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GR Focus

A review of the western part of the Altaids: A key to understanding the architectureof accretionary orogens

Wenjiao Xiao ⁎, Baochun Huang, Chunming Han, Shu Sun, Jiliang LiState Key Laboratory of Lithospheric Evolution, Institute of Geology and Geophysics, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Beijing 100029, China

a b s t r a c ta r t i c l e i n f o

Article history:Received 5 August 2009Received in revised form 24 January 2010Accepted 29 January 2010Available online 6 February 2010

Keywords:Vertical interactionMultiple linear element amalgamationKazakhstan oroclineAltaidsAccretionary orogensTectonics

The Altaids is one of the largest accretionary collages in the world, and the tectonic styles of the accretionaryprocesses have been interpreted in several ways, including as an amalgamation ofmultiple terranes, as a resultof oroclinal bending of a long, single arc, or as a Caledonian continental collision. Based on recenttectonostratigraphic analyses together with paleomagnetic data, the tectonic styles of the Neoproterozoic toPaleozoic accretionary processes of the Altaids are discussed. The Western Altaids is the main focus of thestudy, which was mainly composed of several independent linear components such as arcs andmicrocontinents with Proterozoic basement and cover rocks. Various kinds of arcs existed in the Paleo-AsianOcean, including a complicated type of arc (Alaskan-type), which is a combination of the Japan- and Mariana-type intra-oceanic arcs and the Cordillera-type continental arcs. These linear components rotated and collidedwith each other with multiple subduction polarities, which could have been an important result of multiplelinear element amalgamation, andwhich has contributed greatly to the architecture of the Eurasian continent.The basic tectonic styles of the Altaids can be summarized as arc–arc collision, oroclinal bending and large-scale rotation, and multiple subductions with a complicated archipelago paleogeography. These basic featuresof accretionary orogens in general can be attributed to the amalgamation of complicated multiple linearelements. SomeMesozoic to Cenozoic accretionary orogens in theworld are also characterized by processes ofmultiple linear element amalgamation. More attention should be paid to the multiple linear elementamalgamation of ancient accretionary orogens,whichwill shed light on lateral and vertical continental growth.

© 2010 International Association for Gondwana Research. Published by Elsevier B.V. All rights reserved.

Contents

1. Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2542. Geological setting and field characteristics . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2543. Former models. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 254

3.1. Model 1: multiple terrane amalgamation model . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2553.1.1. Model 1A. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2553.1.2. Model 1B. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 255

3.2. Model 2: oroclinal bending and strike-slip faulting model . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2553.2.1. Model 2A. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2553.2.2. Model 2B. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2573.2.3. Model 2C. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 257

3.3. Model 3: Caledonian composite continent model . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2574. Current controversies and new evidence . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 257

4.1. Was there a single Kipchak arc in Kazakhstan? . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2574.2. Did large-scale bending take place and when? . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 259

5. Archipelago vs. orocline . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2635.1. Nature of the Paleozoic archipelago paleogeography? . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2635.2. Multiple arc systems. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 263

Gondwana Research 18 (2010) 253–273

⁎ Corresponding author. Tel.: +86 10 8299 8524; fax: +86 10 6201 0846.E-mail address: [email protected] (W. Xiao).

1342-937X/$ – see front matter © 2010 International Association for Gondwana Research. Published by Elsevier B.V. All rights reserved.doi:10.1016/j.gr.2010.01.007

Contents lists available at ScienceDirect

Gondwana Research

j ourna l homepage: www.e lsev ie r.com/ locate /gr


6. Amalgamation of multiple linear elements . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2646.1. Paleogeographic reconstruction of Central Asia . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2646.2. Basic architecture of accretionary orogens . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2666.3. Significance for continental growth . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 268

Acknowledgements . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 268References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 268

1. Introduction

Continental growth is among the major goals that Earth Scientistshave long been seeking; nevertheless, the basic geodynamic featuresof continental growth are not clear (Rudnick, 1995; Condie andChomiak, 1996; Condie, 2000, 2007; Condie et al., 2009). Accretionaryorogenesis is one of the most important geodynamic processes bywhich continents grow (Şengör and Okurogullari, 1991; Şengör et al.,1993; Baba, 2002; Jahn et al., 2004; Kröner et al., 2007; Rino et al.,2008; Cawood et al., 2009; Santosh et al., 2009a). Accretionary orogenscan be found of all ages and they have close relationships withsupercontinent cycles and/or plumes (Kusky, 1989; Wyman et al.,1999; Dalziel et al., 2000; Nikishin et al., 2002; Cawood, 2005; Cawoodand Buchan, 2007; Condie, 2007; Polat et al., 2007; Rino et al., 2008;Utsunomiya et al., 2008; Murphy et al., 2009). Accretionary orogenycan also be huge both in dimension (reaching several thousands ofkilometers in length and width) and time (ranging from 50 millionyears to several hundreds of millions of years) (Condie, 2007; Condieet al., 2009), and usually builds a vast plateau-like orogen with manyophiolitic melanges and other structures, thus giving rise to acomplicated tectonic style. A systematic study of the tectonic style ofaccretionary orogenesis will provide constraints on a better under-standing of continental growth.

Currently there is no consensus on the basic architecture ofaccretionary orogens, and our understanding of the tectonic styleof accretionary orogenesis is still handicapped by the lack of a fullydeveloped geological record (c.f. Cawood et al., 2009). Archeanand early Proterozoic accretionary orogens are mostly overprintedby later events with only a broken geological record (Kröner et al.,1992; Polat and Kerrich, 1999), while some Mesozoic and Cenozoicaccretionary orogens, for instance those along the circum-Pacific,are not yet fully developed and have only a limited geologicalrecord (Sisson and Pavlis, 1993; Kusky et al., 1997a,b; Pankhurstet al., 1999). Although these kinds of accretionary orogens offer usgood opportunities to study some important features of accretionaryorogeny, the evolution of accretionary orogenesis can only be partiallyunravelled.

The Altaids (Central Asian Fold Belt, Central Asian Orogenic Belt, orCentral Asian Orogenic System) covers a huge area of Central Asia(Fig. 1), and is the largest accretionary orogen that records a longhistoryof accretionary orogenesis from the late Proterozoic to the Mesozoic(Şengör et al., 1993; Şengör and Natal'in, 1996a,b; Kröner et al., 2007;Windley et al., 2007). The Altaids is characterized by linear elementscomposed of long chains of arcs and/or a combination of continentalslices and arcs whose lengths can be several hundreds or even morethan thousands of kilometers. Amalgamation of linear elements andtheir interactions with continental margins generated considerablePhanerozoic continental growth (Şengör et al., 1993; Şengör andNatal'in, 1996a,b; Jahn, 2001; Hong et al., 2004; Jahn et al., 2004).Therefore the Altaids offers an ideal field laboratory for a betterunderstanding of the tectonic style of accretionary orogenesis, whichwill shed light on a better understanding of continental growth. Thispaper reviews current tectonicmodels and aims at presenting a tectonicstyle analysis of accretionary orogeny based on the Western Altaids(Fig. 2). The fundamental features of the Altaids are summarized, whichwe use to build a conceptual tectonic architecture model and to discussaccretionary orogeny and its relationship to continental growth.

2. Geological setting and field characteristics

The Altaids is located between the Siberian and East Europeancratons to the north, and Tarim and North China cratons to the south(Fig. 1). The content of this vast orogenic collage has been defineddifferently by many researchers, for instance the Uralides andBaikalides were either included or excluded (Mossakovsky et al.,1993; Şengör et al., 1993; Şengör and Natal'in, 1996a,b; Kröner et al.,2007; Windley et al., 2007) (Fig. 1).

The Altaids comprises a variety of juvenile tectonic units, includingfragments of island arcs, oceanic islands, seamounts, ophiolites andaccretionary complexes, as well as relatively rare ancient gneissicmassifs (Fig. 2). The long-lived magmatism (Neoproterozoic toCenozoic) includes subduction-related (Neoproterozoic to LatePermian–early Triassic) and nonsubduction-related types (Mesozoicto Cenozoic). It is widely regarded that subduction-related magma-tism in the Altaids roughly youngs southwards (present-daycoordinates), consistent with lateral accretion along the southernmargin of the Siberian craton (Mossakovsky et al., 1993; Şengör et al.,1993; Şengör and Natal'in, 1996a,b; Kröner et al., 2007;Windley et al.,2007).

The Altaids is characterized by large positive-εNd(t) granitoids andmultiple phase of alkaline magmatism (trachyandesite, latite, syeniteand alkaline granite), suggesting vertical growth of crustal materials(Jahn et al., 2000; Jahn, 2001; Jahn et al., 2004; Solomovich, 2007;Safonova, 2009).

The Altaids can be subdivided into eastern and western parts(Şengör et al., 1993; Şengör and Natal'in, 1996a,b). The easternAltaids developed characteristically by convergence in the earlyMesozoic between the Siberian craton to the north, the southernMongolia–Gobi block in themiddle, and theNorth China craton to thesouth, as well as by the Mongol–Okhotsk orogenesis and part of theCircum-Pacific orogenesis (Zonenshain et al., 1990; Tomurtogooet al., 2005).

The Western Altaids is a region characterized by interactionsbetween the Siberian and East European cratons to the north and theTarim craton to the south in the late Proterozoic to late Paleozoic–early Mesozoic, which is the main topic of this paper. The vastWestern Altaids is more or less a triangle-shaped area with the UralsMountains (Uralian suture) in the northwest, the Ob-Zansan suture(along the Erqis fault) in the Northeast, and the Southern Tien Shansuture (along the northern boundary of the Tarim Craton) in the southand southwest (Fig. 2). As the Uralian suture has been extensivelystudied and mainly records a collisional history (Brown et al.,1996,1997; Alvarez et al., 2000), we exclude it from the discussionin the current contribution.

3. Former models

The Western Altaids is represented by the orogenic collage bestpreserved in Kazakhstan, Kyrgyzstan, Uzbekistan, Tajikistan, southernRussia, NW China, and southwestern Mongolia (Fig. 1). Geographi-cally this part is composed of several mountain ranges: Altay, Junggar,and Tien Shan in China, and their counterparts in neighbouringcountries. The tectonic style of the Western Altaids has beencontroversial, and three alternative models for the Altaids havebeen proposed, as discussed below.

254 W. Xiao et al. / Gondwana Research 18 (2010) 253–273


3.1. Model 1: multiple terrane amalgamation model

3.1.1. Model 1AThe Altaids is widely considered to be an amalgam of many dif-

ferent terranes within the single Paleo-Asian Ocean that developedcontinuously from 1.0 Ga to 250 Ma (Coleman, 1989; Mossakovskyet al., 1993; Xiao et al., 1994). Among these terranes two types wereemphasized: a) Island arcs that formed in the Paleo-Asian Ocean andaccreted to the margins of the Siberia and East European cratons. b)Precambrian blocks that were rifted off the margins of Gondwana anddrifted to dock with the growing accretionary margins of the Siberiancraton (Mossakovsky et al., 1993; Berzin and Dobretsov, 1994; Buslovet al., 2002) (Fig. 3). Multiple subduction zones with differentsubduction polarities formed a Paleozoic archipelago paleogeographysimilar to that in the present SW Pacific (Xiao et al., 2003; 2008;Windley et al., 2007; Xiao et al., 2004a; Xiao et al., 2004b).

3.1.2. Model 1BHsü et al. (1991) argued that the architecture of Central Asia was

mainly formed by collapse of a series of backarc basins whosemagmatic arc with one major north-dipping subduction zone waslocated somewhere near the Kunlun Range, south of the Tarimcraton (Hsü et al., 1992; 1995; Yao and Hsü, 1994). The variousophiolitic melanges were interpreted by these authors as remnants

of backarc oceans, and in the vast Altaid region there was no majorwide ocean. The Paleozoic paleogeography was also characterized byan archipelago, which resembles present-day SE Asia. Thus orogen-esis in the Altaids was considered to be intra-plate (Hsü and Chen,1999).

3.2. Model 2: oroclinal bending and strike-slip faulting model

3.2.1. Model 2AUsing the analogue of the Japanese Islands and other island arcs in

East Asia, Şengör et al. (1993) proposed a c. 7000 km-long, single arc,called the Kipchak–Tuva–Mongol arc that was located along theoutboard margin of the Siberian and East European cratons (Fig. 4). Inthis model, the western part (Kipchak) of the Altaids was bent andduplicated by strike-slip duplexing into an orocline that led to closureof the Paleo-Asian Ocean by the late Carboniferous. Unlike Model 1,Precambrian rocks were interpreted as basement of this long arc; theywere rifted off the margins of the Siberian and East European cratons,but not off the margin of Gondwana.

Von Raumer et al. (2003) proposed a somewhat similar model, inwhich they added a new composite terrane (Serindia), which includedNorth Tarim andQilian; Serindiawas interpreted to be connectedwiththe Kipchak arc to the west and the Tuva–Mongol arc to the east.

Fig. 1. Simplified map of the Altaids. Fig. 2 is outlined. C.= craton.Modified after Şengör et al. (1993) and Xiao et al. (2008).

255W. Xiao et al. / Gondwana Research 18 (2010) 253–273


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3.2.2. Model 2BYakubchuk et al. (2001) also interpreted the Altaids as a huge

collage of oroclinal bends and strike-slip slices, but they proposedmany pairs of arc–backarcs (Seltmann et al., 2001; Yakubchuk et al.,2001; Yakubchuk, 2004). Following the earlier interpretations, theyfurther invented a Central Asian supercollage, referred to as NorthernEurasia that was composed of the East European, Siberian, NorthChina, and Alai-Tarim cratons, fragments of the supercontinentRodinia, and the orogens of the Baikalides, Timanides, Uralides,Altaids, and Mongolides (Yakubchuk, 2008). Various tectonic compo-nents were deformed during Paleozoic, westward-directed, strike-sliptranslation between the clockwise-rotating Siberian and eastward-moving North China cratons (Yakubchuk, 2008).

3.2.3. Model 2CA linear Kipchak or Kokchetav–North Tien Shan–Chingiz arc chain

that existed in the Silurian (Levashova et al., 2009) to mid-Devonian,collided with the Tarim Craton and southern Siberia in the LateDevonian to Early Carboniferous (Abrajevitch et al., 2008). Thesemodifications of the Kipchak arc oroclinemodel weremainly based onrecent paleomagnetic data (Abrajevitch et al., 2007;Wanget al., 2007).

3.3. Model 3: Caledonian composite continent model

Unlike the above models, this model suggests that the Altaids wasterminated and cratonized in the early Paleozoic (Kheraskova et al.,2003). At the end of the Ordovician the Kazakhstan segment of theKipchak ensialic arc was proposed to collide with the Tarim–QaidamMicrocontinent (Kheraskova et al., 2003). Late Ordovician accretion andcollision produced a new composite continent (Kazakhstan), whichwasa collage of Rodinian continental fragments, island arcs of different ages,

and fragments of oceanic crust of different ages (Kheraskova et al.,2003).

4. Current controversies and new evidence

Concerning the Western Altaids, there are a number of contro-versial ideas that lie between the main models outlined above. Keypoints to be resolved include the following. (i) Was there a singleKipchak arc in Kazakhstan? (ii) Did large-scale bending take place,forming the so-called Kazakhstan orocline and when? (iii) What wasthe paleogeography of the Paleozoic archipelago in Central Asia? Howdid the relevant oceans close?

4.1. Was there a single Kipchak arc in Kazakhstan?

The western (Kipchak) part of the Kipchak–Tuva–Mongol arc wasinvented to interpret Paleozoic subduction-related magmatism in thearea of Kazakhstan (Şengör et al., 1993; Şengör and Natal'in, 1996a,b;Şengör, 2004). In the beginning the Kipchak–Tuva–Mongol arc wasproposed to exist along the outboard margin of the Siberian and EastEuropean cratons (Fig. 4). This is based on the assumption that theSiberian and East European cratons had been united as a singlemicrocontinent along their present northern margins at 610–530 Ma,thus enabling the Kipchak arc to form as a single arc along their unitedmargins in the early Cambrian (Şengör and Natal'in, 1996a,b). In latermodels, either the Tarim or other continental blocks were thought tobe part of the Kipchak–Tuva–Mongol arc (von Raumer et al., 2003;Yakubchuk et al., 2002; Yakubchuk, 2002; Yakubchuk, 2004).

With regard to the original Kipchak–Tuva–Mongol arc, the arc-related terranes and their extensions in NW China, several lines ofevidence suggest that these tectonic components are geologically

Fig. 3. Alternative tectonic reconstruction of the Altaids in∼425 Mawith a single, long Kipchak arc whichwas curved into a complicated stack (A) (modified after Şengör et al. (1993)and Şengör andNatal'in (1996a,b) or a straight arcwith the Kokchetav–North Tien Shan being located at the northern end and the Chingiz arc at the southern end (B) (Levashova et al.,2009). The two boxes outlined in (A) are proximate areas of the Chingiz and Kokchetav–North Tien Shan arcs.



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different. For instance, the Chinese Altay arc has no Proterozoicbasement and cover rocks (Sun et al., 2008b; Windley et al., 2002;Long et al., 2010) that can be readily found in the Kokchetav–KyrgyzNorth Tien Shan and Kyrgyz Central Tien Shan–Naryn blocks(Kheraskova et al., 2003; Kozakov et al., 2007; Kozakov et al., 2008).Even in China, West Junggar and East Junggar share no similarities(Şengör and Natal'in, 1996a,b; Zhang et al., 2009c), nor do theWestern and Eastern Tien Shan (Xiao et al., 2004b; Xiao et al., 2006;Xiao et al. 2009c; Burtman, 2008; Windley et al., 1990; Zhu et al.,2005; Sun et al., 2008a).

The huge orocline of Yakubchak (2002, 2004) is based on theassumption that blocks in Central Asia were arc–backarc pairs, notonly including the Kipchak–Tuva–Mongolia arc, but also cratonicblocks such as the Tarim Craton that were amalgamated to formsupercollages (von Raumer et al., 2003; Yakubchuk et al., 2002;Yakubchuk, 2002; Yakubchuk, 2004). Because a single Kipchak–Tuva–Mongolia arc cannot be verified, as indicated above, the wholetectonic scenario requires revision. The fact that the Tarim craton hada one-side passive margin and the Kokchetav–Kyrgyz North Tien Shanand Kyrgyz Central Tien Shan–Naryn blocks had double-sided activemargins or subduction-related margins (Bykadorov et al., 2003;Dobretsov and Buslov, 2007; Zorin et al., 2007; Xiao et al., 2009c)makes it unlikely that the Tarim craton was an integrated part of asingle long Kipchak–Tuva–Mongol arc or any of these so-called arc–backarc pairs. Furthermore, no available paleomagnetic data supportmajor oroclinal bending of arc–backarc pairs (Abrajevitch et al., 2007).

As for the assumption that the Siberia and East European cratonshad been united as a single minicontinent along their presentnorthern margins at 610–530 Ma, paleogeographical configurationsthat are based on the best available paleomagnetic data, show that theassumption is not the case as indicated by the existence of an oceanbetween Siberia and the East European craton in the latestNeoproterozoic (Bykadorov et al., 2003; Windley et al., 2007).

Therefore, there is no viable evidence to indicate that there wasone single, long Kipchak arc in Kazakhstan. However, this does nottotally rule out the possibility of some single linear arcs that couldeach be laterally variable in terms of their rock types and structures.Thus, it is not necessary that Proterozoic basement was presentthroughout the arc; some parts could be juvenile, whereas otherscould have continental fragments, as we see in the SW Pacific andAlaska. These arcs probably formed by amalgamation of differentcomponents at different times. Some geological and geochronologicaldata suggest that there were multiple terranes in the Paleo-AsianOcean (Filippova et al., 2001;Windley et al., 2007; Kröner et al., 2007).Some long, single linear arc systems with multiple subduction zones,together with various non-linear components with small aspectratios, could have made up the core of the Altaids. The former usuallyform a long, single arc system, which could also have multiplesubduction zones, while the latter have an archipelago geographywith many subduction zones related to many different ocean basins.

4.2. Did large-scale bending take place and when?

Oroclines were used to suggest that originally linear, or at the veryleast straight, orogenic belts can be curved (Carey, 1955; Van der Voo,2004). Based on their first assumption that there was a long, singleKipchak–Tuva–Mongol arc, Şengör et al. (1993) envisaged that thisarc was oroclinally bent and became sheared and buckled during thelate Paleozoic into its present-day, oroclinal, fault-riddled structure(the so-called Kazakhstan orocline) in a manner to that of acomplicated “S-type” fold.

In an updated version, it is proposed that oroclinal bending of theadvanced Kipchak–Tuva–Mongol arc or pairs of arc–backarcs tookplace like a set of spirals at a scale of several thousand kilometers(Yakubchuk et al., 2002; Yakubchuk, 2002; 2004).

Because, as we argue here, that there was no such single, long arccalled the Kipchak–Tuva–Mongol arc, thewhole orogen-scale oroclinewould have lost its viability. How canwe understand the vastWesternAltaids? Detailed tectonic unit analysis, as illustrated in several papersby Şengör and co-workers (Şengör et al., 1993; Şengör and Natal'in,1996a,b), does help, but the controversy is still ongoing. We note that,even if there was no single Kipchak–Tuva–Mongol arc, someimportant arc chains may have coexisted in the Paleo-Asian Ocean;these linear chains should be emphasized.

Moreover, some paleomagnetic data, obtained by scientistsworking on Central Asia, confirmed that large-scale rotations of thenorthern (Chingiz) and southern (North Tien Shan) limbs of the“Kazakhstan orocline” did take place (Collins et al., 2003; Abrajevitchet al., 2007; Levashova et al., 2007). We therefore simplify the tectonic

Fig. 5. Possible orocline of the Kazakhstan part of the Western Altaids in the Paleozoic.Modified after Bazhenov et al. (2003), Collins et al. (2003), Van der Voo et al. (2006),Levashova et al. (2007), and Abrajevitch et al. (2007).

Fig. 6. Schematic map of the western part of the Altaids in the Paleozoic showing thepossible relative position of Kazakhstan and Tarim and their relationships to theSiberian craton and the Altaid orogenic collage. Dotted lines for the blocks and tectoniccollages are not strictly palinspastic reconstructions, but indicate orientations of theKazakhstan orocline (Kokchetav–North Tien Shan–Chingiz) arcs. See text for discussionbased on paleomagnetic and tectonostratigraphic data (Xiao et al., 2009c).Modified and adapted from Wang et al. (2007).



units and use these two major arcs (Chingiz, North Tien Shan) as aprincipal framework in order to better understand the complicatedaccretionary geology of the Western Altaids. Once a specificevolutionary picture of these two arcs is gained, it should be possibleto constrain such a general tectonic scenario.

The paleomagnetic data (Collins et al., 2003; Abrajevitch et al.,2007; Levashova et al., 2007) support the orocline model, but only theupper part of the complicated orocline of Şengör et al. (1993). So farthere are no data that support the lower part of the orocline of Şengöret al. (1993). Recently, considerable paleomagnetic data showed thatthe S-shape of the so-called Kipchak arc did not exist (Fig. 3A). Thepaleogeography in association with the Kokchetav–North Tien Shanand Chingiz arcs was characterized by a roughly NW–SE-oriented longmassif before any orocline formed in the late Paleozoic (Fig. 3B).Large-scale bending could have taken place only in the northern limb(the Chingiz arc) and southern limb (the North Tien Shan arc).

Even the orocline scenario alone cannot accommodate all thedeformation required by paleomagnetic data. In order to consume

that deformation, a large-scale, east–west (present-day coordinates)sinistral wrenching model was proposed to account for the rotations(Abrajevitch et al., 2007).

Because some important paleogeographic and paleomagneticevidence supports the idea of basic oroclinal bending of the WesternAltaids, we accept that the tectonic subdivision of Şengör and co-workers is reasonable, although a detailed tectonic study is needed. InFigs. 2 and 3, it is shown that, besides the Urals, the Western Altaids iscomposed of several individual tectonic belts: Altay, circum-Balkash-Junggar, and Tien Shan. The detailed tectonic elements are shown inan updated geological map of the Western Altaids (Fig. 4). Tectonicelements ranging from mid-Proterozoic to Permian were involvedin the Paleozoic accretionary orogenic processes (Xiao et al., 2008;2009a,b,c).

The magnetization direction of the northern part (Chingiz Range)of the Kipchak arc chain was southward at least from the Silurianto Devonian, of the central part (Balkash) was eastward, and of thesouthern part (North Tien Shan) of the arc was northward (Fig. 5A).

Fig. 7. Tectonic reconstruction of the archipelago in the Western Altaids during the Middle Paleozoic.Modified after Xiao et al. (2003), Xiao et al. (2008); 2009a,b,c; and Abrajevitch et al. (2008).



This scenario changed into a unanimous N-ward paleomagneticdirection corrected for post-Permian–Triassic block rotations (Fig. 5B).

The pattern of Fig. 5A (strong correlation between paleomagneticdeclinations and structural trends) was obtained after removingyounger rotations of presumed Late Permian–Triassic age from theobserved declinations (Abrajevitch et al., 2007). These Late Permian

rotations were negligible in the northern (Chingiz) and central arms ofthe orocline, but theywere significant in the south. Hence, theU-shapedstructure had beenmostly created by/in the Early Permian (Abrajevitchet al., 2007; 2008; Levashova et al., 2009),whereas the nearly rectilinearstructure developed (Fig. 5A) by the Late Devonian to Carboniferousrotations according to the calculations of Abrajevitch et al. (2007; 2008).

Fig. 8. Tectonic reconstruction of the archipelago in the Western Altaids during the late Carboniferous to Permian. The granulite in Central Tien Shan is after Li and Zhang (2004).Modified after Xiao et al. (2003; 2008; 2009a,b,c).



Geological mapping and tectonostratigraphic investigations indi-cate that the Chingiz arc collided with the other parts of the Kipchakarc chain in the early Paleozoic (Windley et al. 2007). As the formationof the Kokchetav arc had involved deep subduction of continentalcrust as indicated by ultrahigh-pressure metamorphism (Maruyamaet al., 2002; Dobretsov et al., 2006), the composite Chingiz–Balkash–

North Tien Shan arc had a Japan-type island arc on its southern side(Balkash–North Tien Shan) and a Mariana-type island arc on itsnorthern side (Chingiz); the northern may have consisted of twochains of island arcs (Figs. 6–9).

Recent paleomagnetic data have not only revealed the large-scalerotations concerned with formation of the Kazakhstan orocline, but

Fig. 9. Tectonic reconstruction of the archipelago in the Western Altaids during the Late Permian to middle-Triassic. The granulite in Central Tien Shan is after Li and Zhang (2004).Modified after Xiao et al. (2003; 2008; 2009a,b,c).



also they have revealed large-scale eastward displacements of the Ili(Yili) and Junggar arcs with respect to the Siberian craton and theAltaids to the south of the Chinese Altay (Fig. 6) (Wang et al., 2007).The Ili block can be regarded as the southeastern end of the southernlimb of the Kazakhstan orocline, and Junggar can be taken as part ofthe circum-Balkash–Junggar composite arc. Therefore as it bent intoan orocline, the Kazakhstan orocline also migrated eastward.

Interestingly, these large, eastward displacementsmostly occurredin post-Permian time (Wang et al., 2007). However, we note that inthe Permian both the Siberia and Tarim cratons were oriented withtheir present-day E–W-axis roughly along a N–S-trend, as shown by adotted line in the Tarim craton in Fig. 7 (Van der Voo, 1993;Kravchinsky et al., 2002; Huang et al., 2005; Huang et al., 2008; Xiaoet al., 2009c). That is to say, the Siberia and Tarim cratons wereoriented in an east–west direction with an intervening ocean, similarto the present situation of Eurasia and North America with theintervening Pacific Ocean (Xiao et al., 2009c). We also note that theSiberian craton had its present-day southern accretionary system onits northern margin (Torsvik and Cocks, 2004; Cocks and Torsvik,2007); this remained almost intact until ca. 250 Ma, when the Siberiaand Tarim cratons rotated to their present-day orientations.

Recent paleomagnetic data show that large-scale rotations tookplace in the late Paleozoic or lasted to the Permian–Triassic (Collinset al., 2003; Abrajevitch et al., 2007; Levashova et al., 2007). Van derVoo et al. (2006) assumed that about 50% of the total post-Ordovicianrotations are of pre-Late Permian age, and the other half are of LatePermian–earliest Mesozoic age. The pre-Late Permian rotations arelikely related to oroclinal bending during plate boundary evolution in asupra-subduction setting, given the calc-alkaline character of nearly allthe pre-Late Permian volcanic rocks in the strongly curved belts (Vander Voo et al., 2006; Li et al., 2008). We speculate that the LatePermian–earliest Mesozoic rotations (Van der Voo et al., 2006;Levashova et al., 2009) were related to post-accretion tectonic eventssuch as docking of the Tarim craton to the accretionary system of theSiberia craton.

Therefore we suggest that the orocline formation and arc–arccollision in Kazakhstan occurred in the Early Permian and waspossibly terminated in the mid-Triassic (Xiao et al., 2009c). This is ingood agreement with paleogeographic reconstructions, which showthat the Tarim craton, having broken off East Gondwana, was on itsway to eventually collide into the southern boundary of the Altaids atabout 250 Ma (Veevers, 1994; 2004; Torsvik and Cocks, 2004; Cocksand Torsvik, 2007).

5. Archipelago vs. orocline

5.1. Nature of the Paleozoic archipelago paleogeography?

Some previous authors proposed that a series of backarc basinswith one major north-dipping subduction zone was located some-where near the Kunlun Range (Hsü et al., 1992; Yao and Hsü, 1994;Hsü et al., 1995). In contrast, others suggested that thereweremultiplesubduction zones that had a Paleozoic archipelago paleogeographysimilar to that in the present SW Pacific (Xiao et al., 2003, 2004a,b;2008; Windley et al., 2007).

From the discussion above, we know that the Altaids containssome Precambrian blocks, such as the Kokchetavmicrocontinent withits Cambrian ultrahigh-pressure metamorphic rocks (Fig. 4) (Dobret-sov et al., 2006; Maruyama et al., 2002). However, the basement rocksof this Kokchetav microcontinent are not so old (Maruyama et al.,2002; Dobretsov et al., 2006) compared with the oldest 1.0 Gaaccretionary event in the nearby Eastern Sayan area (Khain et al.,2002).

Although individual tectonic elements in the Altaids are of differenttypes and have different ages, it is widely accepted that the Altaids isan orogenic collage composed of different arcs with subduction

systems, ocean islands, seamounts, ophiolitic melanges and accretion-ary complexes together with some continental blocks and tectonicslices (Tagiri et al., 1995; Volkava and Budanov, 1999; Salnikova et al.,2001; Pfänder et al., 2002;Windley et al., 2007;Wu et al., 2007; Kröneret al., 2008; Xiao et al., 2009b). Some relicts of oceanic plateaux werealso recently reported in the Chinese Altai andMongolian Altai (KuskyandPolat, 1999;Wong et al., 2008;Utsunomiya and Jahn, 2008),whichare to be expected in accretionary orogens (Martins et al., 2009;Utsunomiya et al., 2008).

During formation of the accretionary orogens, multiple subductionsystems existed, for example, inWest Junggar, located in themiddle ofthe Paleo-Asian Ocean where the slab should have been subductednorthwestward (present-day coordinates) to the Altaids as indicatedby the formation of a 450–470 Ma blueschist belt (Zhang, 1997). LatePaleozoic tectonic evolution was characterized by ridge subductions(Zhao et al., 2006; Zhao et al., 2009a; Windley et al., 2007; Liu et al.,2007; Liu et al., 2009; Geng et al., 2009; Sun et al., 2009; Yin et al.,2010).

Therefore, it is most likely that an archipelagowas themain featureof the Paleozoic paleogeography of the Altaids. While we realise thatthe critical role that backarc basins played in the architecture of theAltaids should be more highly appreciated (Wang et al., 2003; Zorinet al., 2007), it is also important to note that the independent nature ofthe Tarim craton and of multiple subduction zones in the Altaidsnegates the notion that there were only backarc basins in the Altaids.

It is evident that there were three co-existent sets of archipelagosin the Altaids, (a) southern Siberia; (b) Kazakhstan; and (c) Tien Shan.(Xiao et al., 2003; 2004a,b; 2008; 2009a,b,c; Windley et al., 2007).

Paleomagnetic and paleogeographic data show that the Siberiacraton had remained in the northern hemisphere with its southernside orientated to the north, and that it rotated to its present-dayorientation in the early Mesozoic (Van der Voo, 1993; Huang et al.,2008). Independent arcs and/or microcontinents including the Tuva–Mongolian chain and other components formed an archipelago, whichlater joined the Altaids.

In nearly all palinspastic reconstructions, Kazakhstan has alwaysbeen treated as an independent terrane in the Paleo-Asian Ocean.Tectonostratigraphic analysis indicates that several arcs and/ormicrocontinents amalgamated into a composite Kazakhstan terrane(Seltmann et al., 2003; Yakubchuk et al., 2001; Popov et al., 2009;Windley et al., 2007), which no doubt formed another archipelago.

The Tien Shan is a complicated subduction-related orogen (Yangand Zhou, 2009; Zhou et al., 2004b), which is composed of manydifferent arcs as well as sedimentary sequences of the northernpassive margin of the Tarim craton (Burtman, 1975; Buslov et al.,2007). Multiple arcs were combined with the Ili arc, the possiblesouthernmost extension of the Kazakhstan terrane (Chiaradia et al.,2006; Jenchuraeva, 2001; Konopelko et al., 2007; Maksumova et al.,2001); being part of the Central Tien Shan, it separated two majoroceans in the Tien Shan in the Paleozoic. The eastern Tien Shan inChina had some intra-oceanic arcs that were near the East Junggar arc(Xiao et al., 2004a,b; 2009a; Long et al., 2006; Charvet et al., 2007;Zhang et al., 2009b). All these arcs and/or microcontinents formed athird archipelago in the Paleo-Asian Ocean in the Paleozoic.

Paleogeographic analyses indicate that two different faunas andfloras that were separated in the Paleozoic (Rong and Zhang, 1982;Dewey et al., 1988; Zhang and Hong, 1999; Torsvik and Cocks, 2004;Xiao et al., 2008) should be the expression of the different archipelagos.The Permian separation of different floras along the Tien Shan mayindicate that these archipelagos coalesced in the late Paleozoic (Deweyet al., 1988; Torsvik and Cocks, 2004; Xiao et al., 2008).

5.2. Multiple arc systems

There has long been a heated controversy between the archipelagoand orocline models of the paleogeography of accretionary orogens.



Many different kinds of terranes, including arcs and microcontinents,are thought to be the main characteristics of accretionary orogens inthe long history of evolution (Williams et al., 1989; Hsü et al., 1995;Martinez et al., 1997; Davis et al., 1998; Goncuoglu and Kozlu, 2000;Kuzmichev et al., 2001; Xiao et al., 2001; Santosh et al., 2009a; Brown,2009; Cawood et al., 2009), a tectonic scenario very much likepresent-day SE Asia (Hall, 2002; Hall, 2009). However, large-scaleoroclines also occur in accretionary orogens (Carey, 1955; Johnstonand Acton, 2003; Levashova et al., 2003; Van der Voo, 2004; Glen,2004; Johnston, 2004; Abrajevitch et al., 2008; Cawood, 1982;Cawood, 2005). How can we reconcile the contrasting interpretationsof the archipelago or orocline models? In fact, these are two end-members that can co-exist or form one after the other. The majorcomponents of these two end-members are intra-oceanic island arcs,which are connected by multiple subduction zones.

Some linear components have curved features or bent oroclines,which contributed to the archipelago paleogeography, as it seems thatthere were more islands arcs in one special area. In addition there arealso some continental blocks and/or oceanic plateaux, which areround and have long thin wings of either island arcs or continentalribbons. These components can be curved or bent, forming a morecomplicated archipelago. The archipelago paleogeography has pro-vided more free space for linear components to bend oroclinally. Onecan image if all the arcs had already amalgamated into an integratedcontinent, oroclinal bending would be impossible.

Four major arc systems (Mariana-, Japan-, Cordillera-, and Alaska-type) can be distinguished around the Circum-Pacific region (Xiaoet al., in press). The Mariana-type arc system is generated bysubduction of one oceanic plate beneath another, and is characterizedby an oceanic island arc, remnant arc(s) and backarc basin(s) that arewide and separated by a remnant arc (Hall, 2002; 2008; Stern, inpress). The Japan-type arc system is generated by subduction of oneoceanic plate beneath another, but with some pre-arc sialic basement(Windley 1995), characterized by an oceanic island arc, and backarcbasin(s). The Cordillera-type arc system refers to the major westernPacific accretionary domain, where an oceanic plate(s) has beensubducted beneath a continental margin.

The Alaska-type arc system is amixture, andmay show a transitionalong its length (Fig. 10). In an asymmetrical case, an Alaskan-type arcsystem can have the core of a Cordillera-type arc system with onewing consisting of Japan- and Mariana-type arc systems along strike(Xiao et al., 2009a) (Fig. 10A). The order of formation of the Japan- andMariana-type arc systems can be mutually different with one formingafter the other (Fig. 10B) (Xiao et al., in press; 2009a,b,c).

In fact nearly all the various types of island arc systems are foundin the Altaids (Xiao et al., 2003; 2004a,b; 2008; 2009a,b,c; Windley etal., 2007; Long et al., 2007; Yuan et al., 2007; Sun et al., 2008b). A goodexample of the Alaska-type arc system is the Kazakhstan orocline,which is composed of the Kokchetav continental block with twowings of Japan-type island arcs at the northern (Chingiz) andsouthern (Kokchetav–North Tien Shan) ends. These linear compo-nents may dynamically evolve into the reorganization of differentplates (mostly oceanic plates) (Dong et al., 2009; Kelly et al., 2001;Rino et al., 2008; Yamamoto et al., 2009a,b). It is under this frameworkthat the linear components can be deformed into an orocline and intoan amalgamation of various orogenic collages.

6. Amalgamation of multiple linear elements

The reasonwhy somany different or even contrastingmodels havebeen proposed for the Altaids is because the Altaids is a hugeaccretionary collage with a long evolutionary history that has longbeen studied by researchers with different backgrounds and points ofview. Most importantly, the vast Altaid area has not been studied ingreat detail and somemountain belts remain to be investigated.Whenwe look at the lithologies and structures that were used in earlier

tectonic models, it is striking that they are almost the same. Thedifferences come from the interpretations. For instance, differentauthors used different interpretations of high-grade metamorphicbelts and of some late Precambrian unmetamorphosed rocks. Somefavour the basement or microcontinent interpretation, while othersprefer the arc interpretation. This difference of opinion is oftenpartially due to the lack of structural, geochemical, high-resolutiongeochronological and field studies.

Now we are in the position to summarize and propose a morecomprehensive model to solve the controversies mentioned above,because many structural, geochemical, high-resolution geochrono-logical and field data have accumulated in the last decade. If all thefeatures mentioned in this paper are combined with other geologicalrecords from the literature (UHP/HP, ophiolitic melanges etc.), atectonic scenario can be constructed, which satisfactorily explains allthe available data.

6.1. Paleogeographic reconstruction of Central Asia

Two important facts need to be emphasized. (i) Almost allpaleogeographic studies put the Tarim craton as the last block to dockto the huge accretionary system of the Altaids, which terminated theAltaid accretionary orogen. (ii) No matter what tectonic view is heldabout theWestern Altaids, the U-shaped, so-called Kazakhstan oroclineis composed of Ordovician to-Permian volcanic rocks, which havesubduction geochemical signatures. The final termination time of theinteraction between the Tien Shan and the southern accretionarysystems of the Siberian craton occurred in the end-Permian to mid-Triassic (Xiaoet al., 2008;2009a,b,c).Although the vertical interaction ofarc–continent collision was mentioned by Abrajevitch et al. (2008), thesouthern end (Ili-Central Tien Shan) of the Kazakhstan oroclineinteracted, in a multiple vertical manner (Figs. 7–9), with a long-lived,northward subduction zone that is represented by the Kokshaal–Kumishi accretionary complex (Xiao et al., 2004b; 2008; 2009a,b,c) inwhich ultrahigh-pressure and high-pressure metamorphism took placein theCarboniferous to Permo-Triassic (Gao et al., 1998;Gao et al., 1995;Gao et al., 1994; Zhang et al., 2007; Lü et al., 2008; Gao andKlemd, 2000)with the latest ultrahigh-pressure metamorphism in the mid-Triassic(Zhang et al., 2007).ManyHP/UHP rocks in Asia have been attributed todeep subduction of continental crust, which is different from that inNorth America (Rogers and Bernosky, 2008; Kelsey, 2008). However,the ultrahigh-pressure and high-pressure metamorphism recordedsubductionof anoceanic plate south of the Ili-Central Tien Shan arc. Thisis because the protolith of the ultrahigh-pressure and high-pressuremetamorphic rocks is a seamount, and the HP/UHP rocks are mostlyemplaced into an accretionary complex, which has nothing to do withcollision of any continent (Gao et al., 1998; Gao et al., 1995; Gao et al.,1994; Zhang et al., 2007).

This long-lived, northward subduction zone probably had manysmall subduction-related oceanic basins, but the major oceanicsubduction zone separated the Cathaysian and Angaran floras in thePermian (Dewey et al., 1988;Xiaoet al., 2008), alongwhich the longaxis(E–W) of the Tarim craton was subsequently attached (Figs. 8–10).

If the Tarim craton had been amalgamated with the Siberian(Altaid) edifice in the Early Carboniferous, it would be very difficult toimage any free boundary or space between the Siberia and Tarimcratons to accommodate large-scale strike-slip faults and rotation ofthe “Junggar-Ili composite terrane”, as indicated by paleomagneticand geological data (Abrajevitch et al., 2007; Wang et al., 2008; Xiaoet al., 2008; 2009a,b,c).

As mentioned above, paleomagnetic data imply that large-scalerotations occurred in the Permian–Triassic in the Kazakhstan oroclineof the Western Altaids. These have to be considered before anytectonic analysis can be launched.

The paleogeography of Central Asia in the Permo-Triassic has beendiscussed by someprevious studies (Torsvik andCocks, 2004; Cocks and



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Torsvik, 2007). But nearly all reconstructions have put Kazakhstan as anintegrated part of, or a block near, Laurentia. This should be updated byconsidering Kazakhstan as an independent composite arc with large-scale orocline/rotations in the Chingiz arc and North Tien Shan arc.

South of the huge Altaid accretionary orogen in Central Asia, therewas another huge accretionary system in southern Asia, the Tethyanaccretionary system. A part of this accretionary system was termedthe “Silkroad arc” (Natal'in and Şengör, 2005), which is another single,long island arc chain, which is oroclinally bent, and along whichsoutherly blocks including the South China block, Indochina, and thecomposite Iran–Songpan–Ganze block, have amalgamated (Fig. 11).

6.2. Basic architecture of accretionary orogens

Previously, some proposed models placed emphasis on the amal-gamation of arcs that occur between parallel long arcs (Milkov et al.,2003; Xiao et al., 2003; Zhao et al., 2007). Based on this conception,according to Şengör and co-workers all orogens are collisional orogensthat are divisible into three types: (a) Alpine-type, (b) Himalayan-type, and (c) Turkic-type (Şengör and Natal'in, 1993). However, it hasalso been widely accepted by the international community thatorogens are divisible into two groups: (a) collisional; and (b)accretionary (Windley, 1995; Cawood et al., 2009; Dickinson, 2004;Brown, 2009), although a third intracratonic orogen was also putforward (Cawood et al., 2009). The first two types of Şengör (Alpine-type, Himalayan-type) fall into the first category (collisional), and the

third one of Şengör (Turkic-type) is more or less equal to the secondcategory (accretionary). Accretionary orogenesis is part of a longhistory of continental mountain ranges, and the Altaids is a typicalaccretionary orogen that is characterized by the presence of largesubduction–accretion complexes (Şengör and Natal'in, 1993).

Accretionary orogens are usually characterized by an amalgam-ation of ophiolite–arc–continental margin (Biske and Seltmann, 2010;van Hinsbergen et al., 2009; Ernst, 2010; Whattam, 2009). Recently,various types of amalgamation between intra-oceanic arcs have beenproposed to demonstrate subduction of arc crust (Santosh et al.,2009b). Santosh et al. (2009b) have also described a specialphenomenon that happens to intra-oceanic arcs, which they term asvertical and orthogonal collisions. The linear components can be eitheran island arc or an oceanic subduction zone. Accordingly, we adopt thisterm andmodified it as interactions, which could be referred to as anygeodynamic process among linear geological entities, including beltsof subduction, accretion, and collision. As a matter of fact, a multipleamalgamationmodel that includes parallel, vertical and/or orthogonalinteractions of linear components should be introduced.

Amalgamation of multiple linear elements simply means that thelinear components of any orogenic collage would be randomlydistributed and will finally collide or amalgamate with each other(Fig. 12A). Johnston (2004) presented simulation of oroclinal bendingand summarized some features of oroclinal bending in orogenic belts.

There is a major need for increased understanding of the mutualrelationships between the various sets of archipelagos in the Paleo-

Fig. 11. Reconstruction of multiple subduction systems along the southern margin of Laurasia. Afr, Africa; Ant, Antarctica; Ar, Arabia; Aus, Australia; Eur, Europe; IND, India; Indo,Indochina; Ir, Iran; Kaz, Kazakhstan; NCB, North China craton; SCB, South China craton; Sib, Siberia; SMG, Southern Mongolia–Gobi; ST, Shan-Thai; TB, Tarim craton. Lines with barbsindicate main subduction zones and their polarities of subduction.Adapted from Enkin et al. (1992), Torsvik and Cocks (2004), Torsvik (2003), Natal'in and Şengör (2005), Cocks and Torsvik (2007), and Xiao et al. (2009c).



Asian Ocean, in so far as these important elements that are mostlyarcs, no matter what their size, should collide in a multiple amal-gamation manner illustrated in Fig. 12.

In a long history of convergence, the earlier formed scenario wouldbe overprinted by similar new structure, for instance, the WesternJunggar arc would have been curved or rotated resulting fromconvergence between the Southern Siberian active margin, heresimply represented by Altay, and the Central Tien Shan as well as theTarim craton after the Kazakhstan orocline was initially formed(Fig. 12B). High-pressure rocks including granulites (Altay, Li et al.,2004; Chen et al., 2006), granulites and blueschists (Central Tien Shan,Gao et al., 1994; Liu and Qian, 2003; Zhou et al., 2004a; Li and Zhang,2004), and coesite-bearing UHP rocks together with some blueschistsand eclogites (Southern Tien Shan, Gao et al., 1995; 1999; Gao andKlemd, 2001; Klemd et al., 2005; Zhang et al., 2007; Lü et al., 2008) canbe formed at the contact points or belts as a result of vertical and/ororthogonal interactions (Fig. 12). Although the details of the Altaidsneed to be further studied, this provides a general framework inwhichthe available data and observations can be satisfactorily explained.Currently one important controversy is the age of the UHP/HP rocks inthe SW Tien Shan, which has been variously proposed as the lateCarboniferous, Permian, or Triassic (Gao et al., 1995; 1999; Gao andKlemd, 2001; Klemd et al., 2005; Zhang et al., 2007; Lü et al., 2008).This issue has been discussed in recent publications, and the mainargument is that UHP/HP rocks of accretionary complexes, which datethe subduction and exhumation of an oceanic plate, can be of differentages and generally become younger trenchward in accretionaryorogens like the Japanese Islands (Isozaki et al., 1990; Maruyama,1997; Okamoto et al., 2000; Xiao et al., in press). Therefore theyoungest UHP/HP metamorphism could have been the last record ofsubduction of an oceanic plate, and we argue here that only theyoungest ages of these UHP/HP rocks in the SW Tien Shan can possiblygive a solid constraint on the termination of accretionary orogenesis.

Multiple amalgamation or interactions are not uncommon inaccretionary orogens. The Japan–Philippine arc amalgamation system

in the western Pacific offers a modern analogue for multiple verticalinteractions where Cenozoic subduction of the Philippine Sea platetogether with the Izu–Bonin–Mariana Arc is taking place beneath theSW Japanese Arc (Kimura et al., 2005; Maruyama, 1997; Taira, 2001;Taira et al., 1992; Santosh et al., 2009b; Arai et al., 2008). Oroclines onlyoccur locally in the western Pacific, whereas in the Altaids large-scaleoroclines developed. The multiple amalgamations of Altaids can bewell explained, for instance, by the vertical to orthogonal amalgam-ation of the modern Japan–Philippine arc systems in the westernPacific. It should be noted that there were different subductionsystems in the western Pacific, i.e., the Philippine plate in southwest-ern Japan, and the Pacific plate in northeastern Japan, which is slightlydifferent from the Altaids. However, it has been found that multiplesubductions existed in the Altaids, which were previously thought tobelong to a single subduction system.

In fact the interactions between a mid-ocean ridge and a trenchincluding a transform fault boundaries can be all put into the cate-gories of vertical and orthogonal interactions defined here in thispaper (Kusky et al., 2003; Bradley et al., 2003; Cole and Stewart, 2009).A good example is the interaction of triple junctions with the NorthAmerican continental margin beneath which the oceanic ridge-transform fault systems including the East-Pacific Rise were obliquelysubducted (Tagami and Hasebe, 1999; McClelland et al., 1992; Cordeyand Schiarizza, 1993; Vaughan et al., 2001; Johnston and Acton, 2003;Nokleberg et al., 2005; Farris and Paterson, 2009).

Some researchers proposed that vertical collision could have takenplace during closure of the Mongol Okhotsk Ocean. For example, Zorinet al. (1993)proposed that the formationof the curved Tuva–Mongolianblock was due to collision in the late Proterozoic followed by oroclinalbending from the Devonian to early Mesozoic (Zorin et al., 1993; 2007;Lamb and Badarch, 1997; Kelty et al., 2008). Another good example ofmultiple linear element amalgamation in ancient accretionary orogensis the 90–70 Ma development of the Caribbean island–arc wherecollision of the Cuban forearc took placewith the Caribbean–Colombianoceanic plateau, together with the proto-Caribbean ridge and finally

Fig. 12. Diagrams of multiple vertical interactions and their variants. K; Kazakhstan orocline including Kokchetav–North Tien Shan and Chingiz arcs. HP: high-pressure rocks; UHP:ultrahigh-pressure rocks. Note that there are granulites in the Altay (Li et al., 2004; Chen et al., 2006), granulites and blueschists in the Central Tien Shan (Gao et al., 1994; Liu andQian, 2003; Zhou et al., 2004a), while along the southern end of the Kazakhstan orocline (K) there are coesite-bearing UHP rocks together with some blueschists and eclogites (Gaoet al., 1995; 1999; Gao and Klemd, 2001; Klemd et al., 2005; Zhang et al., 2007; Lü et al., 2008).Inspired and adapted from Johnston (2004), Van der Voo (2004), Xiao et al. (2006), Xiao et al. (2008), and Abrajevitch et al. (2008).



with theYucatán continental fragment (Draper et al., 1984; Pindell et al.,2005; Viruete et al., 2008).

The basic architecture of accretionary orogens can be understoodby the anatomy of multiple linear element amalgamation. This canprovide a reasonable explanation of some basic features of accretion-ary orogens: (a) large, wide and plateau-shaped, composed of a seriesof accretionary complexes including oceanic plateau seamounts andother plume-related ridges (Chang et al., 1989; Şengör, 1987; Şengöret al., 1993; Ichiyama et al., 2008; Safonova et al., 2009); (b) long-livedjuvenile material (arc–arc collision) (Alvarez et al., 2000; Brown et al.,2001; Konstantinovskaia, 2001; Metcalfe, 2000; Jahn et al., 2000;2004; Wu et al., 2000; 2002; Kröner et al., 2007); (c) many arcs andvarious other terranes (Archipelago); and (d) curved linear compo-nents including various types of arcs and minor microcontinents(orocline) (Carey, 1955; Şengör et al., 1993; Glen, 2004; Levashovaet al., 2003; Johnston, 2004; Van der Voo, 2004).

6.3. Significance for continental growth

Continental growth has long been the topic of accretionary oro-genesis and was previously regarded as a lateral attachment of arcs,oceanic plateaux and seamounts and vertical addition of juvenilematerial from the mantle (Kusky and Polat, 1999; Yakubchuk et al.,2001; Goldfarb et al., 2003; Seltmann et al., 2003; Han et al., 2006;Kerrich and Polat, 2006; Stern, 2008; Zhang et al., 2009a; Polat et al.,2009; Saraiva dos Santos et al., 2009; Bahlburg et al., 2009). Mostmodels are two-dimensional and conceptual, in which only the shortaxis of the components has been considered. Moreover, parallelattachment is the major means of growth. However, multiple linearcomponents that were amalgamated by vertical, orthogonal, andparallel to orthogonal interactions would generate considerably morecontinental growth than previously thought parallel collision of arcs.

Concerning the aspect of lateral growth, although the absolutebending of a linear component would not considerably enlarge thearea generated by parallel attachment of a single linear component,the complicated interactions of the linear component would, in theirvarious degrees of oroclinal bending, entrap more areas of oceanicbasins, sometimes five or ten times of the original area of the linearcomponent. Multiple linear component amalgamation would signif-icantly enlarge the chance to entrap more ocean basins, which wouldgradually become part of an enlarged continent, in this case theSiberian continent, thus giving rise to considerablymore growth. Someof these oceanic basins might have existed for a relatively long time asa remnant ocean if conditions were favourable as with part of theJunggar Basin. Moreover, smaller components such as seamounts andmicrocontinents, which are usually subducted beneath a continentalmargin along which no orocline of a linear component has developed,could sometimes be kept along a continental margin avoiding thesubduction fate as it would be protected by the nearby oroclines. Thiswould also generate a greater lateral enlargement of the continent.Even if some of these trapped oceanic basins collapsed and eventuallyare subducted beneath the surrounding arcs, more accretionarycomplexes and arc-related basins would be generated.

Concerning the aspect of vertical growth, due to local stress par-titioning, more extension would occur and more backarc and forearcbasins would form where more mantle material could upwell along aspreading ridge. This again would generate more juvenile materialalong a subduction zone when these backarc basins turn into forearcsubduction when they collapse. As more ocean basins (either backarcor forearc) form, more ridge–trench–ridge interactions would easilyoccur and more mantle material would be added to the crust thoughspreading-ridge subduction, for example, in East and West Junggar(Geng et al., 2009; Yin et al., 2010; Liu et al., 2009; Liu et al., 2007; Shenet al., 2009) and the Chinese Altai (Zhao et al., 2006; 2009b;Windley etal., 2007; Sun et al., 2009; Long et al., 2010), thus generating muchmore continental growth. The growth difference between the vertical

interaction of the Kazakhstan orocline and the parallel interaction ofthe eastern Tien Shan in thewestern part of the Altaids (Fig. 12)wouldhave generated several 1000 km-scale strike-slip faults and consider-able rotation along the main boundary faults. Therefore moretranstensional basins and even oceanic basins would have formedwhere more mantle material could be added.

All these geodynamic processes would give rise tomore lateral andvertical continental growth. More attention should be paid to themultiple linear element amalgamation in ancient accretionary oro-gens, which will shed light on lateral and vertical continental growth.

Acknowledgements

B.F.Windley, T. Kusky, A. Kröner,M. Allen,M. Sun, C. Yuan, G.C. Zhao,H.L. Chen, V.S. Burtman, R. Goldfarb, D.V. Alexeiev, R. Seltmann, and H.R.Wu are acknowledged for collaboration and discussions. Post-docassociates and PhD students participated in the field work; in particularJ.F. Qu, Q.G. Mao, J.E. Zhang, S.J. Ao, X.P. Long, K.D. Cai, and K.Wong. Weappreciate critical comments from two reviewers, L.F. Zhang and A.Polat, and Editor-in-chief, M. Santosh. We also thank M. Bazhenov, B.F.Windley, and T. Kusky for their critical reading of various versions of themanuscript. This study was financially supported by funds from theMajor State Basic Research Development Program of China(2007CB411307), the Innovative Program of the Chinese Academy ofSciences (KZCX2-YW-Q04-08), and the National Natural ScienceFoundation of China (40725009, 40525013, 40221402, 40523003).Contribution to ILP (Topo-Central Asia, and ERAs) and IGCP 480 project.

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Wenjiao Xiao, Professor of tectonics and structural geologyat the Institute of Geology andGeophysics, Chinese Academyof Sciences (CAS), received his BSc (1989) from ChangchunCollege of Geology (now merged into Jilin University), MSc(1992) from the China University of Geosciences (Beijing),and PhD (1995) from the Institute of Geology, CAS. Hefinished his post-doc research at the Institute of Geophysics,CAS, in 1997. Afterward hemoved to the Institute of Geology(now Institute of Geology and Geophysics), CAS. His primaryresearch interests focus on tectonics and structural geology,accretionary tectonics of theAltaids, and comparative studiesacross Phanerozoic orogenic belts. He has published anumber of papers in international journals.

Baochun Huang, Professor of geophysics at the Institute ofGeology and Geophysics, Chinese Academy of Sciences(CAS), received a BA (1988) and MA (1991) in appliedgeophysics from the China University of Geosciences, and aPhD (1994) in solid geophysics from the Institute ofGeophysics, CAS, at Beijing. He has been at the Institute ofGeophysics (now Institute of Geology and Geophysics), CAS,since 1994. His primary research interests concern paleo-magnetism, magnetostratigraphy, and rock magnetismapplied to tectonics of China mainland and surroundings.He has published a number of papers in internationaljournals.

Chunming Han, Associate Professor at the institute ofGeology and Geophysics, Chinese Academy of Sciences(CAS), received hisMSc (1996) from the College of XinjiangEngineering and PhD (2002) from the China University ofGeosciences (Beijing). His major research fields are geo-chemistry of economic geology, geodynamics of miner-alization in the Central Asian Orogenic Belt. He haspublished a number of papers in international journals.

Shu Sun, Professor at the Institute of Geology and Geophy-sics, Chinese Academy of Sciences (CAS), graduated fromNanjing University in 1953. Afterward he worked at theInstitute of Geology (now Institute of Geology and Geophy-sics), CAS. His research interests are mainly on sedimentol-ogy, tectonics, and geological evolution of orogenic belts. Hehas published a number of papers in international journals.

Jiliang Li, Professor at the Institute of Geology andGeophysics, Chinese Academy of Sciences (CAS), gradu-ated from Nanjing University in 1962. Afterward heworked at the Institute of Geology (now Institute ofGeology and Geophysics), CAS. His research interestsinclude sedimentology, petroleum geology, Precambriangeology and tectonics. He has published a number ofpapers in international journals.


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