Aviation Maintenance Technician Series: Powerplant · as the FAA’s Aviation Maintenance Technician Handbook—General (FAA-H-8083-30), —Airframe (FAA-H-8083-31), and —Powerplant

Aviation MaintenanceTechnician Series

Powerplant

Aviation Supplies & Academics, Inc.Newcastle, washiNgtoN

Dale craNe

t. DaviD scroggiNsTechnical Editor

Professor of aPPlieD aviatioN scieNcescollege of aviatioNletourNeau uNiversity

Fourth Edition

AviAtion MAintenAnce techniciAn SerieS PowerPlAntii

Aviation Maintenance Technician Series: PowerplantFourth Edition

Aviation Supplies & Academics, Inc.7005 132nd Place SENewcastle, Washington 98059-3153Email: [email protected]: www.asa2fly.com

Visit the Reader Resources webpage for further resources and updates to this book at www.asa2fly.com/amtp

© 1996–2018 ASAAll rights reserved. Fourth Edition published 2018. First Edition published 1996.

Coverphoto©GaryGladstoneviaTheImageBank/GettyImages2018

Photocreditsandacknowledgments:p.6—Pratt&WhitneyDivision,UnitedTechnologiesCorp.;p.11—TheGeneralElectricCompany;p.44—JerryLeeFoulk;p. 46—Teledyne-ContinentalMotors;pp.207,211,216,219,229—BendixElectricalComponentsDivision;p.494—ChampionAviationProductsDivision;p. 526—InstrumentTechnology,Inc.;pp.527,528—Machida,Incorporated;p. 536—MilbarSpecialtyTools;p.538—HowellInstruments,Inc.;p.607—SundstrandCorporation;p.709—TheGeneralElectricCompany;p.721—TECAviationDivision

Cermicrome is a registered trademark of Engine Components, Inc.Cermisteel and CermilNil are trademarks of Engine Components, Inc.All other trademarks are registered with their respective owners.

ASA-AMT-P4-PDISBN 978-1-61954-648-6

AviAtion SupplieS & AcAdemicS, inc. iii

coNteNts

Contents

Preface to the Fourth Edition v

About the Author and Editors vii

Acknowledgements ix

1 DevelopmentofAircraftPowerplants1

Reciprocating Engines

2 Theory&Construction17 3 LubricationSystems93 4 FuelMetering&InductionSystems125 5 IgnitionSystems205 6 ExhaustSystems255 7 CoolingSystems269 8 StartingSystems279 9 Operation&Maintenance291

Turbine Engines

10 Theory&Construction355 11 Lubrication&CoolingSystems435 12 FuelMeteringSystems465 13 Ignition&StartingSystems493 14 ExhaustSystems515 15 Operation&Maintenance527

Powerplant Auxiliary Systems

16 InstrumentSystems555 17 ElectricalSystems593 18 FireProtectionSystems641 19 Propellers 663

Glossary 739

Index 775

AviAtion SupplieS & AcAdemicS, inc. v

Preface to the fourth eDitioN

Aviation maintenance is a profession requiring a broad spectrum of skills and knowledgethatisconstantlyevolvingasnewtechnologiesareintroduced.Technicianstodayneedasolidfoundationofmechanics,physics,electricity,electronics and logic, in addition to the information unique to aircraft main-tenanceandconstruction.Thetrainingmaterialinthe Aviation Maintenance Technician Series ischosen toreflect today’s requiredknowledgefor theaviationmaintenancetechnician.Thismaterialcomesfromacombinationofbothpersonalexperienceandresearch.Likepreviouseditions,thisPow-erplanttextbook,alongwiththeotherASAmaintenancevolumes,endeavorstomeettheneedsoftoday’stechnicians. ASAisdedicatedtoprovidingeasytounderstandtrainingmaterialsfortheAMTcertificateapplicant.ThechaptersarecarefullychosentoreflectFAA requirements, while the arrangement of information is intended to lend itselftoaPart147curriculum.Thisarrangementalsoprovidesalogicalflowofinformationthatenhancesindividuallearning.Therefore,theAMTSeriestextbookscontributetotheknowledgenecessaryforthebuildingofwell-roundedaircrafttechnicians,whowillnotonlybeequippedtounderstandtheworkingsofaircraftsystems,butwillhavetheskillstorepair,service,inspect, and troubleshoot them. AdditionalrecommendedstudymaterialswouldincludesuchmaterialastheFAA’sAviation Maintenance Technician Handbook—General (FAA-H-8083-30),—Airframe (FAA-H-8083-31), and—Powerplant (FAA-H-8083-32), also available fromASA.ASAprovides thebest collectionofAMT-relatedfederalaviationregulationreprintsinFAR for Aviation Mainte-nance Technicians,printedyearlyandprovidedwithperiodicupdatesontheASAwebsite(www.asa2fly.com).ForthosewhoarepreparingtotaketheirFAAexams,ASA’sTestGuidesareaninvaluabletooltotestyourknowledgeof aircraft maintenance. Finally,weinaviationbuildonthelegacyofthepeoplewhocamebeforeusaspioneers.Thatwastruefortheearlyexperimenterstryingtogetoffthegroundforthefirsttimejustasitistruefortoday’smechanics,engineers,andpilotswhoarebuildingandoperatingjumbojets.Theprincipleofbuildingonthelegacyofothersiscertainlytruewiththistextbook—DaleCranewastheauthorofmanyoftheASAtexts.ManystudentsovertheyearscametotrustDale’sauthorshiptonotonlyinform,buttodosoinanaccurate,concise,and straight-forward manner.

Continued

AviAtion MAintenAnce techniciAn SerieS PowerPlAntvi

Later,technicaleditorscarriedonthattraditionbyupdatingthebookasaviationtechnologycontinuedtoevolve.ThecurrenttechnicaleditorneverhadtheopportunitytostudydirectlyunderMr.CranebutmanyofhismentorsandfriendsbegantheircareersinaviationasMr.Crane’sstudents.Therefore,thecurrenttechnicaleditorbenefitsheavilyfromMr.Crane’sknowledgeandability.ItisthegoalofthiseditortocarryoninthetraditionofqualityandclaritythatDaleCraneestablished.

T. David ScrogginsTechnical Editor for the Fourth Edition

AviAtion SupplieS & AcAdemicS, inc. vii

about the author aND eDitors

Dale Crane (1923 – 2010)wasinvolvedinaviationformorethan50years.HebeganhiscareerintheU.S.NavyasamechanicandflightengineerinPBYs.AfterWorldWar II,heattendedParksAirCollege.Aftercollege,he worked as an instrument overhaul mechanic, instrument shop manager, andflighttestinstrumentationengineer.Laterhebecameaninstructorandthendirectorofanaviationmaintenanceschool.Dalewasactiveasawriterof aviation technical materials, and as a consultant in developing aviation trainingprograms.ATECpresentedtoDaleCranetheirspecialrecognitionaward for “his contribution to the development of aviation technicians as a prolificauthorofspecializedmaintenancepublications.”HealsoreceivedtheFAA’sCharlesTaylor“MasterMechanic”awardforhisyearsofserviceinandcontributionstotheaviationmaintenanceindustry,andtherecognitionofhispeersforexcellenceasaleaderandeducatorinaircraftmaintenance,andaviationsafetyadvocate.

T. David Scroggins, technical editor for the Fourth Edition, is a Professor of AppliedAviationScienceintheCollegeofAviationatLeTourneauUniversity.HestudiedinMoodyBibleInstitute’sAviationprogramobtaininghisBachelorofScienceinMissionaryAviationTechnology;afterearninghisMechanic’scertificatein1981,DavidworkedinseveralgeneralaviationmaintenancejobsintheU.S.andoverseas.HestartedteachingatLeTourneauUniversityin1992;in1996heearnedhisMasterofScienceDegreeinTechnologyfromtheUniversityofTexasatTyler.AtLeTourneauDavidteachescoursesinReciprocatingEngines,TurbineEngines,PropellersandInstrumentSystems.HecurrentlyholdsanAirframeandPowerplantMechaniccertificate,aCom-mercialPilotCertificateandaMechanicExaminer’sDesignation.

Technical editors for the previous editionswerePatBenton,WesternMichiganUniversity,andTerryMichmerhuizen,CornerstoneCollege(FirstandSecondEditions);JerryLeeFoulk,LeTourneauUniversity(SecondandThirdEditions).

AviAtion SupplieS & AcAdemicS, inc. ix

ackNowleDgemeNts

AseriesoftextssuchasthisAviation Maintenance Technician Series could never be compiled without the assistance ofmodernindustry.Manyindividualshavebeenpersonallyhelpful,andmanycompanieshavebeengenerouswiththeirinformation.Wewanttoacknowledgethisandsaythankyoutothemall.

ACESSystems—TECAviationDivision,Knoxville, TN

AeroQualityInternational, Stamford, CT

Aero-MachLabs,Inc.,Wichita, KSAeroquip Corporation, Jackson, MIAirborneDivision,ParkerHanniflin

Corporation, Elyria, OHAllied Signal Aerospace, Phoenix, AZAllisonEngineCompany,

Indianapolis, INASCO Aeronautical, Columbus, OHAviationLaboratories,Inc.,

Houston, TXBarfield,Inc.,Atlanta, GABeechAircraftCorporation,

Wichita, KSBendixElectricalComponentsDivision, Sidney, NY

CessnaAircraftCompany, Wichita, KS

Chadwick-HelmuthCompany,Inc., El Monte, CA

Champion Aviation Products Division,Liberty, SC

ContinentalMotorsGroup, Mobile, AL

Dowty-Rotol,Inc., Cheltenham, England

DynamicSolutionsSystems,Inc., San Marcos, CA

Engine Components, Inc., San Antonio, TX

GeneralElectricCompany, Cincinnati, OH

Gulfstream Aerospace, Savannah, GAHamiltonStandardDivisionofUnitedTechnologies,Windsor Locks, CT

HowellInstruments,Inc., Fort Worth, TX

MachidaIncorporated, Orangeburg, NY

McCauleyAccessoryDivision CessnaAircraftCompany,Vandalia, OH

MilbarCorporation, Chagrin Falls, OH

NASALewisResearchCenter,Cleveland, OH

Pratt&WhitneyCanada, Longueuil, Quebec, Canada

Precision Airmotive Corporation, Everett, WA

Quan-Tech,Flanders, NJRam Aircraft Corporation, Waco, TXSaft America, Inc., Valdosta, GASlickAircraftProducts,Divisionof

Unison, Rockford, ILStandard Aero, Winnipeg, Manitoba,

CanadaStanley-ProtoIndustrialTools,

Covington, GAStead Aviation Corporation,

Manchester, NHSundstrand Corp., Rockford, ILSuperior Air Parts, Inc., Addison, TXTextronLycoming,Williamsport, PATRWHartzellPropellerProductsDivision,Piqua, OH

T.W.SmithEngineCompany,Inc.,Cincinnati, OH

UESystems,Inc.,Elmsford, NYUnitedTechnologies,Pratt&Whitney,

East Hartford, CTWelchAllynImagingProductsDivision,

Skaneateles Falls, NY

Development of AircrAft powerplAnts Chapter 1 1

1 DeveloPmeNt of aircraft PowerPlaNts

The Principle of Heat Engines 3

External-CombustionEngines3Internal-Combustion Engines 4

Aircraft Reciprocating Engines 4

Aircraft Turbine Engines 8

Electrically Powered Engines 11

StudyQuestions:DevelopmentofAircraftPowerplants13

Answers to Chapter 1 Study Questions 14


1 Thefirstman-carryingflightsweremadeinhotairballoonssweptalongbyaircurrentsandwithoutmeansforthepilottocontrolthedirectionofflight.Aircrafthadlittlepracticalutilityuntilthedevelopmentofengine-drivenpropellers.Thisdevelopmentofthepowerplanthasmadeaviationthevitalfactorthatitistodayintheeconomicworld.

The Principle of Heat EnginesAllpoweredaircraftaredrivenbysomeformofheatengine.Chemicalenergystoredinthefuelisreleasedasheatenergythatcausesairtoexpand.Theexpansionofthisairiswhatperformsusefulwork,drivingeitherapistonor a turbine. There are twobasic types of heat engines: external-combustion andinternal-combustion.

External-Combustion EnginesExternal-combustionenginesaremostfamiliartousassteamengines.Energyreleasedincoal-orgas-firedfurnacesorinnuclearreactorsistransferredintowater,changingitintosteamthatexpandsanddriveseitherapistonora turbine. Steamengineswere used to power experiments inflightmade dur-ing the late 1800s. Dr.SamuelLangleyof theSmithsonianInstitution inWashington,D.C.usedsmallsteamengines topowerasuccessfulseriesofunmannedmachineshecalledAerodromes.In1896,Dr.Langleymadeanumberofpoweredflightswiththesemodels.Themostsuccessfulhadtandem wings with a span of 14 feet, weighed 26 pounds, and was powered byaone-horsepowersteamengine.ItwaslaunchedfromacatapultatopahouseboatonthePotomacriver,andflewfor90seconds,travelingmorethanhalf a mile. TherewasonesuccessfulbutimpracticalaircraftsteamenginedevelopedinAmericain1933bytheBeslerbrothers,manufacturersofloggingloco-motives.This150-horsepowerengine,usinganoil-firedboilerandhavingatotalinstalledweightofapproximately500pounds,wasusedtopoweraTravelAir2000biplane.

powerplant. Thecompleteinstallationof an aircraft engine, propeller, and all accessories needed for its proper function.

DeveloPmeNt of aircraft PowerPlaNts

heat engine. A mechanical device that convertschemicalenergyinafuelintoheatenergy,andthenintomechanicalenergy.

internal-combustion engine. A form of heat engine in which the fuel and air mixtureisburnedinsidetheengine.

external-combustion engine. A form of heat engine in which the fuel releases its energyoutsideoftheengine.

piston. Themovablepluginsidethecylinderofareciprocatingengine.

turbine. A wheel fitted with vanes or airfoils radiating out from a central disk. Usedtoextractenergyfromastreamofmoving fluid.

Aerodrome. ThenamegivenbyDr.SamuelLangleytotheflyingmachinesbuilt under his supervision between the yearsof1891and1903.

4 AviAtion MAintenAnce techniciAn SerieS PowerPlAnt

Internal-Combustion EnginesTheconceptofreleasingenergyfromfueldirectlyinsideanenginetoheatandexpandtheairhaschallengedengineerssincethelate1700s.Theexpandingair can drive reciprocating pistons or spin turbines. Coaldust,gunpowder,andeventurpentinevaporshavebeenexplodedinsidecylinders,butitwasnotuntil1860thattheFrenchengineerEtienneLenoiractuallybuiltapracticalenginethatcoulduseilluminatinggasasits fuel. In 1876, Dr.NikolausOttoofGermanymadepracticalenginesusingthefour-strokecyclethatbearshisname,anditistheprincipalcycleuponwhichalmostallaircraftreciprocatingenginesoperate.Thiscycleofenergytransformation is discussed in detail in Chapter 2. Gasturbineenginesintheformofturbojet,turbofan,turboprop,andturboshaftengineshaverevolutionizedaviation,andtheirprincipleofopera-tion is discussed in Chapter 10.

Aircraft Reciprocating EnginesThroughout thehistoryof aviation, progresshas alwaysbeendependentupon the development of suitable powerplants. Aviationasweknowittodaywasbornatthebeginningofthe1900swithpoweredflightsmadebyWilburandOrvilleWright.TheWrightbroth-ersapproachedtheproblemsofflight inasensibleandprofessionalway.Theyfirstsolvedtheproblemofliftwithkites,thentheproblemofcontrolwithgliders,andfinallyby1902,theywerereadyforpoweredflight.Firsttheypainstakinglydesignedthepropellersandthenbegantheirsearchforasuitableengine.Theirrequirementswereforagasolineenginethatwoulddevelop 8 or 9 brake horsepower and weigh no more than 180 pounds. No manufacturer had such an engine available, and none were willing to develop oneforthem.Theironlyrecoursewastodesignandbuilditontheirown. Theengine,builttotheirdesignbyMr.CharlesTaylor,hadfourcylin-dersin-lineandlayonitsside.Itdrovetwo81⁄2-foot-long wooden propellers through chain drives and developed between 12 and 16 horsepower when it turnedat1,090RPM.Itweighed179pounds. OnDecember17,1903,thisenginepoweredtheWright Flyer on its his-toricflightof59seconds,coveringadistanceof852feetonthewind-sweptsandatKittyHawk,NorthCarolina.

BecauseofDr.Langley’ssuccesswithhisAerodromes,theU.S.governmentgavehimacontracttobuildafull-scaleman-carryingmachine.Thesteamenginesusedinthemodelscouldnotbeeffectivelyscaleduptopowerthisaircraft, so a better means of propulsion had to be found. CharlesManly,Dr.Langley’sassistant,searchedwithoutsuccess,bothintheUnitedStatesandEurope,forasuitablepowerplant.Thebesthefoundwasathree-cylinderrotaryradialautomobileenginebuiltbyStephenBalzer

Otto cycle of energy transformation. Thefour-stroke, five-event, constant-volume cycleofenergytransformationusedinareciprocating engine.

gas turbine engine. An internal combus-tion engine that burns its fuel in a constant-pressurecycleandusestheexpansionofthe air to drive a turbine which, in turn, rotatesacompressor.Energybeyondthatneeded to rotate the compressor is used to produce torque or thrust.

turbojet engine. A gas turbine engine that producesthrustbyacceleratingthemassofair flowing through it.

turbofan engine. Atypeofgasturbineengine in which lengthened compressor or turbine blades accelerate air around the outside of the core engine.

turboprop engine. A turbine engine in whichenergyextractedfromtheacceler-ated gases is used to drive a propeller.

turboshaft engine. A turbine engine inwhichenergyextractedfromtheaccelerated gases is used to drive helicopter rotors, generators, or pumps.

reciprocating engine. Atypeofheatengine that changes the reciprocating (back-and-forth)motionofpistonsinsidethecylindersintorotarymotionofacrankshaft.

brake horsepower. Theactualhorsepowerdelivered to the propeller shaft of an aircraft engine.

cylinder. Thecomponentofareciprocating engine which houses the piston, valves, and spark plugs and forms the combustion chamber.


inNewYork.This enginewasnotdirectly adaptable to theAerodrome,butManly,buildinguponBalzer’swork,constructedasuitableengineforit.TheManly-Balzerenginewasafive-cylinder,water-cooledstaticradialenginethatproduced52.4horsepowerat950RPMandweighed207.5poundscomplete with water. On October 7, 1903, the full-scale AerodromewithManlyasthepilotwas launched from atop the houseboat. As the aircraft neared the end of the catapult, it snagged part of the launching mechanism and was dumped into theriver.ButManly’sengine,whichwasfaraheadofitstime,functionedproperlyandwasinnowayresponsibleforthefailureoftheAerodrometoachievepoweredflight.

GlennCurtisswasasuccessfulmotorcyclebuilderandracerfromwesternNewYorkstate.Theuseofoneofhismotorcycleenginesinadirigiblein1907 got Curtiss interested in aviation, and as a result, he became involved in furnishing the powerplants for Dr.AlexanderGrahamBell’sAerialExperi-mentAssociation.Anumberofsuccessfulaircraft,includingthefirstaircrafttoflyinCanada,camefromthisgroup. Curtiss’sowncompanydesignedandbuiltsomeofthemostimportantengines in America in the periods before and during World War I and up until 1929, when the CurtissAeroplane andMotorCorporationmergedwith the Wright Aeronautical Corporation to form the giant Curtiss-Wright Corporation.

World War I, between 1914 and 1918, was a time of rapid growth in aviation. TheBritish,French,Germans,andAmericansalldevelopedaeroengines. Oneofthemostpopularconfigurationofenginesbuiltinthiserawasthe rotary radial engine.With this engine, the crankshaftwas attachedrigidlytotheairframe,andthepropeller,crankcase,andcylindersallspunaround.Clerget,Gnome,andRhoneinFrance,BentleyinBritain,ThulininSweden,andOberursel,BMW,Goebel,andSiemens-HalskeinGermanyallbuiltrotaryradialengines.Theseengineshad5,7,9,11,or14cylindersand produced between 80 and 230 horsepower. TheGermansusedsomeveryefficient6-cylinderin-linewater-cooledenginesbuiltbytheMercedes,Maybach,BMW,Benz,andAustro-Daimlercompanies. Some of these engines developed up to 300 hp. Some of the most popular V-8 engines of this time were the French-built 150-to300-horsepowerHispano-Suizas.TheseengineswerealsobuiltunderlicenseagreementsinGreatBritainandtheUnitedStates. TherewereonlytwoaircraftenginesdesignedandbuiltinquantitiesintheUnitedStatesduringthistime,andbothwereV-engines.GlennCurtiss’sCompanybuiltthe90-horsepower,water-cooledV-8CurtissOX-5 engine in great numbers, and various automobile manufacturers built the 400-horse-power water-cooled V-12 Libertyengine.

dirigible. A large, cigar-shaped, lighter-than-airflyingmachine.Dirigiblesdifferfromballoonsinthattheyarepoweredandcan be steered.

rotary radial engine. A form of recipro-cating engine in which the crankshaft is rigidlyattachedtotheairframeandthecylindersrevolvewithpropeller.

crankshaft. Thecentralcomponentofareciprocatingengine.Thishigh-strengthalloysteelshafthashardenedandpolishedbearing surfaces that ride in bearings in the crankcase. Offset throws, formed on the crankshaft, have ground and polished surfaces on which the connecting rods ride. Theconnectingrodschangethein-and-outmotion of the pistons into rotation of the crankshaft.

crankcase. Thehousingthatenclosesthecrankshaft,camshaft,andmanyoftheaccessorydrivegearsofareciprocatingengine. Thecylindersaremountedonthecrankcase, and the engine attaches to the airframebythecrankcase.

V-engine. A form of reciprocating engine inwhichthecylindersarearrangedintwobanks.Thebanksareseparatedbyanangleof between 45° and 90°. Pistonsintwocylinders,oneineachbank, are connected to each throw of the crankshaft.


TheyearsbetweenWorldWarsIandIIarecalledthegoldenyearsofavia-tion because of the tremendous strides made during this era. Powerplant developmentwaslargelyresponsibleforthisprogress. Attheendofhostilitiesin1918,theaviationmarketwasfloodedwithsurplusCurtissJenniesandStandardJ-1s,withtheirCurtissOX-5enginesandDeHavilandDH-4airplaneswithLibertyV-12engines.Theseairplanesandengines,whilelimitedinutility,weresoabundantandcheapthatmanu-facturers were discouraged from developing new engines until these were used up. Aviation did not become a viable form of transportation until a depend-ableenginewasdeveloped.Beginninginabout1923,CharlesLawrancebuilta9-cylinderradialenginethatwasdevelopedbytheWrightAeronauticalCorporation into their famous Whirlwind series of engines, the most famous ofwhichwasthe220-horsepowerWrightJ-5.ThisistheenginethatpoweredCharlesLindbergh’sSpirit of St. Louisonitssuccessful33-hournonstopflightfromNewYorktoParisinMayof1927.Abouttwoweekslater,Clarence Chamberlain,flyingaBellanca,alsopoweredbyaWrightJ-5engine,flewnonstopfromNewYorktoGermanyin43hours. Small3-,5-,and7-cylinderradialenginespoweredthelightairplanesofthe1930sand1940s,and7-,9-,and14-cylinderradialenginespoweredthefasterprivateandbusinessairplanes,aswellasmilitaryandairlineaircraft.

DuringWorldWarIItheradialenginewasthemostpopularconfigurationintheUnitedStates.Somefighterairplanesusedliquid-cooledV-12engines,butmostaircraftwerepoweredby9-,14-,and18-cylinderradialengines,andbytheendofthewar,byapopular28-cylinderengine. ThepointofdiminishingreturnsinreciprocatingenginedevelopmentwasreachedduringWorldWarIIbytheLycomingXR-7755,a5,000-horse-power36-cylinderliquid-cooledradialengine.Fortunatelythegas-turbineengine became functional at about this time.

Horizontallyopposedenginesfirstbecamepopularaspowerplantsforverylightaircraftin2-and4-cylindermodelsoflessthan40horsepower.Thisconfigurationhas theadvantageof smoothoperation, small frontal area,lightweight,anddependability.Becauseofthesecharacteristics,theyhavebeenwidelyproducedwith4-,6-,andeven8-cylinders,withpoweroutputof up to 520 horsepower or more. AfterWorldWarII,horizontallyopposedenginesreplacedradialenginesfor almost all reciprocating engine-powered private airplanes.Recently,however,therehavebeenaseveralin-lineandV-configureddieselenginesmarketed.

Figure 1-1. The Pratt & Whitney R-4360 Wasp Major, with 28 air-cooled cylinders weighed 3,670 pounds and produced 3,800 horsepower. This engine, with four rows of seven cylinders, was the largest practical aircraft reciprocating engine.

Curtiss Jenny (Curtiss JN4-D). A World War I training airplane powered byaCurtissOX-5engine.Itwaswidelyavailable after the war and helped introduce aviation to the general public.

Standard J-1. A World War I training airplanepoweredbyaCurtissOX-5engine.

DeHaviland DH-4. An English designed observation airplane built in large quantities in America during World War I. Afterthewar,surplusDH-4swereusedforcarryingtheU.S.mail.

radial engine (static radial). A form of reciprocatingengineinwhichthecylindersradiate out from a small central crankcase. Thepistonsinthecylindersdriveacentral crankshaft which in turn drives the propeller.


Private aviation in the United States has undergone drastic changes since the1960s.Thecostofprivateaircraftownershipskyrocketedbecauseoftheproliferationofproduct liability lawsuits,andcommercialmanufacturersvirtuallystoppedproducingreciprocating-engine-poweredprivateaircraftinthe1980s.Bythemid1990s,changesintortreformlawsencouragedsomemanufacturerstore-entertheprivateaircraftfield. The amateur-built or homebuilt aircraftmovement originally beganbecausepeoplewantedtobuildandflyultra-simpleaircraftwithoutcomplextooling,atminimumofcost.Todaytherearestillsomeverybasicdesignsyettherearealsoanumberofhomebuiltaircraftonthecuttingedgeoftechnology,costing hundreds of thousands of dollars. Freedom from some of the FAA constraintsunderwhichproductionaircraftarebuiltandtheaccompanyingreductionofthethreatofproductliabilitylawsuitsallowprivatebuilderstoexploitthelimitlessadvantagesofcompositeconstruction. Amateur-builtaircraftdonotrequireFAA-certificatedengines,andasa result, there is a strong movement in the conversion of automobile engines foraircraftuse.Someconvertedautomobileenginesaretrulystate-of-the-artpowerplants,withelectronicignitionandfuelinjection.Thesafetyrecordfortheseenginesisexcellent,anditisquitepossiblethatthiswillcontinueto be a viable means of developing engines for private aircraft in the future.

Asaviationbeginsitssecondcentury,thegasolinereciprocatingengine,inspiteofitsinefficiency,continuestobeused,butnotwithoutcompetition.Practically all airline andmilitary aircraft are turbinepowered andwillcontinue to be. Air-cooled, horizontally-opposed gasoline engineswill continue todominatethepiston-poweredaircraftmarketfortheforeseeablefuture.Therehavebeen,andcontinuetobe,inroadsmadetodevelopmorefuel-efficientpowerplants,butnonehaverisentotheforefrontinanysignificantwaytounseatthegasoline-firedmainstay.Someoftheongoinginnovationsincludeliquid-cooledgasolineengines,compression-ignition(CI)engines,rotatingcombustion(RC)enginesdevelopedfromtheWankelengine,andcam(asopposedtocrankshaft)engines. Themostsignificantoftheseimprovedengineshasbeenthecompression-ignition engine, better known as the dieselengine.ThedieselorCIengineisabout10%to15%morefuelefficientthanthegasolineengine.Thiscouldbeasignificantsavingsifthatweretheonlyconsideration,buttheCIengineisconsiderablyheavierthanthegasoline-firedengine.Thisaspectinitselfproducesconsiderableinefficiencieswhencostpermileisconcerned;thesearchforideasformoreefficientpistonenginepowerthereforecontinues.

amateur-built aircraft. Aircraft built byindividualsasahobbyratherthanbyfactoriesascommercialproducts.Amateur-built or homebuilt aircraft do not fall under the stringent requirements imposedbytheFAAoncommerciallybuiltaircraft.

rotating combustion (RC) engine. A form of internal combustion engine in which a rounded, triangular-shaped rotor withslidingsealsattheapexesformsthecombustion space inside an hourglass-shapedchamber.Expandinggasesfromtheburningfuel-airmixturepushtherotoraround and turn a geared drive shaft in its center.TheRCenginewasconceivedinGermanybyFelixWankelin1955.


Figure 1-2 highlights the progress made in aircraft reciprocating engines. In only40years,enginesprogressedfromalmost15poundsperhorsepowertoslightlylessthanonepoundperhorsepower.

Aircraft Turbine EnginesTheprincipleofusingaturbineasasourceofpowerhasbeenknownformorethan400years,sincethedaysofLeonardodaVinci.Wind-driventurbinesin the form of windmills have converted much of the arid wasteland in the westernUnitedStatesintoprofitablefarmsandranches. Water-driventurbinesareusedtogenerateelectricityinthehugehydro-electric powerplants, and steam turbines are used to drive electrical generators and propel ocean-going ships. Thefirstpracticaluseofturbinesinaviationwastheturbosupercharger developedbyDr.SanfordMossduringWorldWarI.Aturbinespunbyexhaustgases leaving the engine drove a centrifugal compressor that increased the pressureoftheairenteringthecylinders.Turbosuperchargersallowrecip-rocating engines to maintain their sea-level power to a high altitude. Thegas-turbineengineisalogicalprogressionfromaturbosupercharger.A combustion chamber is placed between the turbine wheel and the compres-sor.Airfromthecompressorflowsthroughthecombustionchamberwherefuelisaddedandburned.Theexpandinggasesdrivetheturbine,whichinturndrivesthecompressor.Thoughthecompressorrequiresatremendousamount of power, the turbine produces enough, with some left over for torque or thrust.

Manufacturer and Name Year Configuration H.P. Weight

Wright Flyer 1903 4 I L 12-16 179Manly-Balzer 1903 5 R L 52.4 207Curtiss OX-5 1910 8V L 90 400Le Rhone J 1916 9 Ro A 120 323Liberty V-12 1918 12 V L 400 900Wright J-5 1925 9 R A 220 510Pratt & Whitney R-1830 1932 14 R A 1,200 1,467Wright Turbocompound 1940 18 R A 3,700 2,779Pratt & Whitney R-4360 1943 28 R A 4,300 3,600

Engines for Private Aircraft

Continental A-65 1938 4 O A 65 170Lycoming TIGO-541 1959 6 O A 450 396

I = Inline, R = Radial, V = V, Ro = Rotary, O = Horizontally opposed, L = Liquid cooled, A = Aircooled

Figure 1-2. Progress made in aircraft reciprocating engines

centrifugal compressor. An air compres-sorthatusesascroll-typeimpeller.Airistaken into the center of the impeller and slungoutwardbycentrifugalforceintoadiffuserwhereitsvelocityisdecreasedandits pressure is increased.

turbosupercharger. A centrifugal air compressordrivenbyexhaustgasesflowingthroughaturbine.Thecompressedair is used to increase the power produced byareciprocatingengineataltitude.


In 1929, FrankWhittle,abrilliantyoungpilot-officerintheBritishRoyalAirForce,filedapatentforaturbojetairplaneengine.Unfortunately,Whittle’sgeniuswasnotappreciated,anditwasnotuntil1937thathisfirstjetengineactuallyran. SomescientistsintheBritishAirMinistrywereinterestedingas-turbineengines,butthoughtofthemonlyasasourceofpowertodrivepropellers. Apropellerproducesthrustbydeliveringasmallchangeinmomentumtoalargemassofair,butWhittle’sconceptwasthatthrustcouldbeproducedbyajetenginedeliveringafarlargerchangeinmomentumtoamuchsmallermassofair.Thethrustproducedbyaturbojetwouldincreaseastheaircraftflewfasterandwouldbeefficientathighaltitude. Whittle’sengineusedaturbine-drivencentrifugalcompressortomovealargemassofairthroughtheengine.Fuelwassprayedintothefastmovingairandburned,expandingitandacceleratingitenoughtoproduceusefulthrust.

Theturbojetenginecameaboutatexactlythecorrecttime.InspiteofthelackofinterestbytheBritishgovernment,FrankWhittleandhissmallbutdevoted crew at PowerJets,Ltd.,provedthefeasibilityoftheturbojetengine.InOctoberof1941,TheGeneralElectricCompanywaslicensedtobuildthe Whittle engine in the United States. GE was chosen for two reasons: becauseoftheirexperiencewithturbosuperchargers, and because the two primaryaircraftenginemanufacturers,Pratt&WhitneyandWright Aero-nautical,hadmorethantheycouldhandleinthecontinueddevelopmentofreciprocatingenginesthatweresodesperatelyneededforthewarwhich,atthat time, appeared imminent. Thetechnologyofturbojetengineswassonewandtheworldwassodeeplyinvolvedinthewar,thatnogreatstridesinturbineenginedevelop-ment were made until the war was over.

Attheendofthewar,manyreciprocatingenginesweredeclaredsurplusandsold for such low prices that there was little incentive for manufacturers to designandbuildnewreciprocatingengines.ThegasturbineengineshowedsomuchpromisethatneitherPratt&WhitneynorWrightAeronauticalfeltitwisetocontinuedevelopingreciprocatingengines.Pratt&Whitneytransi-tionedheavilyintoturbineengines,butWrightAeronauticaldidnotdevelopanyoftheirown.TheydidproducesomeBritishenginesunderlicensebutsoondepartedentirelyfromaviationengines.

Turbine engineshave a far greater versatility than reciprocating enginesbecausetheycanbeoperatedeitherasathrustortorqueproducer.Turbojetandturbofanenginesproducethrustbyacceleratingamassofair.Turbopropand turboshaft engines produce torque to drive propellers or helicopter rotors, orgeneratorsandaircompressorsforauxiliarypowerunits.

thrust. Theaerodynamicforceproducedbyapropellerorturbojetengineasitforces a mass of air to the rear, behind the aircraft. Apropellerproducesitsthrustbyaccel-eratingalargemassofairbyarelativelysmallamount.Aturbojetengineproducesitsthrustbyacceleratingasmallermassofairbyamuchlargeramount.

torque. A force that produces or tries to produce rotation.


Thereisnodirectcomparisonbetweenturbineenginesandreciprocatingenginesthatallowsustovisualizethetremendousstridesthathavebeenmadeinaircraftpropulsionsystems,butwecanconvertthrustintothrusthorsepower and make a power-to-weight comparison. Power requires movement, so thrust horsepower must take into consid-erationthespeedoftheaircraft.Thrusthorsepowerisfoundbymultiplyingthenetthrustoftheenginemeasuredinpounds,bythespeedoftheaircraftmeasuredinmilesperhour,thendividingthisby375.

Thrusthorsepower= Netthrust(pounds)·Aircraftspeed(milesperhour) 375mile-pound/hour

ThePratt&WhitneyR-1830engineusedintheubiquitousDouglasDC-3weighedapproximately1,500poundsandproduced1,200brakehorsepowerfortakeoff.Thisisapower-to-weightratioof0.8horsepowerperpound,which is still an acceptable ratio for reciprocating engines. ThePratt&WhitneyJT9DthatpowerstheBoeing747weighsapproxi-mately9,000poundsandproducesupto56,000poundsofthrust,whichata cruise speed of 550 miles per hour, gives a little over 82,000 thrust horse-power.Thisisapower-to-weightratioofalittlemorethan9horsepowerper pound!

Itiseasytoseetheadvantagethatturbineengineshaveoverreciprocatingenginesbycomparingtwopopulartorque-producingenginesofthesamebasicpowerandusedinthesametypesofaircraft.ThePratt&WhitneyR-1830reciprocatingenginepowersthe21-passengerDouglasDC-3,andthePratt&WhitneyofCanadaPT-6turbopropenginepowersthe19-passengerBeech1900Dairliner.Thepower-to-weightratiooftheturbopropengineis3.5 times as high as that of the reciprocating engine. See Figure 1-3.

Thrust-producing turbine engines havemade tremendousprogress sincetheirfirstflightin1939.Figure1-4showstheprogressmadeinalittleoverfiftyyears.

R-1830 PT-6 Reciprocating Turboprop

Takeoff 1,200 1,377 horsepower

Weight 1,500 486

Horsepower/ 0.8 2.8weight ratio

Figure 1-3. Horsepower to weight ratio comparison between a reciprocating engine and a turboprop engine of comparable power

Manufacturer Type Mass Airflow Thrust Weight ApplicationName pounds/second pounds pounds

Whittle W1 TJ 22 850 623 E. 28/29Allison J-33 TJ 90 4,600 1,820 F-80P&W JT4 TJ 256 17,500 5,100 B-707P&W JT8D TF 331 17,400 3,500 B-727G.E. CF6 TF 1,465 51,000 8,731 DC-10RR RB.211 TF 1,658 63,000 9,874 B-747

TJ = Turbojet TF = Turbofan

Figure 1-4. Progress in thrust-producing turbine engines

power. Thetimerateofdoingwork.Powerisfoundbydividingtheamountofworkdone,measuredinfoot-pounds,bythe time in seconds or minutes used to do the work. Powermaybeexpressedinfoot-poundsof work per minute or in horsepower. One horsepower is 33,000 foot-pounds of work done in one minute, or 550 foot-pounds of work done in one second.

thrust horsepower. Thehorsepowerequivalentofthethrustproducedbyaturbojetengine.Thrusthorsepowerisfoundbymultiplyingthenetthrustoftheengine,measuredinpounds,bythespeedof the aircraft, measured in miles per hour, andthendividingthisby375.


Turbofanengineshavealmostcompletelyreplacedturbojetengines,andanewgenerationofultra-high-bypassenginesshowspromiseofopeninganew niche between the turboprop and the turbofan. UHBengines,suchasthat in Figure 1-5, drive short, multiblade, contrarotating propellers and have highpropulsiveefficiency,lownoise,lowthrustspecificfuelconsumption,and a high power-to-weight ratio.

Figure 1-5. The Unducted Fan™ engine is an ultra-high-bypass turbine engine that promises quiet operation with low fuel consumption at a speed higher than that used by turboprop-powered aircraft.

TSFC (thrust specific fuel consumption). Ameasureoftheefficiencyofaturbojetorturbofanengine.TSFCisthe number of pounds of fuel burned per hour for each pound of thrust produced.

Electrically Powered EnginesWhilethisbookdealsprimarilywithheatengines,intoday’schangingworldoftechnologyashortdiscussionofelectricallypoweredflightisappropri-ate.Theideaofusinganelectricmotorasasourceofpowerforflighthasbeenaroundforquiteafewyearsbutwasheldbackbytechnicalchallenges.Boththemotorandthepowersourcehavepreventedmakingelectricpowera viable alternative in the past. In recentdecades improvedmotor technologyhasbecomeavailable.Several manufacturers have developed electric motors marketed for avia-tionpropulsion.MostofthesearelimitedtoExperimental,UltralightandLSAaircraft.However,thisischangingasenvironmentalconcernsmotivateaircraftmanufacturerstofindcleaner,quieterwaystofly.Siemenscurrently


hasdevelopeda260kw(348hp)electricmotorthatweighsonlyabout50kilograms(110lbs).Thismotor,installedinanExtra300aerobaticaircraft,has set several electric-powered records. Whilemotorefficiencyhasbeenimproving,thegreatestchallengeisdevelopingasuitablepowersupply.Yetbatterytechnologyhasimprovedimmensely;withtheintroductionoflithium-basedbatteries,theweightofbatteries for agivenamountof energyhasgonedown substantially.Forexample,onebatterymanufacturercomparestheir100Ah12Vlithium-iron-phosphatetechnologybatterytoalead-acidbatterywithsimilarcapacity.Theleadacidweighsinat40kg(88lbs),whilethelithium-iron-phosphatebatteryweighsonly13.6kg(30lbs).Additionally,itslifeexpectancyissuchthat it can be charged and discharged 8 to 10 times more than a lead-acid batterybeforeitmustberetiredfromservice. Whilethisisasignificantimprovementoverpreviouspowersupplies,currentbatterypowerlimitstheflighttoarelativelyshortdurationofonetotwohoursmaximum.Toextendthistime,someresearchaircrafthavecovered the upper surfaces of the aircraft with solar cells to charge the bat-terywheneverthereissunlightavailable.Thisis,however,expensiveandverydependentupontheweather.

Onesolutiontotheelectricitysupplyproblemistobuildahybridsystemsimi-lartowhathybridautomobilesutilize.Ahybridsystemusesaliquid-fueledengine to drive a generator that charges batteries and powers the electric motor.Thereareafewlightaircraftoperatingtodayashybridsystemsusingpistonengines.Thebatteriessupplypower toassist thegeneratorduringtakeoff and climb. Once power is reduced to cruise setting, the generator canmaintainthecruisespeedandrechargethebattery.Thisallowsasmallerengineoperatingatanefficientspeedtopowertheaircraft. ThisideaispromisingenoughthatAirbus,Siemens,andRolls-Royceareworkingtogetherinpartnershiptodevelopahybridregionalairlinerdesign.Itwilluseanefficientgas-turbineenginedrivingageneratortopowerthepropulsionmotor.Theirgoalis tohaveatechnologydemonstratorflyingby2020andaproductionaircraftoperationalaround2030.Severalothermanufacturers are working on similar plans.


STUDY QUESTIONS: DEVELOPMENT OF AIRCRAFT POWERPLANTS

Answers are found at the end of the chapter.

1.Thebasicnameforanenginethatproducesmechanicalenergybychangingchemicalenergyinthefuelintoheatisa/an______________________engine.

2.Twotypesofheatenginesare: a.________________________________ b.________________________________

3.Twotypesofinternalcombustionenginesusedtopowermodernaircraftare: a.________________________________ b.________________________________

4.Areciprocatingengineinwhichthecrankshaftisrigidlyattachedtotheairframeandthecylindersspinwiththepropelleriscalleda/an___________________radialengine.

5.ThemostpopularconfigurationofreciprocatingengineintheUnitedStatesfromtheendofWorldWarIthroughWorldWarIIwasthe____________________engine.

6.ThemostpopularconfigurationofreciprocatingengineforprivateaircraftbuiltintheUnitedStatessinceWorldWarIIisthe________________________engine.

7.Thefirstpracticaluseofaturbineinaircraftpropulsionwasthe_____________________.

8.Aircraftturbineenginesareusedtoproduce_________________or________________.

9.Twotypesofthrust-producingaircraftturbineenginesare: a._____________________________ b._____________________________

10.Twotypesoftorque-producingaircraftturbineenginesare: a._____________________________ b._____________________________

11.Theproblemthatcurrentlylimitstheuseofcompletelybattery-poweredelectricaircraftis _____________________________________.

12.Ahybridpropulsionsystemhasanelectricmotorpoweredbya__________________and _________________________________.

775Index

iNDex

aft fan blades .................................408air bleed .................................145, 146air cooling ................................53, 271aircraft maintenance

records ............................303, 310air filters ........................................309airfoil section .................................668air-fuel emulsion ............................172air-fuelmixtureratio ..............129, 132air impingement starter ..................510air inlet ducts .................................394air-oil separator ......................442, 453airspeed ..........................................386air turbine starters ..................506, 507AirworthinessDirectives .......156, 303Allison 501 engine .........................430all-weather spark plug ...................237Alpha mode ...........................700, 701alternate air control ................297, 298alternateairsystem ........................186alternate air valves .........................308alternator ................................303, 309alternator rotor ...............................609altimeter .........................................563altitude ...........................................386altitude engine ...............................557alumel ............................................566aluminumoxide .....................241, 249amateur-built aircraft .........................7ambient air .....................................394AmericanSocietyofTesting

Materials(ASTM) ..................101ammeter .........................................299analog indicator .............................557angle of attack .......403, 404, 668, 669

annual inspection ...................301, 303DCgenerators ............................621

annular combustor .........................420annular duct ...........................408, 409annulus ...................................148, 150annunciator panel ..........455, 501, 561antidetonation

characteristics .........136, 137, 138antidetonationsystem(ADI) .........160antifreeze .......................................469anti-icing ........................................734anti-icingsystem ............................310anti-icingsystemforpropellers .....735antiseizecompound .......................251APC (absolute pressure

controller) ...............................193API (American Petroleum

Institute) .................................100APIgravity ....................................100ApprovedTypeCertificate

(ATC) ......................................140APU(auxiliarypower

unit) ........................422, 439, 506aramid fibers ..................................710arbors .............................................328arithmetic/logicunit(ALU) ...........584armature .................................601, 623armature reaction ...........602, 603, 604articulating rod ..........................88, 89ashless-dispersant ....................96, 102ashless-dispersant(AD)oil ...........101ash test ...........................................101asymmetricalloading ....................672ATF(aerodynamictwisting

force) ......................................671atmospheric pressure .....................559

Aabradable strip ............................... 411abradable tip .................................. 411absolute pressure .....31, 366, 558, 562absolutezero ..................................367AC43.13-1B .................................728AC(alternatingcurrent) ........595, 596ACC (active clearance

control) ...........................425, 486acceleration ....................360, 363, 382acceleration pump ..........................150accelerationsystem ................150, 163acceleration well ............................150accelerator pump ...........................163accumulator, propeller ...........691, 693ACESProBalancer ................724, 725acetone ...................................249, 252AC generator controls ...................614AC generators ........................598, 612AC motors .....................................612activeclearancecontrol(ACC) .....424ADC(airdatacomputer) .......486, 588ADI(antidetonationinjection)

system .....................................183ADnotes ................................303, 315ADoil ..............................96, 102, 103AdvisoryCircular43.13-1B ..........730aeolipile .........................................359AerialExperimentAssociation ..........5aerodrome ......................................3, 5aerodynamic-blockagereverser .....520aerodynamictwisting

force(ATF) .....................670, 683afterburner ....373, 387, 388, 393, 517,

518, 521, 522


atomizingnozzles ..........................476augmentor tubes ....................261, 274autofeathersystem .........................710autoignitionsystem ................500, 501automaticmixturecontrol

(AMC) ............153, 160, 163, 170automatic start sequence ................531automobile gasoline .......................139Autosynsystem .............................570auxiliaryfuelpump .......................297auxiliarypowerunits

(APU) .............................439, 510aviation gasoline ............137, 138, 467axialbearingload ..........................443axial-flowairstarter ......................508axial-flowcompressors .........374, 400,

401, 403, 405axialturbine ...................................374

Bback-suctionmixture

control .............................152, 153bacteria ..........................................468baffles ............................................272Balzer,Stephen ..................................4barometric pressure .......................563base-mounted magnetos ................227batterycontactors ..........................287batteryignitionsystem ..........207, 208batterymaintenance .......................619batterymasterswitch .............297, 298bayonetexhauststack ....................257bearing chamber ............................445bearing compartment .............453, 454bearings, plain .................................78bearing sump .................................445Beech1900D ...................................10bell cutout switch ...........................654Bell,Dr.AlexanderGraham ..............5bell mouth inlet duct ......................396BellXP-59A ..................................374

Bendixdrive ..................................284benzene ..........................................138Bernoulli’sprinciple .....144, 261, 363,

364Betamode ..............................700, 705Betaoperation ................................708Betarods ........................................708Betatube ................................699, 702Betavalve ......................707, 708, 709bimetallic hairspring ......................565bimetallic strip ...............................645bimetallic thermostat valve ...........453binarynumbersystem ...................584BITE(built-intest

equipment) ..............488, 583, 584blade attachment ............................410blade-elementtheory .....................668blade, or pitch angle ......................668blade shank ....................................668blade station ...................................668bleed air .................................398, 485bleeder resistor ..............................498blended fuels ..................................467blending .................................537, 540blisk ...............................................423blow-in doors .........................396, 397bluckets ..........................................408BMEP(brakemeaneffective

pressure) .....................30, 32, 572Boeing747 ......................................10BonAmi ........................................249boost ..............................................188boost pump ....297, 298, 307, 471, 481boost venturi ..................................144bootstrapping .................................197borescope .......................141, 534, 540bottle discharge button ..................655bottle transfer switch .....................655bottom(v.) .....................................721Bourdontube .................................560brakehorsepower(BHP) ....28, 30, 39,

130

brake specific fuel consumption (BSFC) .............................41, 131

brakethermalefficiency(BTE) .......33Braytoncycle .........................380, 381breaker points 208, 209, 210, 224, 227,

229Britishthermalunit(Btu) ..............130brushes,onDCgenerators .............627brushless alternator ........................613BSFC(brakespecificfuel

consumption) ............................41bungee starters ...............................281burner pressure ..............................480burnerpressure(Pb) ......................478burner-pressure sensor valve .........483butterflyvalve ................................147bypassengine ................................377bypassoilfilters ............................. 114bypassratio ....................377, 409, 667bypassvalve .......................... 112, 114

Ccabin heater ....................................310calibrated hairspring ......................568cam-ground piston ...........................65camshaft .....................79, 80, 328, 334can-annular combustors .................419capacitance afterfiring ...................243capacitor ........ 208, 209, 210, 211, 212capillaryattraction .........................156capillarytube .................................560Caproni-Campini CC-2 .................373capsule-typeinstrument

mechanism ..............................561carbondioxide(CO2).............651, 652carbonmonoxide(CO)detectors...265carbon pile voltage regulator .........606carbon-residue test .........................101carbon seals ...................................444carbon track ...................................230carburetor ...............131, 133, 144, 475

777Index

carburetor air temperature .............564carburetor heat .......133, 149, 296, 308carburetor ice .........133, 160, 186, 259cartridge starter ......................282, 510cascade effect .................................404cascade thrust reverser ...................520catalysts .........................................136CDinletduct .................................396CDnozzle ......................................518Celsius scale ..................................367center-line thrust airplane ..............672center of pressure ...........................671centistokes .......................................99centrifugal compressor .........189, 262,

374, 398centrifugal force .............671, 680, 682centrifugal twisting force

(CTF) ..............................670, 683centrifugal twisting moment

(CTM).....................................688ceramic ..................................425, 649Chamberlain, Clarence ......................6channel-chromedcylinders ..............58checklist .................................301, 302check valve .................................... 112cheek(crankshaft) ...........................72chip detector ..........................454, 533chokednozzle ................366, 422, 507choke-groundcylinder .....................56chokeofacylinder ........................325chromel ..........................................566chrome-platedcylinders ..................66circularmagnetization ...................321clamp-mounted magnetos ..............226clamshell thrust reverser ................520Class A fire ....................................643ClassBfire ....................................643Class C fire ....................................643ClassDfire ....................................643ClassXfirezones ..........................644climb propeller ..............................676

closed-loop control ........................486cloud point .....................................101CO2fireextinguishers ...................653coke ...............................................101cold-cranking simulation ...............100cold section ............392, 394, 462, 536cold section inspection ..................536cold-tanklubricationsystem .........441cold valve clearance ........................90cold-weather starting .....................504combustion ....................................495combustion chamber ......................496combustion liner ............................539combustion starters ........................510combustion temperature ................479combustor ..............418, 472, 504, 506combustor (combustion

chamber) .................................418commutator ....................287, 599, 602compensated cam ..........................223compensated pressure .................... 113compensating windings .........603, 604composite propeller blades ....710, 729compound-wound

generators .......................601, 604compression check ................303, 304compression pressure ratio ............399compression ratio .....36, 65, 134, 400,

402, 403compressor .............................398, 423compressor blades ......................... 411compressor bleed air ......398, 463, 469compressor cleaning ......................536compressor-discharge pressure ......501compressor inlet total pressure ......385compressor repair ..........................537compressorRPM(NorN2) ...........478compressor stall .....................397, 404compressor surge ...................404, 479compressor turbine ........................412computerizedfuelsystem ..............587

Concorde .......................................521condition lever ...............702, 703, 706connecting rod .............68, 69, 96, 335constant-displacement pump ......... 111constant-effort spring .....................169constant-head spring ......................169constant-speed propeller .........32, 297,

680, 681, 720, 723continuous-flow fuel

injection ..........................143, 167continuous-loop fire

detector ...........................649, 654contrarotating propellers ................714controllable-pitch

propellers ................671, 679, 680convergent-divergent duct .............397convergent-divergentexhaust

nozzles ....................................518convergent duct .............384, 422, 517coolant temperature gage ...............557cooling air ......................................461core engine ...................375, 384, 409,

533, 667, 715corrosion ........................425, 426, 468corrugated-perimeter noise

suppressor ...............................519counterweight propeller .........681, 685cowl flaps ......................273, 274, 308cowling ..........................................272CPU(centralprocessingunit) .......584crankcase ...77, 88, 106, 107, 328, 335crank-pinjournal .............................96crankshaft ...............70, 71, 72, 88, 96,

327, 330, 335creep ..............................................425critical altitude ...............................192critical engine ................................672criticalMachnumber .............714, 715critical pressure and

temperature .....................137, 138criticaltemperature/pressure .........183crossover tubes ..............................419


CRT(cathode-raytube) .........582, 583crude oil .........................................136cruise propeller ..............................676cryogenicfluid ...............................652CSD(constant-speeddrive) ...536, 612CTF(centrifugaltwistingforce) ....671Cuno filters .................................... 115currentelectricity ...................596, 597current limiter ................................604current limiting ..............................610CurtissAeroplaneandMotor

Corporation .................................5Curtiss, Glenn ....................................5CurtissJenny .....................................6Curtiss OX-5 ....................................47Curtiss OX-5 engine ........................44Curtiss-Wright Corporation ...............5customer bleed air .........................398cylinderheadtemperature ......34, 134,

251, 309, 565, 566, 581cylinderheadtemperature

indicator ..................................585

Ddataplate performance ...................545dataplate specifications ..................488daVinci,Leonardo ............................8DCalternators ...............599, 607, 609,

631DC(directcurrent) ................595, 596DCgenerator ................599, 600, 604,

606, 607DCgeneratorandalternator

systeminspection and maintenance .....................619

DCgenerators,polarizing ..............628deaerator ........................................446decarbonizer ..................................318deceleration ...................................363dedicated digital computers ...584, 585degreasers ......................................318DeHavilandDH-4 ..............................6

deicing ...........................................735demineralizedwater.......................537density ...................364, 365, 366, 386densityaltitude ..............................699densitycontroller ...........................196depth-typefilter ............................. 115derichmentjet ................................184derichment valve ...........................184desalination washing .....................537detergent oil ...................................102detonation .........................36, 37, 132,

134, 140, 183, 207, 276, 333Dewarbottle ..................................652dial indicator ..................................327diesel engines ....................7, 142, 166differential bellows ........................562differential check ...........................304differential pressure ......366, 558, 559,

562differential-pressure

controller ........................196, 197differential pressure indicator ........574diffuser ..........................375, 395, 398,

399, 412, 413dipstick .................................. 118, 455direct compression check ..............304directfuelinjection ................142, 160directinjectionsystem ...................166disassemblyandcleaningDCalternators............................632DCgenerators ............................622

disposable filtering element ........... 115distributed pole stator ....................609distributor .....................208, 213, 226,

230, 236distributor block ............................238divergent ducts ...............394, 399, 401divergent inlet duct ........................412double magnetos ............................222DouglasDC-3 ..................................10DowCorningDC-4silicone

grease ......................................306

DowtyRotolcompositepropellerblade .......................................712

drag cup .........................................568droop ..............................................484drum-typeinstruments ...................557dry-sumpengine ............................106dry-sumplubrication

system ............... 54, 107, 118, 439dual ignition .....................................37dual-spool gas-turbine

engine .............................401, 406duct heater .....................................388durability .................................44, 295dutycycle ......................................497dwell chamber ...............................442dynamicdampers .............73, 329, 335dynamicpressure ...........................559dynamometer ...........................30, 337

Eeconomizersystems .......................154eddycurrent ...................................568edge filters ..................................... 115EEC (electronic engine

control) ...........................517, 522effective pitch ................................669E-gap .....................210, 223, 224, 226EGT(exhaustgastemperature) ....132,

134, 309, 531, 545, 567EICAS (engine indication and

crewalertingsystem) ....454, 558, 583, 587, 588

elastic limit ....................................426electrical potential .........................596electrical starters ............................506electricalsystems ...........................595electric starters .......................282, 509electromagnet ................................600electromagnetic radiation ......233, 236electromagnetic

reverse-currentcutoutrelay ....607electronic engine controls

(EEC) ..............................485, 487

779Index

electronicfuelinjection .........140, 143electronicignitionsystems ............207electronic imaging .........................534electrons .........................................596electrostatic field ...........................243electrothermal propeller deicing

system .....................................736emergencyfuelcontrol ..................484energy ............................................360engine baffles .................................308engine-driven air pump .................309engine fire ......................................298engine overhaul .............................348enginepressureratio(EPR) ...385, 485engine run-up .................................529engine service manual ...................488engine-start switch .........................500engine trimming ............................546epicyclicreductiongears .................75EP lubricant ...................................103EPR (engine pressure

ratio) .......................485, 540, 564EPR indicator ................................545equalizingresistors ........................606equivalent shaft horsepower

(ESHP) ...................................388ESHP(equivalentshaft

horsepower) ............................388ether ...............................................281ethylenedibromide ........................138ethyleneglycol ..............................275eutectic salt ....................................649evaporative cooling .......................271exceedancecondition.....................588exciters ...........................................504exhaustbackpressure ...189, 257, 260,

261exhaustbellows .............................262exhaustbypassvalve .....................196exhaustcollectorring ....................258exhaustcone ..................................517

exhaustgastemperature .......517, 565, 566, 581

exhaustgastemperatureprobe ......308exhaustnozzle .......385, 429, 462, 518exhaustslipjoints ..........................262exhauststacks ................................308exhaustsystem ...............................133exhausttailpipes ...........................258exhaustvalverotatingsystem ..........64exhaustvalves ........................326, 332exitguidevanes .............................401expansionplug .......................330, 335expansionwave .....................365, 366ExperimentalAircraftAssociation

(EAA) .....................................139external-combustionengine ..............3extreme-pressure(EP)

lubricants ..........................95, 103

FF-22 ...............................................523FAA-certificated repair station ......579FAA Form 337 ...............................303FADEC .......... 486, 487, 488, 511, 541Fahrenheit scale .............................367false start ........................................532fan cowl .........................................521fan pressure ratio ...........................408feathering propellers ..............681, 687feathering pump .............................688featheringvalve(FV) ....................702feedback ring .........................705, 708feed-through capacitor ................... 211feeler gages ....................................327fiber optics .....................................534field coils .......................................625filter ...............................................472filterbypasswarninglight .............455fine-wire electrodes .......................240fine-wire spark plugs .............245, 250finned muffs ...................................272

fins .................................................272firedetectionsystems ............644, 656fire detection test lights .................656fire detector ....................................645fire-detector loop ...........................657fireextinguisher .............................298fire-extinguishingagents .......652, 657fire-extinguishingsystems .....651, 657fire point ........................................100fireprotectionsystem ....................654fire-pull handle ..............................654fire shield .......................................307fire sleeve ......................................171firewall ...........................................310fire-warning light ...........................655firezones .......................................644firing order ...........................50, 51, 52fir-tree method ...............................423fixed-pitchpropellers ....................676fixedtiming ...................................207flame holders .................................522flameout .........................................495flame tube ..............................419, 495flanged propeller shaft ...718, 719, 720flange-mounted magnetos .............226flashing the field ............................601flashover ........................................213flash point ......................100, 438, 467flat-rated engine .............................699flat-rate limit ..................................572flexiblehose ..................................308flexible-tubefiber-opticscopes ....534,

535flightengineer’sstation .................557float carburetor .............142, 143, 151,

155, 157, 160, 296floating cam rings ............................90flow divider ..................167, 168, 171,

179, 477flowmeter .......................................181flowmeters for turbine engines ......571


fluiddensity ...................................559fluorescent penetrant .....................330fluorescent penetrant inspection ....324flyweightgovernor ........................483flyweight-typegovernor ................681FMC(flightmanagement

computer) ...............................587FOD(foreignobjectdamage) .......397,

540, 541force ...............................................361foreignobjectdamage

(FOD) .............................396, 540four-cyclereciprocatingengine .......60four-stroke-cycleengine ..................22fractional distillation ..............129, 136frangible .........................................653free turbine ............................376, 412free-turbine blades .........................714free-turbine engine .................375, 696free-turbine turboprop engine ........704Freon ..............................................652friction .............................................95frictionhorsepower(FHP) .........28, 30fuel-air control unit ................175, 178fuel-airmixture .............136, 166, 186,

188, 468, 495, 498, 509, 532fuel-airmixtureratio ....129, 134, 143,

145, 146fuel control ...........406, 475, 476, 477,

478, 479, 480, 481, 483fueldyestain .................................307fuel filter ........................................453fuel flow indicators ........................567fuel flowmeter .......173, 297, 561, 570fuel flowmeter transmitter .............475fuelinjectionsystem ..............166, 187fuelinjectorpump .................176, 178fuel manifold valve ................175, 179fuelnozzles ............................476, 539fuel-oilheatexchanger ..................476fuel pressure ..........................477, 561fuelpressurewarningsystem ........561

fuel pumps .....................................472fuelquantitygage ..........................469fuel selector valve ..........................307fuel strainer ............................307, 474fuel temperature .............................564full-authoritydigitalelectroniccontrol

(FADEC) ........................424, 485full-flow oil filter ........................... 114

Ggage pressure .................366, 558, 559GarrettTFE731turbofanengine ...412GarrettTPE331engine ..................431gas generator ..........................533, 697gasoline ..................................136, 143gas turbine engine .........360, 367, 368,

371, 374, 380, 385, 392, 418, 422, 429, 437, 506, 713

gas-turbine starter ..........................510general aviation .............................137General Aviation Airworthiness

Alerts ......................................303GeneralElectricCompany ................9General Electric I-A engine ...........374generator ........................................309generator field connections ............601geometric pitch ......................668, 669gerotor pump ......................... 112, 448glass cockpit ..................................583Gloster E.28 ...................................374glow plug igniter ...................502, 504governor .........................................680GPU(groundpowerunit) .............343,

507, 530graphite fibers ................................710gravity ............................................361grit blasting ....................................537gross thrust ....................................382ground-adjustablepropeller ...........677ground-boosted engine ..................188growler ...........................................623

Hhalf-wave rectifier .........................498halogenatedhydrocarbon...............652Halon1211 ....................................652Halon1301 ....................................652HamiltonStandardHydromatic

feathering propeller ........ 119, 687hand-propping ...............................281Harrier ...................................522, 523Hartzellcompositepropeller

blade ....................................... 711Hartzellsteel-hubfeathering

propeller .........................689, 691Hartzellsteel-hub

propeller .................681, 700, 705hazardareas ...........................529, 530hearing protector ............................530heatcycle .......................................426heat engine .................................3, 367heater muffs ...................................265heatexchanger ...............................472heat range, spark plugs ..................244HeinkelHe178 ..............................374helical spring .................................285Heli-Coilinsert ................59, 243, 328hemoglobin ....................................265heptane ...........................................138high-bypassengine ........................377high-bypassratioengine ................667high-bypass-ratioturbofan ............395high-pressure compressor ..............406high-tension magneto ignition .......209high-tension transformer ...............214high unmetered fuel

pressure ...........................177, 181hopper ............................................ 119horizontallyopposedengine .....48, 50,

56, 57, 60, 68, 80, 82horsepower ..............28, 362, 380, 572horsepower, brake ......................28, 30horsepower, friction ...................28, 30horsepower, indicated ......................28

781Index

hot section ..............392, 418, 462, 538hot section inspection ....................538hot spot ..........................................276hot starts ........................531, 532, 538hot-tanklubricatingsystem ...........440hot valve clearance ..........................90hourmeter .......................................568HRDfireextinguisher ...........652, 655hung start ...............................532, 538hybridcompressorengine ............. 411hybridsparkplug ...........................241hydraulicfluid .................................97hydrauliclock ..................................87hydraulicvalvelifter .......................80hydromechanicalfuelcontrol .......479,

480, 484, 485, 488

Iice bridging ....................................239IDG(integrateddrivegenerator) ...613idlingsystem ..................................162igniters ...................419, 496, 503, 504ignitionexciter ..............496, 497, 498,

500, 509, 510ignition harness ......................236, 237ignition harness tester ....................238ignition leads ........ 209, 211, 213, 236,

238, 252ignition switch .............. 208, 210, 211,

218, 231, 232, 297, 298, 299ignitionsystemcomponents ..........496ignitionsystemservicing ...............504IMEP(indicatedmeaneffective

pressure) ...................................28impulse coupling ...................216, 228impulse turbine blade ....................424Inconel ...........................................649indicatedhorsepower(IHP) .............28induction air filter ..........................308inductionsystem ............................131

induction vibrator ..........................218inductionvibratorsystem ..............343inertia .............................................363inertia starter ..................................282in-flight braking .............................522injectornozzles ..............................180inlet guide vanes .................... 401, 411in-line engine .............................46, 49InspectionAuthorization ...............301instrument range marking ......579, 580intake valves ..........................326, 332intercooler ......................................189intercylinderbaffles .......................273interference angle ..............61, 62, 333interference fit ...................59, 62, 325internal-combustion engine ...........3, 4International Civil Aviation

Organization(ICAO) ..............368interpole .................................603, 604iridium ...........................................241iso-octane .......................................138

JJetA .......................................467, 468JetA-1 ............................................467JetB .......................................467, 468JetCalAnalyzer/Trimmer ......545, 546jetfuel ....................................467, 469jetpropulsion .........359, 371, 373, 375jetreactionengines ........................359jeweler’sfile ..................................537joule ...............................................495JP-4 ................................................467

KKelvin scale ...................................367kerosine .................................137, 467Kevlar™ ................................ 710, 711kilopascal .......................................558kinematicviscosity ..................99, 438

kineticenergy ................360, 363, 398knuckle pin ......................................88Koppers Aeromatic propeller ........680

Llabyrinthseals ........................444, 445Langley,Dr.Samuel ..........................3laser tachometer .............................569last-chance oil filter .......................452lawofconservationofenergy .......360Lawrance,Charles .............................6LCD(liquidcrystaldisplay) ..........583lead fouling ............................240, 248lean die-out ....................................480leanmixture ...................................139liaison aircraft ..................................48Libertyengine ....................................5LibertyV-12 ....................................47life-limited components .................303Lindbergh,Charles ......................6, 44Lindbergpneumaticfiredetection

system .....................................650line-bored .........................................78line boring ................................62, 328link rod ............................................87liquid cooling ...................53, 271, 275liquidnitrogen(N2) ...............651, 652loadmeter .......................................299longitudinalmagnetization ............322low-bypassengine .........................377low-pressure compressor ...............406low-pressure warning light ............454low-tension magneto .....................213low unmetered fuel

pressure ...........................177, 181LRU(linereplaceableunit) ...488, 584lubricating oils .................................99lubricationsystemservicing ..........455LycomingXR-7755 ...........................6


MMachnumber .........................486, 518Magnesynsystem ..........................571magnetic circuit .............................209magnetic field ...............209, 597, 598,

600, 602magneticflux .................597, 598, 602magnetic particle

inspection ...............319, 321, 323magnetism .............................596, 597magneto ................207, 209, 210, 213,

216, 218, 222, 226, 237, 496magneto check .......157, 220, 231, 299magneto drop .................................303magnetoignitionsystem ................207magneto internal timing ................224,

229, 230, 307magneto overhaul ..........................230magnetosafetycheck ....................231magneto timing light .............224, 227main bearing inserts .......................335mainmeteringsystem ....................162majoralteration ..............................729majoroverhaul .......................314, 315majorrepair ...........................164, 729mandrel ..................................328, 724manifold absolute pressure

(MAP)...............................36, 563manifold pressure ..........163, 299, 571manifold pressure gage .................158,

164, 557Manly-Balzerengine .........................5Manly,Charles ...................................4manualfuelvalve(MFV) ..............702manufacturer’sservice

bulletins ..........................244, 303MAP(manifoldabsolute

pressure) ...........................31, 562mass .......................................361, 382massive electrodes .........................240massive electrode spark plug .........249master rod ..................................87, 88

master spline ..................................721matrix .............................................710matter .....................................360, 361maximumfueleconomy ................134McCauleyconstant-speedfeathering

propeller .................................692meaneffectivepressure(MEP) .......28mechanical-blockage reverser .......520mechanicalefficiency ......................35mechanicalenergy .........................398mercurybarometer.........................558metal fatigue ..........................425, 426metallic-ash detergent oil ..............102metal propellers .....................677, 727methanol ........................................183methylchloride ..............................560MFD(multifunctiondisplay) ........583mica spark plugs ............................241microbes ........................................468microcomputers .............................583microfilter ......................................474micrometer caliper .........................327micrometer-typetorquewrench ....542microprocessors .............................583midspan shroud ..............................409milliammeter .................................565millibar ..........................................558mineral-base oil .............................103minor alteration .............................729minor repair ...................................729mixturecontrol .............134, 143, 178,

297, 298mixturecontrolsystem ..........163, 170module (modular engine

construction) ...........................532momentum ............359, 362, 375, 382,

383, 384, 564, 667momentumtheory ..........................668Moss,Dr.Sanford ..............................8muffler ...................258, 259, 260, 308multiple-can combustors ...............419multiviscosityoil ...........................102

NN1 ...........................................406, 487N2 ...........................................406, 472NACA cowling ........................45, 273NACA(NationalAdvisory

Committee for Aeronautics) .....................45, 273

naphtha ..........................................248NASA ..............................................45National Fire Protection Association

(NFPA) ...................................643National Institute of Standards

andTechnology (NIST) ............................319, 542

naturallyaspirated engine ...............35, 186, 561, 563

negative torque sensing (NTS)system..........................703

negative torque sensor ...................575net thrust ................................382, 386neutral plane ..................602, 603, 604new-parts dimension ......................325new-parts limits .............................314Newton’sLawsofMotion .............363Nichrome .......................................564nitrided steel ..........................330, 331nitriding .......................58, 66, 72, 329noise suppressors ...........................519noncounterweight

propeller .................681, 683, 686nondestructive inspection ..............319normal shock wave ................365, 397notchsensitivity .............................713

Ooblique shock wave ...............365, 397octane rating ..................137, 138, 140odometer ........................................568ohmmeter .......................................625oilanalysis .....................123, 305, 456oil control ring .................................68

783Index

oil cooler ............... 107, 108, 116, 120, 275, 452

oil-damped bearings ......................443oil dilution ............................. 119, 120oil filter ..........................306, 450, 451oilfilterbypassvalve ....................450oilfiltersystems ............................ 114oil pressure ....................................454oil pressure gage ....................531, 557oil pressure pumps .........................448oil-pressure relief ........................... 113oil pressure relief

valve .......................108, 120, 449oilquantity .....................................455oil separator ................................... 119oil tanks .........................................446oil temperature .......................454, 564oil temperature gage ......................557oil-to-fuelheatexchanger ......437, 452on-condition maintenance .....532, 533100-hour inspection ...............301, 303on-speed condition ................685, 707on-speed condition propeller .........683operatingcycle ..............................532optoelectronic devices ..........557, 568,

583Ottocycle ................4, 22, 23, 71, 380Otto,Dr.Nikolaus .............................4overboost .......................................192overhaul manual ............322, 325, 335overrunning clutch .................283, 284overspeed condition, propeller ......683overspeed conditions ............538, 541,

685, 707overspeed governor .......................709overtemperature operations ...........541overvoltage protector ..................... 611OX-5 engine ......................................5oxygen ...........................................265

Pparalleling switch ..........................606paralleling terminals ...................... 611PCB(plenumchamberburning) ....523peak voltage ...................................499performance deterioration .............540performance number ..............137, 138performance rating .........................140performance-recoverywashing .....537permanent magnet .........................600PFA55MB .....................................468P-factor ..........................................672phase sequence ..............................615photo-tach ..............................725, 726pinion .....................................560, 561piston displacement .........................35piston rings ................66, 67, 326, 336pistons ..................................64, 71, 72pitch distribution ............................ 711pivotless breaker points .................229pi(π)filter .....................................497planetarygeartrain ..........................75planetaryreductiongears .......282, 430P-lead .................... 211, 219, 231, 232,

241, 307plenum chamber ....................395, 400POH(Pilot’sOperating

Handbook) ......................296, 572polar-inductor magneto .................222pole shoe ........................................603poppet valve ........................60, 61, 62porous chrome plating ...................330positive-displacement pump ..........448post-inspection run-up ...................310potentialenergy .....................360, 398pour point ..............................101, 438power ...........................10, 27, 28, 362power-assurance check ..................533power control .................................706powerenrichmentsystem .............154,

163, 170

PowerJets,Ltd. .................................9power lever ....................697, 700, 702powerleverangle(PLA) ...............478powerplant ............. 301, 309, 311, 557powerplant fire protection

system .....................................651powerrecoveryturbine ...........32, 262,

264Pratt&WhitneyofCanadaJT15Dturbofan..........................439PT6 .............10, 395, 421, 430, 447,

696, 704PT6turboprop ........................... 411R-1830 .........................................10R-4360 .....................................6, 47

preflight inspection ................231, 536preignition ...............38, 134, 326, 333preinspection run-up ......................304prepreg ........................................... 711preservative oil ................................97pressure ..................................366, 558pressure altitude ...............38, 571, 572pressure carburetor ........160, 161, 187pressure cooling ...............53, 273, 274pressure-injection

carburetor ..............142, 160, 166, 184, 185

pressure pump ................................107pressure ratio .................................409pressure-ratio controller .........193, 195pressure relief valve ....... 112, 474, 481pressure rise per stage ....................403pressuresubsystem ........................442pressure waves ...............................365pressurizingvalve ..........................453prevailing torque ............................542primaryair .....................................419primaryelectricalcircuit................210Prist ................................................468profile tip ....................................... 411profilometer .............................58, 331projectingelectrodes ......................241


pronybrake ......................................30propeller .................................301, 375propellerauxiliarysystems ............733propeller balance ...........................724propeller cone bottoming ...............722propeller control lever ...................706propellerefficiency ........................388propeller governor ........109, 299, 310,

684, 701, 709propeller ice control .......................734propeller inspections ......................726propeller installation, inspection,

and maintenance .....................718propeller pitch control ...........297, 298propellerpitchcontrol(PPC) ........701propeller reduction gear .................572propeller reduction gearing ........74, 89propellerreductiongearsystems ...429propellerrepairability ....................730propeller repairs and alterations ....729propeller spinner ...........310, 720, 724,

725propeller storage ............................728propellersynchronizersystem .......733propeller track ................................723propeller vibration .........................723proper light up ...............................531Propfan™ engine ...........378, 673, 713propulsiveefficiency ............377, 407,

696, 713, 714, 715propulsive force .............................380Prussianbluetransferdye ..............722pulsatingDC ..........219, 220, 599, 600pulse-jetengines ............................372pulse-jets ........................................371pusher propeller .....................672, 714pushrod ..............................79, 81, 337

Qquill shaft .........................................76

Rradial bearing load .........................442radial engine ..................47, 49, 87, 88radial-inflow turbine ......189, 262, 422radiator ...........................................275radioactive material .......................504ram effect .......................385, 386, 387ramjet .............................................387ramjetengine .................372, 373, 521ramjets ...........................................371ram pressure ..................................366RAM(Random-Access

Memory) .................................584ram-recoveryspeed .......................394Rankine scale .................................367rate-of-change controller .......193, 195rate-of-temperature-rise

fire-warningsystems ..............647ratiometer instruments ...................564reaction engine ..............................371reaction turbine blades ...................424reactivepower(electrical) .............614rebuilt engine .................................315reciprocating engine removal and

installation ..............................348reciprocating engines .....................437rectifier ..................................599, 609rectifier diodes ...............................635reheatsystem .................................521Reid vapor pressure .......................137reliability .................................44, 295relief valves ................................... 113residual magnetism ................600, 601residual voltage ..............................601resistor spark plug .........................242resultantflux .......................... 210, 211resultant wind ................................403retard breaker points ..............219, 220retarded spark ................................281reverse-current cutout ....................604reverse-flow combustor .........412, 421

reversible constant-speed propellers ................................693

RF(radiofrequency)energy .........497rich blowout ...........................479, 484richmixture ...................................139riffle file .........................................537rigid-tube borescope ..............534, 535ring rotation .....................................58ripplefrequency .............................600rocker arm ......................60, 79, 81, 82rocket engine .................................371roller bearings ........................442, 443Rolls-RoycePegasus .....................522Rolls-Royceturbofans ...................406ROM(Read-OnlyMemory) ..........584rotaryinverters ..............................615rotaryradialengine ..................47, 271rotatingcombustion(RC)engine ......7rotor ...............................................633rotor blades ....................................410RPMdrop ......................................299RPMlimitations ............................485RSAfuelinjection .........................298RSAfuelinjectionsystem .............167run-in schedule ..............................338

SSAE(SocietyofAutomotive

Engineers).................................73safetygap .......................................213safetyresistor .................................498safetywiring ..................................544sand casting .....................................77SCATflexibleducting ...................260scavengeoilsystem .......................442scavenger pump .............107, 442, 448scavengersystems .........................454SCEETflexibleducting .................260scimitar shape, propeller ........714, 715scramjet .........................................373sea-level boosted engines ..............196

785Index

secondaryair ..................................419sector gear ..............................560, 561self-accelerating speed ...................532self-sustaining speed ......................507semiconductor ...............................503semiconductor diodes ....................609semiconductor rectifiers ................599semiconductor transducer ..............583semisyntheticoil ............................103series-wound motor .......................282serviceable limits ..........314, 316, 317,

325service bulletins .............156, 315, 319service letters .........................315, 319servo regulator ...............................172servosystem ..................................480servo valve .............................168, 169shaft horsepower ............................388shear section ..........................473, 507shielding ................233, 237, 241, 504shingling ........................................541shock wave ....................134, 136, 518shop work order .....................303, 315Shower of Sparks ignition

system .............................218, 287shrouded turbine blades .................424shunt-wound generators ................603single-entrycentrifugal

compressor .............................399single-shaft turbine engine ............696skin radiator ...................................271sleeve valves ....................................60slip .................................................669slip mark ........................................579slip ring ..........................................598slipstream .......................................299slow-blow fuse ..............................604sludge ..............96, 101, 102, 103, 329,

330sludge plugs ...........................319, 329slug ................................................361SMOH(sincemajoroverhaul) ......315

snubber ..................................409, 540SOAP(spectrometricoilanalysis

program) .................................456solid-fuel rockets ...........................360solid-state inverters ........................615solid-state transducers ...................557sound suppressor ...........................519spark igniters .................................502spark plug .............208, 209, 213, 237,

239, 244, 307spark plug bomb tester ..................250spark plug gapping ........................249spark plug leads .............................241spark plug reach .............................243spark plug servicing ...............247, 249specific fuel

consumption .............40, 131, 407specificgravityadjustment ............488specific weight .................................45spectrometricanalysis ...................533spectrometricoilanalysis

program ..................................123speed ..............................................362speed of sound .......368, 422, 507, 670speed, or condition, lever ..............697speed ring ......................................272SpiritofSt.Louis ..............................6spline .............................................718splined propeller shaft ...................721sprag clutch ....................................507springback ................................... , 158spring-loadedbypassvalve ...........472spur-gear pump ...................... 111, 448“square”engines ..............................35squealer tips ................................... 411squeezefilmbearings ....................443squib ..............................................653SSUviscosity ..........................99, 100stage length ....................................713staggered ignition timing ...............227standard atmospheric

conditions ...............................368

standardday ...................................368standardday

conditions ...............533, 545, 558StandardJ-1 .......................................6starter-generator ..................... 509, 611starterrelay ............................309, 500starter solenoids .............................287starterswithBendixdrive ..............284starters with overrunning clutch ....283starters with right-angle

drive adapter ...........................285start-lock pin ..................................700staticelectricity ......................469, 596staticflux ....................................... 211static pressure ................365, 366, 559staticRPM .............................299, 303static temperature ..........................367stator ..............................................633stator vanes ............ 401, 403, 410, 411stator windings ..............................609steam cooling .................................271stellite ..............................................61stepping motor ...............................734Stoddard solvent ....................248, 318stoichiometricmixture ...........129, 132storage capacitor ............................500straight mineral oil .........................101straight-run gasoline ......................136strainer ................................... 112, 114stratosphere ............................368, 386stress-rupture cracks ......................539stroboscopic or laser tachometer ...568stroboscopic tachometer ................569SU-35 .............................................523subsonic flow .................................364subsonic inlet duct .........................394sump ......................106, 107, 109, 468supercharged engine ......................186supercharger .....................26, 90, 134,

188, 189supersonic flow ..............................365


supersonic inlet ducts ....................396supersonic speed ............................518SupplementalTypeCertificate

(STC) ......................................139surface filtration ............................ 115surface plate ...................................328surge ..............................................480synchronousmotor ........................569synchrophasingsystem ..................734synchroscopes ................................570syntheticoil ...........................103, 438systematictroubleshooting ............343Systron-Donnerpneumaticfire

detectionsystem .....................650

Ttable of limits .........................316, 317tachometer ....................531, 557, 562,

567, 568, 569, 570, 581tail pipe ..................................517, 518tapered propeller shaft ...................722tappet ...............................................89tappet bodies ..................334, 335, 336Taylor,Charles ...................................4TBO(timebetweenoverhauls) ......44,

45, 295, 314, 374TCMfuelinjectionsystem ....175, 177telescoping gage ............................327TEL(tetraethyllead) .............140, 468temperature ............................386, 564temperature distribution, turbine

engine .....................................462test club ..........................................337testingDCalternatoroutput ..................637DCgeneratoroutput ..................630

tetraethyllead(TEL) .....................136thermalefficiency .....32, 33, 130, 131,

479thermal shock ..................................53thermistor .......................................649

thermocouple .................132, 567, 647thermocouple fire sensor ...............648thermocouple instruments .............565thermocouple sensor ......................657thermocouple-typeinstruments .....581thermosetting resin ........................710thermostatic valve .......... 108, 113, 117thermoswitch .................................645three-dimensional cam ..................480throttle ...................................297, 298throttle control ...............................475throttle lever ..................................485throttle lever angle .........................486throttle valve ..........481, 482, 483, 484thrust ...............................39, 359, 371,

380, 383, 386, 422, 423, 517, 564, 667, 668, 672

thrust bending force .......................670thrust horsepower ............10, 388, 670thrust reversers ......................519, 521thrust specific fuel consumption

(TSFC) ...................................... 11thrustvectorcontrolsystem ..........523time between overhauls

(TBO) ...........................44, 45, 57Time-Riteindicator........................226TITlimitations ...............................485TIT(turbineinlettemperature) .....425,

699top overhaul ...................................314torque .......30, 380, 423, 572, 573, 575torque bending force ......................671torquemeter ......30, 567, 571, 572, 575torquemeter oil pressure ................710torque sensor ..........................573, 574torque wrenches .............306, 541, 543torsional vibration ......................73, 76total air temperature .......................486totalenergy ....................................364total pressure ..........................366, 559total temperature ............................367

Townendring .........................272, 273track ...............................................723tractor propeller .....................672, 714transformer ....................................615transformer-rectifier(TR) .............. 611transonic range ..............................670trend monitoring ....................533, 539trichlorethylene ..............................324tricresylphosphate(TCP) ..............138troubleshooting ..............343, 346, 347truepower(electrical)....................614TSFC(thrustspecificfuel

consumption) ............................ 11turbine ............................373, 422, 423turbineenginecoolingsystems .....461turbineengineexhaust ...................517turbine engine fuel .........................140turbine engine fuel control ............478turbineenginefuelsystem .....471, 472turbine-engine igniters ...................502turbineengineignitionsystems .....495turbine engine maintenance ...........532turbine engine operation ................529turbine engine testing ....................545turbine engine troubleshooting ......547turbine inlet guide vanes .......422, 425,

462, 699turbine inlet temperature

(TIT) ...............387, 424, 478, 567turbinenozzle ................................423turbocharger ..................101, 177, 178,

189, 191, 258, 262, 308, 562turbocharger intercooler ................275turbofan engine .............377, 384, 388,

393, 405, 407, 519, 667, 696, 713turbojet ...........................................373turbojetengine ......375, 377, 488, 519,

667, 713turboprop .......................................375turboprop engine ............376, 395, 696turboshaft engine ...........................376

787Index

turbosuperchargers .........8, 9, 32, 189, 258, 373

two-position propeller ...................680two-stroke-cycleengine.............22, 25TypeCertificateDataSheets .........579

UUDFengine(UnductedFan™) .....713UHBengine ............. 11, 378, 713, 714under-frequencyprotection ...........612underspeed condition .....................685underspeed condition, propeller ....683underspeedgovernor(USG) ..........701Unducted Fan™ engine ........... 11, 378Unducted Fan™ propellers ............673unidirectional fibers ....................... 711universal propeller protractor ........677upper-deck air pressure ..................178upper-deck pressure .......................562

Vvalve grinding machine .................333valve guide ..............................62, 334valve lash .........................................34valve lifters ......................................89valve overlap .......................24, 25, 34valve reconditioning ......................332valve seat .........................62, 332, 334valve springs ..........................326, 336vane-typeflowmeter ......................570vane-typepumps ............................448vaporizingnozzles .........................476vapor lock ......................................137vapor pressure ................137, 468, 564variable absolute pressure

controller(VAPC) ..................193variable-angle stators .....................404variable guide vanes ......................404variable inlet duct ..........................397

variable-orificemixturecontrol .....152variable stator vane control ...........485varsol .............................248, 318, 319vectored thrust engines ..........522, 523velocity ..................................362, 363velocityturbine ..............................264V-engine .....................................47, 49ventsubsystem ......................442, 453venturi ...........143, 144, 147, 148, 150,

168vernier coupling .............................227vernier scale ...................................678vertical tape instrument .................557vibrating-typevoltageregulator ....607vibration loop ........................171, 180vibration sensing unit ....................725videoimagingsystem ....................536videoscopes ...................................540VIFF (vectoring in forward

flight) ......................................523viscosimeter .....................................99viscosity ............96, 99, 100, 437, 438,

468viscosityindex ...............100, 102, 438viscosityindeximprover ...............102visual inspection ....................319, 320volatilememory .............................584volatility .........................................468voltage ...................................600, 601voltage-doubler circuit ..................499voltage regulator ...........510, 600, 601,

606, 609, 610, 611, 613voltmeters ......................................569volumetricefficiency ..........25, 34, 35,

188vonOhain,Dr.HansPabst ............374vortexdissipater ............................396Voyagerengines ...............................56

Wwafer screen filter ..........................474wake ...............................................529walk-around inspection .................653Wankel,Felix .....................................7waste gate ..............................191, 193waste-gate valve ............................192water-cooled engines .....................275waterinjection ...............................387watt ..................................................28weight ....................................361, 382wet-sump engine .................... 106, 118wet-sump lubrication

system .............................108, 439wet-sumpsystems ............................54wet-typevacuumpump .................108Whittle, Sir Frank ......................9, 374wide-cut fuel ..................................467windmilling propeller ....................689wood propellers .....................676, 727work .........................................27, 362worm gear ......................................568worm-gear .....................................285wound-rotor magneto ....................222WrightFlyer ..............................4, 667, 676J-5engine ................................6, 44J-5Whirlwindengine ................272J6-5 ..............................................44R-3350 engine ...................264, 272Wilbur and Orville .........................4

Wright Aeronautical Corporation .............................5, 9

wrist pin .............................65, 66, 336

Zzero-lashvalvelifter ..................80, 81

Documents

Aviation Maintenance Technician Series: Powerplant · as the FAA’s Aviation Maintenance Technician Handbook—General (FAA-H-8083-30), —Airframe (FAA-H-8083-31), and —Powerplant