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THE EFFECT OF AN OUTDOOR ADVENTURE PROGRAM ON THE
SELF-ESTEEM OF MALAYSIAN YOUNG ADULTS
A Thesis
Presented in Partial Fulfillment of the Requirements for the
Degree of Master of Science
with a
Major in Recreation
in the
College of Graduate Studies
University of Idaho
by
Mohd Asmadzy Ahmad Basra
November 19, 2009
Major Professor: Sharon Kay Stoll, Ph.D.
ii
AUTHORIZATION TO SUBMIT THESIS
This thesis of Mohd Asmadzy Ahmad Basra, submitted for the degree Master of
Science with a major in Recreation and titled "The Effect of an Outdoor Adventure
Program on Self Esteem on Malaysian Young Adults" has been reviewed in final form.
Permission, as indicated by the signatures and dates given below, is now granted to
submit final copies to the College of Graduate Studies for approval.
Major Professor ______________________________Date______________Sharon Kay Stoll, Ph.D.
CommitteeMembers ______________________________Date______________
Michael Kinziger, Ph.D.
______________________________Date______________Jennifer M. Beller, Ph.D.
DepartmentAdministrator ______________________________Date______________
Kathy Browder, Ph.D.
Discipline’sCollege Dean ______________________________Date______________
Jerry McMurtry, Ph.D.
Final Approval and Acceptance by the College of Graduate Studies
______________________________Date______________Margrit von Braun
iii
ABSTRACT
The purpose of this pre-experimental study is to examine the effects of an outdoor
adventure program on self-esteem of Malaysian young adults enrolled in a 5-day outdoor
adventure program organized by Kelab Rekreasi Sikamat (KRS) during the summer of
2009. The population used for the intervention group consisted of 161 participants
comprising of 18-21 year old young adults and the control group consisted of 80 young
adults who did not attend the program. Each group was given a pre and post-test using
the Rosenberg Self-Esteem Scale (SES). This study found a significant difference with
interaction of group by time Malaysian young adult’s self-esteem by using the Rosenberg
F(1,237) = 189.424, p=.001, partial eta2 = .444, but did not find a difference with the
interaction of gender by time F (1,237) = 3.505, p = .062, or group by gender by time
F(1,237) = .07, p = .792.
iv
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
The completion of my thesis is an enormously special experience in my life. The
overall experience was full of challenges, difficulties and excitement. I would like to take
the opportunity to give my sincere gratitude to the people who assisted me in
accomplishing this thesis.
Dr. Sharon Kay Stoll, my major professor and committee chair, she is really an
excellent advisor. I would like to give the extreme gratitude to her. Since his patience,
support and encouragement, I was able to complete the master program.
I also give the special thanks to Cik Hjh. Amrizah for sharing her time gathering the
data. In addition, I received exceptional support throughout my master program and work
on the thesis from an excellent committee. Each member, Dr. Michael Kinziger and Dr.
Jennifer M. Beller (Washington State University) have my deepest respect and gratitude.
My greatest gratitude and appreciation goes to my parents, Mr. Ahmad Basra and
Mrs. Juridah Bidin, for their love and support throughout my life and in this important
period of my professional career. Without their support and encouragement, I would not
been completed the master program.
Finally, I would also like to appreciate my family. My wife, Siti Norhaya Hamzah,
without her love, carefulness, and patience caring for my children, I would not been
completely absorbed in this master program. The other two adored and loved members of
my family, Aqid and Aniq, played their role by continually reminding me "Dad get up"
and "Dad eat dinner". They are my favorites and gave me the best emotional and mental
support in the process of my master degree.
v
TABLE OF CONTENTS
AUTHORIZATION TO SUBMIT THESIS.........................................................................ii
abstract.................................................................................................................................iii
Acknowledgements..............................................................................................................iv
TABLE OF Contents.............................................................................................................v
LIST OF TABLES.............................................................................................................viii
LIST OF FIGURES.............................................................................................................ix
Chapter One..........................................................................................................................1
The Problem: Outdoor Adventure Program...............................................................1
Introduction......................................................................................................................1
Problem Statement............................................................................................................6
Hypotheses.......................................................................................................................7
Assumptions.....................................................................................................................7
Delimitations....................................................................................................................8
Limitations........................................................................................................................8
Definition of Terms..........................................................................................................8
Need for the Study............................................................................................................8
Chapter Two........................................................................................................................10
Review of Literature.................................................................................................10
Outdoor Adventure Program..........................................................................................10
The Kelab Rekreasi Sikamat (KRS)...............................................................................17
vi
Self-Esteem.....................................................................................................................18
Summary.........................................................................................................................20
Chapter Three......................................................................................................................23
Methodology.............................................................................................................23
The Research Plan....................................................................................................23
Procedures......................................................................................................................25
Participants.....................................................................................................................25
Protecting Participants....................................................................................................26
Instrumentation...............................................................................................................26
Design and Analysis.......................................................................................................27
CHAPTER FOUR...............................................................................................................29
Result of Testing Hypotheses.........................................................................................29
Discussion of findings....................................................................................................36
CHAPTER FIVE.................................................................................................................41
Summary, conclusion, and recommendations..........................................................41
ReferenceS..........................................................................................................................45
APPENDIX A.....................................................................................................................53
Demographic Survey Questions...............................................................................53
APPENDIX B.....................................................................................................................55
Rosenberg Self-Esteem Scale...................................................................................55
APPENDIX C.....................................................................................................................56
vii
Letter of consent form for research subject..............................................................56
Survey on Malaysian young adults’ self-esteem............................................................56
APPENDIX D.....................................................................................................................58
Individual assent form..............................................................................................58
APPENDIX E......................................................................................................................59
IRB form...................................................................................................................59
APPENDIX F......................................................................................................................60
viii
LIST OF TABLES
Table 1.................................................................................................................................30
Multivariate tests scores for self-esteem...................................................................30
Table 2.................................................................................................................................31
Group by Time..........................................................................................................31
Table 3.................................................................................................................................33
Tests of within-subjects contrasts.............................................................................33
Table 4.................................................................................................................................35
Descriptive statistic: Mean scores for self-esteem for Group X Gender X Time.....35
ix
LIST OF FIGURES
Figure 1. Profile Plot Graph 1............................................................................................36
Figure 2 . Profile Plot Graphs............................................................................................37
1
CHAPTER ONE
The Problem: Outdoor Adventure Program
Introduction
Outdoor adventure programs are one of the fastest growing areas in Malaysian
society. Due to their high popularity in the younger age group (18-21 years), outdoor
adventure programs are set to expand rapidly in the next decade. Outdoor adventure
activities take place in natural environments, require physical effort, and involve an
element of excitement or risk (Priest, 1999a). Adventure recreation activities continue to
grow in popularity, variety of experiences, opportunities, and technological innovations.
Moreover a great diversity now exists in the types of programs and organizations that
offer adventure recreation, including government, for-profit, not-for-profit, NGOs, and
similar organizations in Malaysia. Outdoor adventure can be defined as an endeavor that
takes place in a natural outdoor setting with activities that are emotionally and physically
challenging and utilizes apparent or real risk situations. The outcome, while often
uncertain, can be influenced by the actions of the participant and circumstances (Trotter,
1989).
There are larger cultural and societal issues that have a direct impact on female
inclusion and participation in wilderness activities in Malaysia. In the early days of
outdoor experiential programs, it was usually assumed that males and females
experienced and interpreted wilderness-based outdoor experiential activities similarly.
Since then, researchers and practitioners have learned that this is not always the case.
Many of the discussions on the role of gender in outdoor activities have focused on the
2
experiences of women and girls. For example, a recent debate on "gender-specific
programs" was entirely devoted to women's-only programs (Henderson, 1999; Lynch,
1999). Feminism has provided an important corrective by making female experiences
more visible and by working to erase male-female imbalances (Delay & Dyment, 2003).
Nevertheless, the experiences of men and boys also need to receive attention (Connell,
1995; Raspberry, 1991; Shaw, 1999). Gender is arguably the most ubiquitous individual
difference; thus it attracts considerable attention. The relationship between gender and
outdoor education has many interesting aspects and implications, and not surprisingly
attracts a range of passionate beliefs and thoughts, ranging from radical feminist to
moderate to radical male rights points of view (Neill, 1997). Although a comprehensive
understanding of the impact that gender differences have in outdoor education has yet to
be developed, this study is a stepping stone to a larger comparative study on adventure
programming in Malaysia. In the light of studies on gender differences, outdoor educators
can make appropriate adjustments to their programs. However, making these appropriate
adjustments still represents a formidable challenge.
In general, the goals of outdoor adventure programs are fun, enjoyment, and
recreation. However, program organizers identify skill development and moral growth as
secondary goals. Through the vehicle of recreation, different types of skill development
can occur. For example, participants can learn to become more socially comfortable.
They may also learn to be less inhibited and become more open in trying new things and
taking risks. In adventure programs, participants may also be exposed to different types
of people, different ways of responding, and alternative ways of thinking. Sometimes
through these experiences, moral and character development can also occur (Miles &
3
Priest, 1999).
Outdoor adventure programs teach young people to make good life choices. These
activities involve a wide variety of settings, new skills, and interactions with other
individuals or groups. Many outdoor educators, adventure therapists, and psychologists
generally agree that outdoor adventure programs can improve a participant’s self-esteem.
Self-esteem refers to general feelings of self-worth or self-value. Therefore, self-esteem
becomes a concern due to the effect that self-esteem has on one’s levels of achievement,
the ability to adjust to the demands of the environment and achieving a general state of
well being (Luckner, 1987). Contemporary research has indicated that outdoor adventure
programs can have a significant positive effect on enhancing the self-esteem of the
participants. Because outdoor adventure programs appear to be powerful tools in creating
change, it is imperative to further understand the mediating variables related to that
change in participants. This understanding will aid in planning and leading safe and
effective outdoor experiences. In addition, a clearer understanding of the mediating
variables during outdoor adventure programs may allow for generalization beyond the
outdoor setting to other recreation environments such as therapeutic recreation and
extreme sports.
There are at least four main factors that contribute to the uniqueness of Malaysian’s
outdoor education practices: 1) geographical factors; 2) the national service concept in
the educational system; 3) the introduction of outdoor education in the new health and
physical education curriculum; and 4) traditional Malaysian values. Malaysia is a
beautiful country, with many mountains, lakes, rivers, and beaches. Most of these places
are easily accessible, located within a few kilometers from the cities or even adjacent to
4
residential areas. This geographical access has encouraged many Malaysian to get
involve in outdoor activities for recreational and educational purposes.
World economies have been growing rapidly which results in an increased demand
for talent. Education is one of the most important issues faced by many countries around
the world. Malaysia’s government has noticed that improving the education industry is
necessary to strengthen the country’s economy. In order to foster talent for improving the
country and to counter racial polarization, the Malaysian government has created the
National Service as a tool to bond the youth of Malaysia together and create a Malaysian
identity.
Through four different modules: 1) Physical module (e.g. marching, hand to hand
combat, obstacle course, canoeing); 2) Nation building module (e.g. nation’s history,
sovereignty and dignity, Malaysia international affairs); 3) Character building module
(e.g. self-confidence, leadership and self-evaluation); and 4) Community service module
(e.g. social service, building and restoring public amenities, environmental restoring and
protection) the national service program is expected to produce an active, intelligent and
confident generation and develop positive characteristics among the younger generation
through good values (Muzlim, 2004).
The Scout and Girl Guides Association Malaysia was one of the first organizations to
introduce outdoor education in Malaysia. However, in the beginning the associations
were only Non Government Organizations (NGOs) whose participants were volunteer
members. In the 1960’s, Ilmu Khas Teaching College offered physical education
programs to trainee teachers and in the late 1970’s, an outdoor education course was
established in University Putra Malaysia (UPM), when Physical and Health Education
5
Programs were introduced at the Faculty of Education Studies (Abdul Alwi, 1992). Only
in the 1990’s was outdoor education finally introduced in the physical education syllabi
and has since been accepted in the educational system in Malaysia. Consequently, the
Ministry of Education has introduced sports science and testing for high school students
due to the realization of how important outdoor activities are to the educational system.
Recreation programs appeal to large segments of youth and offer youth service
providers a way to positively influence pro-social behavior (Witt & Crompton, 1997).
While not all recreation programs meet youths' need for excitement, challenge, and
stimulation, (Pawelko & Magafas, 1997), outdoor adventure programs may (Schoel,
Prouty, & Radcliffe, 1988). Many outdoor adventure programs incorporate the concept of
experiential education, which suggests that "people learn best by direct and purposeful
contact with their learning experiences" (Priest & Gass, 1997, p. 17). Research suggests
that when outdoor adventure programs are coupled with experiential learning, negative
youth behavior may be reduced in at least one of three ways: 1) increasing participants'
feelings of positive self-perception (Hazelworth & Wilson, 1990; McDonald & Howe,
1989; Schoel, Prouty, & Radcliffe, 1988), 2) providing ways that adolescents can gain
knowledge, skills, and abilities (Schoel, Prouty, & Radcliffe, 1988; Ringer, 1994), or 3)
increasing adolescents' understanding and knowledge of a positive peer culture and their
ability to develop positive peer relationships and social skills (Hazelworth & Wilson,
1990; Huskins, 1991).
Because research suggests that benefits associated with youths' outdoor adventure
participation might be linked to increases in some affective component of the self
(Blascovich & Tomaka, 1991; Klint, 1990 Langsner & Anderson, 1987; Schoel, et al.,
6
1988), outdoor adventure program evaluation studies often focus on self-esteem
constructs. Although the programs and the objectives of the outdoor recreation in the
United States and Malaysia are similar, how the organizations execute the outdoor
programs in Malaysia are different. This is due to Malaysia’s unique natural environment,
cultural diversity, religions, ethnicities, and way of life.
Problem Statement
Problem Statement: The purpose of this pre-experimental study is to examine the effects
of an outdoor adventure program on the self-esteem of Malaysian young adults enrolled
in a 5-day outdoor adventure program organized by Kelab Rekreasi Sikamat (KRS)
during the summer of 2009.
Sub Problems:
Research Sub Problems
1. What is an outdoor adventure program?
2. What is the history of outdoor adventure programs, and how do they relate to outdoor
adventure programs in Malaysia today?
3. What is the Kelab Rekreasi Sikamat (KRS)?
4. What is self-esteem?
5. What is the Rosenberg Self-Esteem Scale (SES)?
6. What values can young adults obtain from outdoor adventure activities?
7. How do outdoor adventure activities contribute to a young adult's development?
8. What constitutes an effective outdoor adventure program?
9. How may the quality of young adults’ experiences be improved?
10. What are the tools for effective self-esteem evaluation?
7
Statistical Sub Problems
1. What effect does an outdoor adventure program with the interaction of group by time
(pre to posttest) have on Malaysian young adult self-esteem according to Rosenberg
SES?
2. What effect does an outdoor adventure program with the interaction of gender by
time (pre to posttest) have on Malaysian young adult self-esteem according to
Rosenberg SES?
3. What effect does an outdoor adventure program with the interaction of group and
gender by time (pre to posttest) have on Malaysian young adult self-esteem according
to Rosenberg SES?
Hypotheses
H1: There will be no effect with the interaction of group by time (pre to posttest) of
an outdoor adventure program on self-esteem of Malaysian young adults when using the
Rosenberg Self-Esteem Scale (SES).
H2: There will be no effect with the interaction of gender by time (pre to posttest) of
an outdoor adventure program on self-esteem of Malaysian young adults when using the
Rosenberg SES.
H3: There will be no effect with the interaction of group by gender by time (pre to
posttest) of an outdoor adventure program on Malaysian young adult’s self-esteem when
using the Rosenberg SES.
Assumptions
The following assumptions apply to this study:
1. The subjects have the ability to respond accurately to the questions included on the
8
form.
2. Subjects’ responses were their own responses and were not influenced by
others.
3. The Rosenberg SES is a valid and reliable tool for measuring self-esteem.
Delimitations
1. This study was conducted using the Rosenberg Self-Esteem Scale (SES).
2. A pre and post test methodology was utilized.
Limitations
1. The populations of the intervention group for this study are limited to the participants
of the KRS outdoor adventure program.
2. Participants may answer questions in a preconceived manner. To offset
this phenomenon, the participants were cautioned to answer with honesty.
3. With the use of identical pre and post tests, participants may “second
guess” the post test from prior experience therefore possibly affecting internal
validity.
Definition of Terms
The following terms will be used and defined within the context of this study.
Outdoor adventure program: The experiential program which involves an activity
encountering risk, hazards or bold undertaking, in which hazards are to be met and the
results depend upon unforeseen events.
Self-esteem: The general feeling of self-worth or self-value.
9
Need for the Study
Although outdoor education or programs have become firmly established in many
school curriculums in Malaysia, it remains unclear what this has achieved. Outdoor
recreation programs appeal to large segments of the youth population and offer youth
service providers a way to positively influence pro-social behavior (Witt & Crompton,
1997). Many outdoor adventure programs incorporate the concept of experiential
education suggesting that “people learn the best by direct and purposeful contact with
their learning experience” (Priest & Gass, 1997). Research implies long-term support or
reinforcement of values learned in an outdoor adventure programs can lead to decreasing
negative behaviors in at-risk youth. Therefore, the purpose of this pre-experimental study
is to examine the effect of an outdoor adventure program on the self-esteem of Malaysian
young adults.
The outdoor adventure program in Malaysia was developed to provide youth with
skills and knowledge to effectively address the numerous issues they experience (safety
and judgment, leadership and teamwork, outdoor skills, and environmental attitudes),
while also assisting with their continued progress once they return to their community by
linking them and their families with community support and services. This research is
consistent in supporting Malaysia’s national development aspirations through the
National Service Training Program, or Program Latihan Khidmat Negara (PLKN),
started in 2004 which was designed to help achieve a national identity, or Bangsa
Malaysia. It is assumed that the community at large benefits from the program by
developing youth who are better equipped to become productive members of society. The
youth will also have the skills and support to allow them to become more marketable for
10
employment. The success of the program is assumed to be directly correlated to having
safer neighborhoods once the youth return home and again become members of the
community because these types of programs increase pro-social behavior.
11
CHAPTER TWO
Review of Literature
The purpose of this pre-experimental study is to examine the effect of an outdoor
adventure program on self-esteem of Malaysian young adults. This review of literature
centers on studies and related literature pertaining to outdoor adventure and self-esteem.
Outdoor Adventure Program
Outdoor adventure can be defined as an endeavor that takes place in a natural outdoor
setting with activities that are emotionally and physically challenging and utilize apparent
or real risk situations. The outcome, while often uncertain, can be influenced by the
actions of the participant and circumstances (Ewert, 1985a). In addition, some specific
objectives of these activities include: increasing awareness of one's self, others, and the
environment, providing opportunities to effect positive changes in locus-of-control and
self-efficacy, and to develop empathetic, compassionate individuals (Trotter, 1989; Robb,
et al., 1987). It is commonly claimed that outdoor adventure programs produce positive
changes in participants by exposing them to adventure activities designed to encourage
self-discovery and character building.
When adventure is used as a method of achieving the objectives of a particular
program, the terms “adventure-based programming” or “challenge program” are used.
Similarly, if outdoor adventure is a primary tool in an educational context, the terms
“outdoor adventure education” or “adventure-based teaching” are used. Outdoor
adventure includes, but is not limited to, rock climbing, mountaineering, white-water
canoeing, backpacking, caving, and scuba diving, and has become an important
12
component in a growing number of recreational, educational, and commercial
organizations (Darst & Armstrong, 1980; Ewert, 1985b).
Many outdoor adventure programs incorporate the concept of experiential education,
which suggests that "people learn best by direct and purposeful contact with their learning
experiences" (Priest & Gass, 1997). Research suggests that when outdoor adventure
programs are coupled with experiential learning, negative youth behavior may be reduced
in at least one of three ways: 1) increasing participants' feelings of positive self-perception
(Hazelworth & Wilson, 1990; McDonald & Howe, 1989; Schoel, Prouty, & Radcliffe,
1988), 2) providing ways that adolescents can gain knowledge, skills, and abilities
(Schoel, Prouty, & Radcliffe, 1988; Ringer, 1994), or 3) increasing adolescents'
understanding and knowledge of a positive peer culture and their ability to develop
positive peer relationships and social skills (Hazelworth & Wilson, 1990; Huskins, 1991).
Research suggests that benefits associated with youths' outdoor adventure participation
might be linked to increases in some affective component of the self (Blascovich &
Tomaka, 1991; Klint, 1990 Langsner & Anderson, 1987; Schoel, et al., 1988). Therefore,
outdoor adventure program evaluation studies often focus on self-perception constructs.
However, all of this research is not completely applicable to Malaysia because of its
unique diversity, culture, religion, ethnicity, and way of life.
Research evidence shows that adventure-based programs are effective vehicles for
education (Ewert, 1983; Shore, 1977). As a result of conducting a review of literature
pertaining to effective learning in the traditional classroom setting, Riggins (1985)
identified several factors common to the adventure-based setting: 1) small learning group
size, 2) cooperative as opposed to a competitive learning environment, 3) communication
13
of high expectations for students, 4) building on student success, and 5) creating an
identifiable classroom culture reflecting positive, supportive values.
In considering the advantage of being part of an organized society, the unfulfilled
inner needs of the individual are often overlooked. As the emphasis has shifted from the
people to things, relationships suffer and creativity and self-expression has taken a
backseat to productivity. The growth of recreational participation is evidence that
Malaysians have recognized this dilemma and are willing to allow personalities to develop
and co-exist with vocation (Abidin, 1999). Outdoor adventure programming can provide
opportunities for personnel in several areas commonly neglected by our materialistic
society (Zook, 1987).
People in Malaysia are becoming more quality-conscious of their leisure time. This
means that individuals are turning from a quantity orientation (i.e., material goods) and
moving toward greater emphasis on quality concerns, such as selfimprovement or family
and community activities (Kelly, 1982). This movement away from material-based leisure
pursuits is reflected in statistics showing an increase in participation rates in outdoor
adventure activities.
Furthermore, in introducing the National Service or Program Latihan Khidmat
Negara (PLKN) in 2004 may have influenced the uniqueness of Malaysian’s outdoor
education. Since the PLKN has been formalized in Malaysia’s formal educational system
and has become part of compulsory military service, it has further facilitated widespread
outdoor education participation and will likely do so in the future.
Christy (1970) has suggested five elements which can have an impact on the
popularity of outdoor adventure activities: 1) the ease of participation in the activity, 2)
14
the image associated with the activity, 3) the ability to identify with the activity, 4) the
opportunities for demonstrating skills to others, and 5) a perception of the activity being a
legitimate use of leisure time.
A number of studies have shown strong effects related to same-gender tasks. Females
are shown to be less confident in physical activities when the tasks are viewed as
masculine (Lirgg, 1991). In solving social dilemmas, both males and females do better at
same gender problems (Erwin, Firth, & Purves, 2004) and sustaining focal attention, with
females outperforming males on some tasks (Warrick and Naglieri, 1993). Neill (1997)
examined outdoor education research studies which reported separate results for males
and females and found that substantially more studies showed that females experienced
more positive change than male participants. Neill (1997) speculated that perhaps outdoor
education programs are run in a 'male model' and that, paradoxically, it is developmentally
more beneficial for females to learn positive masculine qualities, than it is for males, who
may benefit more from outdoor education programs designed in a “female model,” to
learn more positive feminine qualities.
It has been reported that participants who participate in high risk activities have
parents that rewarded childhood risk-taking such as tree climbing, crossing streams alone,
and refusing to be bullied (Allen, 1987). In addition, having friends or respected peers
(including parents) who participate in risk recreation probably encourages one's own
involvement. Although their study did not investigate it, the researchers discussed a well
noted and recurring factor: those adventure program participants are, for the most part,
self-selecting and consequently may differ from their age group norms in many
dimensions (Ewert, 1983).
15
The challenge of being in a new atmosphere and facing different obstacles and
unfamiliar tasks can reawaken and reinvigorate inner abilities, such as creativity,
resourcefulness, and endurance. When people are pushed to and beyond what they think
their limits are, they respond and cope with the difficulty or challenge. This fosters self-
awareness and self-esteem. This is the basis of life-changing growth.
Being involved in an intense outdoor experience allows individuals to be themselves
because certain traits and idiosyncrasies rise to the surface more readily under stress.
Outdoor adventure programs are leveling experiences regardless of race, background, or
gender; the experiences are intense and generally new. Group success depends on trust
and communication. Small group living is a simple and direct social situation, which
provides the opportunity for the development of vital techniques of group interaction,
invaluable for those who have difficulty coping with complex social interaction. The
participant must rely on others and, in turn, have them rely on him or her, sometimes in
life and limb-threatening circumstances (Golins, 1978).
Wright (1983) designed an outdoor adventure program model consisting of
several components, two of which are critical components of a successful life. The
first component is the development of a self-empowered individual who feels good
about himself or herself and can take personal responsibility for behaviors and
personal goals. The second component, which should be a part of each outdoor
adventure program experience, is that the individual acquires a set of rational thinking
skills that can be applied to everyday problems.
Outdoor adventure programs offer excitement about simple things, pride about
survival abilities, uncertainty about the future, the capability to measure up against
16
unfamiliar situations, and the exhilaration that comes with effort. Supervised adventure
program activities in which participants are given a high degree of perceived risk and as
much responsibility as possible are effectively being used in the treatment of juvenile
delinquency (Kelly & Baer, 1968).
Why do people participate in outdoor adventure experiences? People are often
motivated to participate because their lives are too stressful, bland, predictable, and lack
excitement. Their everyday existence might also lack the intrinsic benefits which outdoor
adventure provides (Mitchell, 1983). Many become involved because they see other
people doing it or they hear other people discussing it. Many seek the fun and enjoyment
of being outdoors or in nature, while vigorous exercise and becoming physically fit
rewards others. Outdoor activities may lead to peace of mind, serenity, and tranquility.
The thrill of a difficult challenge met head on and overcome can also provide lasting
benefits. Many also want to learn new skills and gain further knowledge. There are those
who want to test themselves and to explore the unknown both in the inner self as well as
in the external world. People might seek to forge new friendships and improve
communication skills through group interactions. There are those who appreciate aesthetic
beauty such as a misty sunrise, a glimpse of wildlife drinking at a pond, or a breathtaking
timberline view. Others want to find out about their place in a world so proportionately
large (Miles, 1987).
Recently, several researchers have begun to question the widespread consensual
belief that simply by participating in adventure experiences, improved self-esteem,
personal growth and development will automatically occur. Priest and Baillie (1987)
explored the possibility that the stated outcomes of adventure programming could only be
17
achieved when the peak adventure state is reached. They describe this via a constructed
model of adventure education, suggesting that when the skill development of the
individual is matched with the appropriate level of challenge, then the outcome will be
maximized. If however the skill, or readiness level, of the participant is below the level of
the task being required of them, the participant may experience adverse outcomes and
misadventure. The physical form of misadventure may be falling from a rock face and
injuring oneself or being ejected from an overturned kayak in rough water. The
psychological equivalent however, may mean that the participant is confronted by an issue
or issues which may be emotionally painful or psychologically harmful for which the
participant does not or cannot adequately address with their current coping mechanisms.
In many adventure discussions there is little or no mention of the many psychological,
behavioral or emotional risks that may confront individuals during their experience in
adventure activities. The risks associated with personal disclosure, identifying and
confronting the perceptual fear of personal change and growth have traditionally not been
considered primary sources of adventure in many experiential programs. Recently
however, authors have begun to address and acknowledge these issues. It is from this
viewpoint that a wider understanding of the construct of risk and adventure has been
developed. Priest and Baillie (1987) succinctly captured the essence of the prevailing risk
paradigm when they wrote, “The adventure experience is a state of mind... An adventure
in time and place may be experienced by one individual, but not by another.” The purpose
of this study is to investigate whether participation in the Kelab Rekreasi Sikamat (KRS)
outdoor adventure program influence the self-esteem levels of Malaysian young adults.
18
The Kelab Rekreasi Sikamat (KRS)
According to Hj. Azman Kamaruddin, the Secretary of Kelab Rekreasi Sikamat
(KRS), the KRS is a non-governmental organization dedicated to addressing social ills
among teenagers and young adults. Established in the year 2002 and chaired by En.
Zulkifli Nordin, the KRS focuses on developing good character, facing challenges, and
creating meaningful human experiences by using outdoor adventure activities. Programs
are often designed to inspire self-esteem and confidence through the development of
group cohesion. The participants’ interest is greatly enhanced while individually
challenging participants to achieve their best (personal communication, May 3, 2009). He
also stated that the objectives of KRS are:
KRS objectives
1. To provide mentoring to young people by responsible adults, which gives many
participants positive role models that they may never have been exposed to.
2. To provide educational training programs that will give youth the tools essential for
facing today’s challenges in a positive and constructive manner.
3. To provide activities that help create alternatives to negative behaviors and teach
proper respect for themselves, others, and the environment through wilderness and
outdoor adventure program.
4. To provide counseling to young people and their families to promote healthy
relationships.
5. To provide crisis prevention services such as anger management, life skills, asset
development, and substance abuse education.
6. To utilize collaborating agencies to assure that vital needs can be meet.
19
Self-Esteem
Theoretically, self-esteem is directly assessed only by asking people how much they
like themselves. Robinson and Shaver (1973) defined self-esteem as liking and respecting
oneself. Different dimensions of self-esteem emerge when people are asked about
different aspects of themselves, report Hovland and Janis (1959), who define self-esteem
as the degree of correlation between an individual's ideal and actual concepts of him or
herself.
Anxiety is found to relate strongly to self-esteem, and behaviors such as assertiveness
or risk-taking might also be related to self-esteem, according to Robinson and Shaver
(1973). An internal locus of control is positively correlated not only with need satisfaction
but also with self-esteem (Walter & Marks, 1981). James (1890) pointed out the
importance of identifying what a person wishes to make of him or herself for
understanding what kinds of experiences will or will not enhance positive feelings about
him or herself.
Attitudes of interest to researchers in experiential education include attitudes toward
the self: self-concept, self-esteem, self-confidence, self-actualization, and physical self-
concept. These aspects have been studied in Outward Bound, Project Adventure, Urban
Bound, and other adventure education programs (Gibson, 1979; Kaplan, 1980). Increased
or improved self-esteem, self-concept, or self-image are expressed goals of experiential
education programs such as Outward Bound, Project Adventure, Outdoor Challenge,
Atlanta Self Image Support Team (Executive Adventure), Sterling College, National
Outdoor Leadership School, and Eagle’s Nest Camp.
Conrad and Hedin (1981) studied the impact of an experience-based education on
20
student participants in four major types of programs: a) volunteer service, b) career
internships, c) outdoor adventure, and d) community study/political action. They assessed
the impact of experiential education programs on psychological, social, and intellectual
development of secondary school students using five test instruments, two questionnaires,
and a pre and post-program for experimental and control groups. The findings of the study
were that experiential education programs had positively impacted the students'
psychological (self-esteem), social, and intellectual development, and that characteristics
of the experiences of the individual students were powerful predictors of growth.
Gibson (1979) reviewed 21 research reports on studies of the benefits of outdoor
programs, and concluded that all 21 suffered major or minor shortcomings as research. He
also reported that it is impossible to determine if the effects are due to specific group
activities, to the needs of the participants, or to the nature of the outdoor/wilderness
environment. The large number of studies that have found evidence of a statistically
significant impact, however, has led Gibson to conclude that the wilderness programs
“can and do result in positive change in the self-concepts, personalities, individual
behaviors, and social functioning of the program participants.” Other studies of Outward
Bound programs have researched self-concepts (Ewert, 1985a; McDonald, 1983), self-
esteem, and locus of control (Stremba, 1977).
Kaplan (1980), at six-month intervals, tested youth ages 15-17 in control and
treatment groups. The control groups' scores on pre-program and post-program measures
showed stable self-perceptions and interests. The treatment groups showed changes in:
1. greater sense of concern for other people,
2. more realistic outlook of one's own strengths and weaknesses,
21
3. greater self-sufficiency in use of time and talent, and
4. greater positive view of oneself.
Self-esteem is related to intentional change, as Tough (1982) discussed in the chapter
"Implications for Improving Professional Practice and Policy.” He presented seven
potential directions that he considered most significant to improving professional helpers’
impact in promoting beneficial and effective changes. The first one is to improve
individual competence in managing change.
The connections among self-esteem, experiential learning, outdoor programs, adult
education, and intentional changes are subtle. The common thread is that self-esteem may
be affected by some types of programs, and self-esteem may be a factor in the way people
make changes and choose educational and help resources. If some experiences contribute
to a more stable and positive self-esteem, and if positive self-esteem contributes to a
person’s confidence in managing change, adult educators and planners can work with this
information to use existing methods to generate new ideas for adult and continuing
education.
Summary
Many studies have been conducted in various outdoor educational settings (e.g.
classroom, residential camp, expedition), and in various age levels (e.g. primary students,
secondary students, adults) to examine the effect of outdoor programs on self-esteem.
Outdoor adventure activities take place in natural environments, require physical
effort, and involve an element of excitement or risk (Priest, 1999b). Canoeing, kayaking,
mountaineering, rock climbing, cycling, hiking, and camping are examples of outdoor
adventure activities. A characteristic of adventure activities is what Horwood (1999) calls
22
"energetic action.” Energetic action requires participants to stretch themselves and dig
deeply into their resources of strength and will. Outdoor adventure activities are most
often delivered by parks and recreation departments, community centers, YMCAs, and
private outfitters in the form of a trip or a course. Outdoor adventure provides many
challenges--physical, mental, and emotional--and these challenges often result in benefits
ranging from increased fitness levels to increased self-sufficiency, connection to others,
and mental clarity (Pohl, Borrie, & Patterson, 2000). Specifically, Pohl et al. believed that
while there is variation among participants and from one wilderness trip to another,
fundamental characteristics and benefits of wilderness recreation include escape from
norms, everyday demands, and distractions; challenge and survival, both physical and
mental; opportunities to learn new skills; recognition and awe of nature's beauty (feeling
connected); and solitude (time to focus, mental revitalization).
One topic that has been the focus of considerable amount of study is self-esteem.
Many studies revealed there are significant improvements in pre and post-measures of
self-esteem (e.g. Clifford & Clifford, 1967). There is enough evidence to suggest
adventure programming can lead to improved self perception.
Self-esteem is the extent to which one prizes, values, approves, or likes oneself. It is
widely assumed that levels of self-esteem are consistent over time within individuals.
Self-esteem is defined as much in terms of its measurement and correlation as it is in
terms of a well-developed theory. Self-esteem has been related to other variables such as
happiness and shyness; cognitive correlates such as self-serving attribution bias;
behavioral correlates such as task effort and persistence; and clinical correlates such as
depression and coping ability. Self-esteem is recognized as a basic personality
23
characteristic of positive and productive behavior. Young people who have a positive self-
esteem are more likely to be better students, have healthier friendships, and progress to
adulthood with a greater ability to overcome obstacles.
The Rosenberg Self-Esteem Scale (SES), developed by Rosenberg (1989), is a 10-
item self-reporting unidimensional scale designed to measure only perceptions of global
self-esteem. It measures the extent to which a person is generally satisfied with his or her
life, considers himself or herself worthy, holds a positive attitude toward himself or
herself, or alternatively feels dissatisfied. The SES is intended for use with children in
Grades 7 to 12 (ages 12-19). In designing the scale, Rosenberg took into consideration the
important practical constraints of ease of administration, economy of time, the ability to
rank individuals along a single continuum of global self-esteem, and face validity. The
SES can be administered either individually or in groups. Completion time is no longer
than ten minutes.
24
CHAPTER THREE
Methodology
The purpose of this pre-experimental study is to examine the effect of the Kelab
Rekreasi Sikamat (KRS) outdoor adventure program on self-esteem of Malaysian young
adults. In order to do so, the following measurement and intervention tools were utilized:
The Rosenberg Self-Esteem Scale will be used to assess whether outdoor adventure
activities increase self-esteem scores, provide a more realistic evaluation of one’s strengths
and weaknesses, and help build confidence that one can master difficult situations. The
final purpose of the study is to investigate the differences in the level of self-esteem by
examining the interaction of group and gender by time (pre to posttest).
The Research Plan
The population used for the intervention group consisted of 161 participants
comprising of 18-21 year old young adults who enrolled in the KRS outdoor adventure
program during the summer of 2009. The control group consisted of 80 young adults who
did not attend the KRS outdoor adventure program. All intervention group participants
were given information about this study at the beginning of the KRS outdoor adventure
program and were asked to read and sign the informed consent forms (Appendix C and
D).
The KRS outdoor adventure program consisted of a five-day field trip (May 25
through May 30, 2009) in Jelebu, Negeri Sembilan. The trip included activities such as
backpacking in inclement weather (rain, high temperature, and wind), bamboo rafting on
the Kenaboi river, backcountry hiking at elevations above 1,000 meters, repelling through
25
waterfalls, and overnight survival camping.
Participants arrived at the program site on Monday. They were then divided into four
groups followed by an ice breaking session to introduce everyone to their group members
and encourage team cohesion. The SES pre test was administrated at the end of the ice
breaking session. Then the administrator divided and distributed the carrying tents, stoves,
fuel, rations, and other necessary supplies to each group. After a short list check and
explanation about the rules for the trip, the participants departed, backpacking during the
late afternoon for about 8 miles ending at the camp site. The next day, the groups
participated in backcountry hiking on the Telapak Burok Mountain reaching an elevation
of 1193 meters, followed by repelling and rope activities at the Jeram Gading Waterfall on
day three, an overnight solo survival camp on day four, and finally bamboo rafting on the
Kenaboi River on day five.
Each participant was assigned specific chores and tasks throughout the week with a
typical routine at the camp site including camp chores such as setting up and taking down
tents, preparing meals and cleanup, and lead prayer. The participants also took part in
activities such as learning to use infra red binoculars, night hiking, basic survival courses,
social activities (e.g., scavenger hunt, campfire, skeet) and self-reflection. After final the
self-reflection session in day 5 the participants received the post test. When the
participants completed the post test, the program ended and everyone was dismissed. On
the same dates the pre and post tests were administered to the invention group, the pre and
post tests were also administered to the control group.
English is a second language in Malaysia and not all the participants could read and
write English sufficiently to take the SES test in English. Therefore, the survey questions
26
were translated into the Malaysian language and then retranslated literally back into
English to show any changes in meaning in the translation.
Procedures
A two-part survey instrument was used. The first asked demographic questions and
the second examined the participant’s self-esteem level.
Participants’ demographic inventory: Subjects were initially required to provide
demographic and background information including age, gender, ethnic origin, preferred
recreational activities, and previous experience in outdoor and environmental activities.
All of these variables are important as they influence environmental attitudes (Fishbein,
1967, Fishbein & Ajzen, 1975) and self-esteem. This information was also used to
establish a background profile of the students.
Participants
A total of 241 Malaysian young adults, ages 18-21, participated in this study. The
population used for the intervention group consisted of 161 participants (male=65,
female=96) who enrolled in the five day Kelab Rekreasi Sikamat (KRS) adventure
program during the summer of 2009. The control group consisted of 80 subjects
(male=27, female=53) who did not attend the KRS program. Two groups of young adults
were identified: subjects in the intervention group were chosen from a group of young
adults who enrolled in the Kelab Rekreasi Sikamat (KRS) outdoor adventure program, and
subjects in the control group, those not attending the course, were randomly chosen to
participate in the study from the schools and a teaching college in the state of Negeri
Sembilan in Malaysia.
27
Protecting Participants
All subjects were given a written explanation of the study and the option to
participate. Consent forms were given to the participants to fill out. All participant
information was kept securely locked in a file cabinet within an office which remained
locked when not occupied by office personnel. Trained and certified instructors taught the
outdoor adventure activities. The Human Assurances Committee at the University of
Idaho reviewed this project (Project Number 08-219) for significant risk to the human
subjects and gave approval (see Appendix E).
Instrumentation
Rosenberg Self-Esteem Scale (SES)
The Rosenberg (1989) Self-Esteem Scale (SES) is a 10-item self-report questionnaire
designed to measure a person’s self-esteem. It was created as part of a multi-questionnaire
battery, originally administered to 5,024 high school students in New York State. The
design of the SES is that of a survey. Each of the 10 items provides a
statement such as, “On the whole, I am satisfied with myself” and “I
feel I do not have much to be proud of.” Possible responses come in the
form of a 4-point Likert scale: strongly agree (SA), agree (A), disagree (D), and
strongly disagree (SD). Test takers respond by reading the given statement
and circling the response that best corresponds with their level of
agreement with the statement. The 10 items of the SES are listed in
Appendix B. Scoring the SES involves giving a numerical value to each
of the responses, then adding the values across the 10 items. Typically
these values are: strongly agree = 3, agree = 2, disagree = 1, and
28
strongly disagree = 0. Five of the items on the SES are negatively
worded (i.e. agreement implies lower self-esteem). These five items are
reverse scored. Therefore, final scores can range from 15 – 30, with
higher scores indicating higher self-esteem.
Cronbach alphas for the SES have been shown to range from .84 (Gudjonsson &
Sigurdsson, 2003) to .90 (Watson, Suls, & Haig, 2002). In addition, test-retest reliability
for the SES was also found to be high, ranging from .82 to .85 (Fleming & Courtney,
1984). Another attractive quality of the SES is its short length. Being only 10 items long,
the SES is not burdened with the problem of testing fatigue. Testing with the SES
typically requires ten minutes or less. Scoring and interpretation are also quickly
accomplished.
Design and Analysis
This study utilized a pre-experimental control group Pre-Test/Post-test design to
determine the effect with the interaction of group by time, interaction of gender by time,
and interaction of group by gender by time of an outdoor adventure program on the self-
esteem of Malaysian young adults. Pre and post participant surveys were conducted
on the first and last day of the program. Surveys were designed to
measure the level of self-esteem. Participants were instructed to complete the
survey silently and away from peers. They were told that the survey was not a test and the
most important thing was for them to respond honestly. There were 241 total pre and post
surveys completed. 161 (65=male, 96=female) by the intervention group and 80
(27=male, 53=female) by the control group.
Figure 1
29
Pre-experimental control group design
O1 X O2
O1 O2
The data was analyzed using descriptive statistics: measures of central tendency and
measures of variability, as well as inferential statistics. The data were also analyzed using
repeated measures Split Plot ANOVA procedures and multivariate tests. Alpha was set at
p<.05. For the purpose of this study, subjects of this study could not be randomly chosen
from one population group. Repeated measures Split Plot ANOVA were utilized to
determine the interaction within-group and within-gender differences by time between pre
test and post test scores on both groups..
30
CHAPTER FOUR
Results
The purpose of this pre-experimental study is to determine whether differences exist in
self-esteem by examining the interaction of group by time (pre to post-test), the interaction
of gender by time (pre to post-test), and the interaction of group by gender by time (pre to
post-test) of Malaysian young adults who enrolled in the 5-day Kelab Rekreasi Sikamat
(KRS) outdoor adventure program.
Statistical Inference was used to analyze the personal demographic characteristics
data. Analysis was performed at the University of Idaho using the SPSS 17 program.
Analysis of variance and multivariate tests scores was conducted on H1, H2, and H3.
Result of Testing Hypotheses
This section contains the presentation of the findings dealing with the hypotheses of
this study. Discussion will focus on the statistical tests used, the results of these tests, and
the interpretation of the findings. Hypotheses were tested in the null form.
Hypothesis One
There is no effect with the interaction of group by time (pre to posttest) of an outdoor
adventure program on Malaysian young adult’s self-esteem by using the Rosenberg Self-
Esteem Scale (SES).
To determine the impact of the treatment, the group by time membership was of prime
importance. Using Rosenberg SES data, an independent t-test was run by group on pretest
and posttest measures. A significant difference was found with the interaction of group by
time of an outdoor adventure program on Malaysian young adult’s self-esteem by using the
Rosenberg SES Wilks Lambda F(1,237) = 189.424, p=.001, partial eta2 = .444 which is
31
shown in Table 1.
Table 1Multivariate tests scores for self-esteem
Effect
V
alue F
S
ig.
Pa
rtial Eta
SquaredTime Wilks'
Lambda
.
580
.
000
.
000
* .4
20Time *
Group
Wilks'
Lambda
.
556
.
000
.
000
* .4
44Time *
Gender
Wilks'
Lambda
.
985
.
062
.
062
.0
15
Time *
Group *
Gender
Wilks'
Lambda
1
.000
.
792
.
792
.0
00
Note: a. Exact statistic b. Design: Intercept + Group + Gender + Group * Gender Within subject design: Time
The experimental group pre-test score was 18.67 + .40 and the post-test score was
22.90 + .319. The calculated estimated marginal means of self-esteem result shows that the
group pre-test was significantly higher than the control group pre-test (18.54 + .593) and
post-test (18.44 + .470) scores (Table 2).
32
Table 2
Group by Time
Group
T
im
e
95% Confidence
Interval
M
ean
S
td.
Er
ro
r
L
owe
r
Bou
nd
U
ppe
r
Bou
nd
Treatm
ent
1 1
8.67
4a
.
40
3
1
7.8
81
1
9.4
68
2 2
2.90
7b
.
31
9
2
2.2
78
2
3.5
36
Contro
l
1 1
8.54
6
.
59
3
1
7.3
78
1
9.7
14
2 1
8.44
1
.
47
0
1
7.5
15
1
9.3
67
Note: 1. Measure: Self-Esteem 2. Means with different subscripts differ significantly at p < .05.
Table 2 shows the score analysis of estimated marginal means of self-esteem with the
interaction of group by time.
Therefore, hypothesis one was rejected: there is a significant difference with the
interaction of group by time (pre to posttest) in the self-esteem of Malaysian young adults
enrolled in the 5-day KRS outdoor adventure program.
Hypothesis Two
33
No significant difference was found with the interaction of gender by time on self-
esteem of participants in the 5-day KRS outdoor adventure program as show by the
multivariate tests (Table1 note b). The interaction of gender by time on self-esteem
estimated marginal means results for male and female participants are shown in Table 3.
The male treatment group mean pre-test score was (18.3385) to post-test (22.9077)
and the control group was (18.1111) to posttest (18.2539). The female treatment group
mean pre-test score was (19.0104) to post-test (22.9063) and the control group pre-test
score (18.9811) to post-test (18.6226).
Thus, hypothesis two was accepted because the independent variables (male and
female subjects) did not have a significant difference in self-esteem scores with the
interaction of gender by time in the KRS outdoor adventure program. In conclusion,
although approaching significance, no significant difference was found with the interaction
of gender by time. This result was based on Wilks Lambda scores interaction of gender by
time confirmed in Table 1 that show similar results Wilks Lambda F (1,237) = 3.505, p
= .062 or as we can see in test of within-subjects contrast (Table 3).
34
Table 3Tests of within-subjects contrasts
Source
Ti
m
e
Type
III
Sum
of
Squa
res
M
e
a
n
S
q
u
a
r
e F
S
i
g
.
P
ar
tia
l
Et
a
S
q
u
ar
e
d
Time Li
n
e
ar
4
16.98
4
4
1
6
.
9
8
4
1
7
1
.
4
9
8
0
0
0
*
.42
0
Time * Group Li
n
e
ar
4
60.56
9
4
6
0
.
5
6
9
1
8
9
.
4
2
4
.
0
0
0
*
.4
4
4
Time * Gender Li
n
e
ar
8
.521
8
.
5
2
1
3
.
5
0
5
.
0
6
2
.
0
1
5
Time * Group *
Gender
Li
n
e
ar
.
170
.
1
7
0
.
0
7
0
7
9
2
.
0
0
0
35
Error(Time) Li
n
e
ar
5
76.24
6
2
.
4
3
1
Note: Measure: Self-Esteem * Show significant at p < .05.
Hypothesis Three
There is no significant difference by the outdoor adventure program with the
interaction of group by gender by time on Malaysian young adult’s self esteem by using
the Rosenberg SES as shown by Multivariate tests (Table 1 note b). The result illustrated
(see Table 1) that no significant differences was found with the interaction of group by
gender by time (Wilks Lambda F(1,237) = .07, p = .792).
The independent variables (group by gender by time) were tested using analysis of
variance to test the hypothesis at a .05 level of significance. Means of pre-test to post-test
scores on self-esteem for the interaction of group by gender by time are illustrated in Table
4.
36
Table 4Descriptive statistic: Mean scores for self-esteem for Group X Gender X Time
Group
Gende
r Mean
Std.
Deviation NPre self-esteem
Treatment male 18.3385 6.11422 65
female 19.0104 4.73841 96
Total 18.7391 5.32860 161
Control male 18.1111 4.44914 27
female 18.9811 4.19932 53
Total 18.6875 4.27709 80
Total male 18.2717 5.65317 92
female 19.0000 4.53962 149
Total 18.7220 4.99515 241
Post self-esteem
Treatment male 22.9077 3.89600 65
female 22.9063 3.65075 96
Total 22.9068 3.73965 161
Control male 18.2593 4.35530 27
female 18.6226 4.42122 53
Total 18.5000 4.37484 80
Total male 21.5435 4.54142 92
female 21.3826 4.43359 149
Total 21.4440 4.46631 241
Note: No significant difference was found with the interaction of Group X Gender X Time
Total means for both males and female interaction of group by gender by time scores
did not prove to be significantly different from the pre-test to post-test, with total pre-test
score (18.2717) for male and (19.000) for female. The total post-test means result show
male score (21.5435) and female score (21.3826).
In conclusion, hypothesis three was not rejected because no significant differences in
means pre-test to post-test score for self-esteem with the interaction of group by gender in
the 5-day KRS outdoor adventure program.
37
Discussion of findings
The findings of this study indicated that self-esteem was affected to some extent in
certain demographic groups who participated in the 5-day Kelab Rekreasi Sikamat (KRS)
outdoor adventure program. We know that this is probable, because at the beginning of this
study there were no significant differences found by group on self-esteem. However,
analysis of the both treatment and control group means pretest to post-test showed a
significant difference was found with the interaction of group by time.
Profile Plot Graph 1
Figure 1. Profile Plot Graph 1.
As we can see in the above graph, the results show there is an increase of means score
for the control group from 18.7391 during the pre-test to 20.9098 at the post-test.
However, the means score for the control group show to be static with scores 18.6875 at
the pre-test and 18.5000 at the post-test. Since the design of the KRS outdoor adventure
program requires the participants to engage in high risk, high energy, and high endurance
activities which usually affect self-esteem, the KRS outdoor adventure program appears to
38
affect participant self-esteem at the end of the program. The findings of this study concur
with those of the Conrad and Hedin (1981) study which found that the impact of
experiential education program can increase a participant’s self-esteem, characteristic,
social, and intellectual development. This study also supports Gibson (1979), who
concluded that a wilderness program results in positive changes in the self-concepts,
personality, individual behaviors, and social functioning of the program participants.
Therefore, organizations might consider using outdoor program to help youth with low
self-esteem or need a positive change in self-concepts. But also, the study show regular
youth can also benefit from outdoor programs.
Profile Plot Graph 2 Profile Plot Graph 3
Figure 2 . Profile Plot Graphs.
Second, analysis of data shows almost similar increasing means pretest to posttest
score on self-esteem for both male and female participants in the control group (See Profile
Plot Graph 2 and 3 above). This tells us that outdoor adventure programs have no
significant difference with the interaction of gender by time. However, outdoor programs
can have a positive effect on enhancing the self-esteem of both male and female
39
participants.
The female participants in this program did not have any meaningful previous outdoor
adventure experience. This first experience may be related to the large difference between
pre and post-test groups. Although the program might be oriented towards male
participants, female participants without outdoor adventure experience may benefit also
from the activities just as male participants do as discuss above when participating in
programs run using a male model or biased towards traditionally male activities (Neill,
1997).
In the 1980’s, Boulware (2004) demonstrated that women are less likely than men to
believe that they are entitled to leisure and recreation. In Malaysia for example, there are
larger cultural and societal issues that have a direct impact on female inclusion and
participation in wilderness activities. While seemingly outrageous, even today, women
engaging in outdoor recreational activities are likely to feel constrained by personal safety
concerns, inadequate facilities and information, insufficient funds, and outdoor pests
(Johnson, Bowker, & Cordell, 2001). However, the results of the present study appears to
support that KRS appears in its intervention to be completely breaking the mold of what is
normally expected from females in the Malaysian society.
Western perceptions of Malaysian society tend to focus on the Muslim culture and
history of Malaysia, but no study of Malaysia can neglect significant ethnic minority
population, although relative new comers in Malaysia. Under British rule a significant
amount of ethnic Indian were brought to Malaysia and along with a significant ethnic
Chinese population, make up about 33% of the Malaysian population. Their culture affects
a large portion of Malaysian life including the need for outdoor adventure activities.
40
Although this might surprise Western readers, in general, women, Muslim or
otherwise, have had high workforce participation rates currently about 45%. This has put
women in leadership positions above men and both government and cooperate workplaces.
Women have had the ability to own property and be financially independent especially in
urban settings. This has allowed women to participate in expensive activities.
However, outdoor adventure participation for women is a new experience for many
women because they have not traditionally been encouraged or desired to participate in
these kinds of programs. So, especially in more urban areas, women have increased access
and opportunity to benefit from outdoor adventure programs like the female participants in
this study.
In addition to the outdoor program discussed in this paper, KRS also provides
assistance by request to other organizations if they want to organize an outdoor program
based on special needs, such as Islamic compatibility, culture, or social expectations. For
example, if the Scout and Girl Guides Association Malaysia wishes to organize an outdoor
program, they might ask KRS to assist them in holding a female-only outdoor program.
However, such programs are often lead by men because of the lack of female expertise in
this area. The results show that outdoor educators who design outdoor courses should and
can accommodate gender differences successfully. It was also found that a purposely
developed program that addresses gender differences can be successful if the gender
differences are addressed in an upfront educational or developmental manner.
With the above being noted, it is also important that no significant difference was
found with the interaction of gender by time (pre to post-test) in self-esteem of
participation in the 5- day KRS outdoor adventure program. This indicates that gender did
41
not have a significant effect on the scores with the interaction of gender by time as
illustrated in Table 4. There has been a long term trend in Malaysia of higher female
participation rates in out of home activities leading to a current female majority in
secondary and post secondary education. This has been a result of increasing equality
between genders and a decrease in the amount of stereotypes about women’s role in
society. Along with the decreasing amounts of stereotyping towards women, biases against
what women should and can do have also diminished. This has led to females taking on
more masculine roles and participating in more typically masculine activities such as
outdoor recreation.
Overall the descriptive data (Table 4) informs us that more females are interested in
outdoor pursuits than ever before. In viewing participants in both treatment and control
group, we can see by the data that the female population represented 59.6% of the
intervention group and 66.3% of the control group. This data is consistent with Miles
(1987) who found that most people participate in an outdoor adventure program because
they want to discover more about themselves. New environments help individuals
experience new things, take risks, and be exposed to different types of people. Therefore,
this KRS program appears to provide a comfortable environment for
female participants to explore new things, take risks, speak up, be
themselves, and build authentic relationships with others. This also
might attract more females to register in the KRS program in the future.
42
CHAPTER FIVE
Summary, conclusion, and recommendations
The design of an outdoor adventure program should be one that includes a series of
learning experiences that are appropriate for the needs and expectations of the individuals
in the group as well as the group itself. To be more effective, the learning experiences
should support the educational objectives of the program. One of the educational
objectives of the Kelab Rekreasi Sikamat (KRS) outdoor adventure program is to provide
activities that help create alternatives to negative behaviors and teach proper respect for
themselves, others, and the environment through wilderness and outdoor adventure.
This study was conducted to determine if self-esteem was affected by participation in
the KRS outdoor adventure program. The primary intent of this study was to determine if
there were differences in a participant’s self-esteem with the interaction of group by time
(pre to posttest). The second intent of the study was to also determine if there were
differences in a participant’s self-esteem with the interaction of gender by time in the
program. The third intent of the study was to determine if the KRS outdoor adventure
program caused a difference with the interaction of group by gender by time on Malaysian
young adult’s self-esteem.
The total population in this study numbered 241 Malaysian young adults. The
intervention group (pre and post test) consisted of 161 subjects who participated KRS
adventure program during the summer of 2009 and the control group (pre and post-test),
which consisted of 80 subjects who did not attend the KRS outdoor adventure program.
The Rosenberg Self-Esteem Scale (SES) was utilized as the instrument to measure the
level of self-esteem of the subjects in this study.
43
As a result of this study, the investigator recommends consideration of the following
suggestions for further research:
1. That pretest and posttest survey forms utilized a four-question Likert-scale type
response. In observation of other research using the Rosenberg SES, the researchers
used the four Likert-scale question responses, i.e. Strongly Agree, Agree, Disagree,
and Strongly Disagree. Because there are only four possible answers with no neutral
response, the participant does not have the option of not agreeing or disagreeing.
Also, because there was no neutral response, some participants may refuse to choose
an answer. Perhaps a scale with a five or six answer Likert-scale would be a better
choice. The expanded Likert answer scale of these research designs may be more
effective in securing more answers from participants.
2. A more sensitive instrument should be developed and utilized to evaluate the effect of
outdoor adventure programs on self-esteem and attitude. The Rosenberg does not
address attitude or actual behavior change. Further study should be done to address
the issue of attitude change and behavior change of participants during and following
an outdoor adventure program experience.
3. A follow-up study should be conducted 6 months and 12 months following the
outdoor adventure program experience in order to determine the long-range effects of
the program on self-esteem. Adventure programs were more effective when their
duration was longer (Cason & Gillis, 1994), so perhaps the duration of the KRS
outdoor adventure program should be increased. The findings indicated that the KRS
5-day wilderness experience influenced participant in a positive direction. Therefore,
the duration of the KRS outdoor program was suggested as an essential variable for
44
influencing self-esteem.
4. To enhance the robustness and generalization of implications of future studies similar
nature to this study, a larger sample of subjects is strongly recommended.
5. Further study should be done to measure the effects of the KRS outdoor adventure
program on different variables such as self-perception, interpersonal relationship
skills, and leadership life skills. Program objectives should also guide the direction of
the study.
6. KRS should probably follow a standardized outdoor recreation curriculum like
National Service (PLKN) on the state or local level to avoid a lawsuit or minimize
liability. A larger study could be conducted incorporating comparable data from
different organization similar to KRS to examine risk and develop a risk management
model.
7. To further develop the skills of youth in Malaysia, an outdoor adventure program
should be designed to offer a greater variety of learning experiences, in particular on
the local or county level, including exploration of backyards, small town parks, small
group outings, and nearby natural resources, in addition to wilderness settings.
8. Although this paper has shown that the KRS program as a whole positively
influenced self-esteem, how each individual activity influenced self-esteem is
unknown. Further research questions could be asked about how individual activities
affected self-esteem in this program and which activities might be added to further
increase the benefits of the program if a longer program is created.
9. Each activity has its own cost and benefit. Not only does each activity have a
monetary cost, it also has an opportunity cost because another activity might have
45
been carried out instead. Often the youth who can benefit most from these outdoor
programs come from economically disadvantaged backgrounds and therefore cannot
afford to participate in cost-intensive outdoor programs. Also, if the program is
subsidized or sponsored, then the organization paying, e.g. government or NGO
would like to maximize benefits for a certain budget. Along with examining the
benefits of individual activities or an entire program, researchers might examine
which activities maximize the benefits of outdoor programs and minimize costs for
each objective, e.g. self-esteem, skill building, youth delinquency, or enjoyment, so
budget constrained people and organizations can create efficient outdoor programs
and increase participation further.
As a result of this study, the investigator recommends consideration of the following
questions for the KRS Outdoor Adventure Program:
Adventure programs were more effective when their duration was longer (Cason &
Gillis, 1994). Should the KRS increase the duration of the outdoor course they offer?
Are outdoor education courses designed using a masculine mindset?
In what ways do outdoor education programs reinforce traditional gender stereotypes
(such as 'males are stronger' and 'females are more comfortable talking about
feelings'), and in what ways do outdoor education programs provide valuable
alternatives to traditional gender stereotypes?
Are outdoor education jobs structured to allow equitable participation of women,
particular those who are caregivers?
Does it really make sense to have the same physical performance expectations for
males and females in the KRS outdoor adventure program?
46
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54
APPENDIX A
Demographic Survey Questions
Section A : Personal InformationBahagian A : Maklumat Peribadi
Below are few questions about your personal background. Please answer the following questions by filling (/) or fill in the appropriate where indicated.Berikut adalah beberapa soalan umum berkaitan latarbelakang peribadi. Sila jawab soalan di bawah dengan menanda (/) atau mengisi jawapan pada ruangan yang disediakan.
1. Gender : Male FemaleJantina Lelaki Perempuan
2. Age : ________yrs (please specify)Umur thn (sila nyatakan)
3. Marital Status : Single Married Separated DivorceTaraf perkahwinan Bujang Berkahwin Berpisah Bercerai
4. Highest education: SPM Certificate Diploma DegreePendidikan tertinggi SPM Sijil Diploma Ijazah
Others ___________________________ (please specify)Lain-lain (sila nyatakan)
5. Religion : Muslim Buddhist Hindu ChristianAgama : Islam Buddha Hindu Kristian
Others ___________________________ (please specify)Lain-lain (sila nyatakan)
6. Race : Malay Chinese Indian NativeBangsa Melayu Cina India Bumiputera
Others ___________________________ (please specify)Lain-lain (sila nyatakan)
7. Monthly household income (RM): < 1000 1000 – 1500 1500 – 2000 Pendapatan isirumah bulanan 2000 – 2500 >2500
8. You are: Non-Athlete Team Sport Athlete Individual Sport Anda Bukan atlet Atlet berpasukan Sukan Individu
55
9. What is your main Sport or Recreational activity?Apakah sukan atau aktiviti rekreasi utama anda?
List your main Sport or Recreational activity ____________________________________
Senaraikan sukan atau aktiviti rekreasi utama anda
10. How many years have you participated?Berapa tahunkah anda telah menceburkan diri?
_____________yrs thn
56
APPENDIX B
Rosenberg Self-Esteem Scale
Section B / Bahagian B:
Instructions: Below is a list of statements dealing with your general feelings about yourself. Please put a tick (/) indicating how much you agree with each of the statement below.Arahan: Di bawah adalah senarai pernyataan berkaitan dengan perasaan anda secara umum. Sila nyatakan sejauh mana anda bersetuju dengan manandakan (/)pada pernyataan di bawah.
StronglyAgreeSangatsetuju
AgreeSetuju
DisagreeTidak setuju
StronglyDisagreeSangat
tidak setuju
1.On the whole, I am satisfied with myself.Secara keseluruhan, saya berpuas hati dengan diri sendiri.
22.
At times, I think I am no good at all.Kadangkala, saya fikir saya tidak berkebolehan langsung.
33.
I feel that I have a number of good qualities.Saya rasa, saya mempunyai beberapa kualiti diri yang baik.
44.
I am able to do things as well as most other people.Saya berkebolehan melakukan sesuatu sepertimana orang lain.
55.
I feel I do not have much to be proud of.Saya rasa saya tidak mempunyai banyak perkara yang boleh dibanggakan.
66.
I certainly feel useless at times.Ada masanya saya merasa seperti tidak berguna.
77.
I feel that I’m a person of worth, at least on an equal plane with others.Saya merasakan saya seorang yang berguna, sekurang-kurangnya setara sepertimana orang lain.
88.
I wish I could have more respect for myself.Saya berhasrat saya mempunyai lebih rasa hormat pada diri sendiri.
99.
All in all, I am inclined to feel that I am a failure.Secara keseluruhan, saya berperasaaan seperti saya seorang yang gagal.
110.
I take a positive attitude toward myself.Saya bersikap positif terhadap diri sendiri.
Scores are calculated as follows: For items 1, 3, 4, 7, and 10: SA=3, A=2, D=1, SD=0. For items 2, 5, 6, 8, and 9: SA=0, A=1, D=2, SD=3. The scale ranges from 0-30. Scores between 15 and 25 are within normal
57
range; scores below 15 suggest low self-esteem.
58
APPENDIX C
Letter of consent form for research subject
Survey on Malaysian young adults’ self-esteem
This pre-experimental study is a survey of your experience about the effects of
participating in an outdoor adventure program towards participants’ self-esteem
organized by the Kelab Rekreasi Sikamat (KRS). The survey is a pen and pencil
examination of Demographic Survey Questions and 10 questions about self-esteem. It
will take approximately 10-15 minutes of your time. We hope to understand more about
student experience and knowledge so that we can suggest the improvements that can be
made for the Kelab Rekreasi Sikamat (KRS) outdoor activities programs. There are no
discomforts or risks to you as you take this survey. Your participation will help us in
suggesting the improvement of the KRS program in the future.
Your participation in this survey will be confidential. No one will be able to link you
to your answers or you to the results of this study accept the primary researcher.
If you wish to see the results of this survey, you may do so by contacting the primary
researcher: Mohd Asmadzy at [email protected] after
August, 2009.
This study is being sponsored through the Academic Department of Health, Physical
Education, Recreation and Dance (HPERD), University of Idaho, and specifically the
Recreation Program. The primary investigator is Mohd Asmadzy Ahmad Basra, and the
faculty member sponsoring the research is Sharon Kay Stoll, Ph.D., if you have any
questions you may contact Mohd Asmadzy at the email above or Dr. Stoll at
You may refuse to participate at any time in this survey with no penalty to you. If
you wish to withdraw from the research, you may do so by turning in the survey to the
camp admin clerk. Your refusal to participate will not affect or disadvantage to yourself
of any kind.
____________________________ ________
59
MOHD ASMADZY AHMAD BASRA (Date)
60
APPENDIX D
Individual assent form
I, ………………………………………………………………………(please print)
have read the information sheet regarding this project. I have had the opportunity to
discuss the study and to ask questions, which have been answered to my satisfaction. I
understand that I am free to request further information at any stage.
I am aware that:
1. My participation in this study is entirely voluntary.
2. I have the right to withdraw from the project at any time without any
disadvantage.
3. The results of this project may be published, but my anonymity will be preserved.
I agree to take part in this study:
----------------------------------------------------- ----------------------
( Signature of Participant ) ( Date )
61
APPENDIX E
IRB form
62
APPENDIX F
Certificate of NIH raining course
