first true empire, the Maurya Empire. Learn about the rise and spread of Buddhism and Hinduism, the reign of Ashoka, and the emergence of the Gupta Empire.

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LEARN MORE ONLINE!


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ON THE COVER: Shah Kaykaus Hawking, oil painting, 19th century, Persian, Mongol School: Getty Images: Burstein Collection.

PICTURE CREDITS: Alamy: Lanmas: p.19 top left (Assyrian Palace); North Wind Picture Archives: p.18 top (Cyrus II the Great); Prisma Archivo: p.19 bottom (Zarathustra). Art Resource: British Library Board: Robana: pp.16–17 bottom (Isfahan, the Shah Mosque); The Trustees of the British Museum: p.4 top right (Cyrus Cylinder); Erich Lessing: p.4 bottom (King Cambyses II), p.9 middle right (winged griffin), p.13 bottom left (Persian rug), p.14 middle left (Alexander mosaic), p.14 center middle (Darius); SEF: p.5 top right (Darius I the Great), p.12 top left (tribute bearers); Werner Forman: p.13 top left

(rhyton). Bridgeman Images: Look and Learn: p.6 top (palace of Darius at Persepolis); Musée Rolin, Autun, France: p.5 middle right (Xerxes). Getty Images: Historical Picture Archive: p.6 middle left (Iranian prince); Bettmann: p.17 top center (Omar Khayyam); BornaMir: p.9 middle right (tomb of Cyrus); DEA Picture Library: G. Nimatallah: p.19 top center (Great Stupa); Art in All of Us: Eric Lafforgue: p.7 middle right (Ahura Mazda); Kazuyoshi Nomachi: pp.10–11 (Persepolis steps); Print Collector: p.15 bottom center (Sassanian silver-gilt dish); Ugurhan: p.9 top right (Persepolis); Werner Forman: p.13 top right (armlet). Granger Collection: p.5 center middle (Persian gold coin); Sarin Images: p.2 bottom left (King Cyrus), p.16 top right (the genie appears to Aladdin). iStock Images: AG-ChapelHill: p.3 bottom left (Borujerd, Iran); BornaMir: p.12 bottom left (Achaemenid soldiers); Fotolinchen: p.7 bottom center (barley); FrankvandenBergh: p.12 bottom right (two-headed bull); gaborbasch: p.17 center middle (Badshahi Mosque); kickimages: p.6 center middle (Persian soldier); Nikada: p.17 center middle (Taj Mahal); Vincent_St_Thomas: p.17 bottom center (Blue Mosque, Istanbul, Turkey). National Geographic Creative: Tom Lovell: pp.14–15 top (Persepolis in flames), p.14 bottom right (defeat of the Indian army). Shutterstock: Borna_Mirahmadian: p.17 top right (Azadi Square); JJ_SNIPER: p.19 top right (ancient Egyptian statue); M.Khebra: p.17 middle right (damask rose); Nicola Messana Photos: p.15 bottom left (iwan); Renata Sedmakova: p.3 bottom right (Herodotus); steve estvanik: p.13 bottom right (the Shahnameh); Subbotina Anna: p.17 bottom right (lemons).

ORIGINAL ILLUSTRATIONS:Acme Design Company: Maps, pp.2–3.

Michael Kline Illustration: Cartoons, cover; The Year 585 BCE, p.2; Xerxes and Soldiers, p.5; Canals, p.9.

Wood Ronsaville Harlin, Inc.: Rob Wood: Behistun, p.5; Greg Harlin: Poor Folk, p.7; Royal Road, pp.8–9.

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