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Welcometoaconversationaboutteachingwriting.
Thefollowinghandbookisdesignedasaguidetoassigning,respondingand
assessingwritinginyourcourse.Followingthecontext-settingintroduction,itis
arrangedbyscholarlysuggestionswearecalling“efficiencytips;”thesetipsare
designedtosupportyouinteachingthewritingconventionsofyourdiscipline.We
willusethesetipstoguidetheweeklydiscussions.
INTRODUCTION
When looking at the national picture of student writing, we know that college students’
writing competence does not meet the expectations of educators, and that many college
students enter higher education with only the most basic of writing skills (Patchan,
Charney, Schunn 2009). We also know that there is concern that student writing is not
significantly improving. Research compiled by the National Commission on Writing in
America’s Schools and Colleges, states that, “Recent analyses indicate that more than
50% of first-year college students are unable to produce papers relatively free of
language errors” (2003). The following excerpt from a 2011 Carnegie report on the
advantages of formative assessment asserts,
Although some progress has been made in improving the writing
achievement of students in American schools during the last twenty years
(Salahu-Din, Persky, and Miller, 2008), most students do not write well enough to
meet grade-level demands. The inability to effectively convey thoughts and ideas
through writing plays a role in why many of these students do not complete high
school. Among those who do graduate, many will not be ready for college or a
career where writing is required. These young people will be at a serious
disadvantage in successfully pursuing some form of higher education, securing a
job that pays a living wage, or participating in social and civic activities.
Finally, formative assessment and best practices in writing assessment
hold their greatest promise �for helping teachers and schools create students who
are skilled and confident writers if they are implemented as part of a
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comprehensive reform of writing instruction. To address the long-standing
concerns about students’ writing and the neglect of writing instruction in many
classrooms, schools, school districts, and states need to develop new and better
policies that establish unambiguous, challenging, and realistic plans for improving
writing instruction and students’ writing. These plans must establish clearly
specified methods and incentives to ensure that
Teachers are prepared to teach writing effectively;
The teaching of writing is the responsibility of all teachers;
Students write frequently;
Students use writing as a tool to support learning across the curriculum;
(Graham, Harris, Hebert 29).
�
The field of English Composition (Writing Studies) is not that old. It emerged in
response to two factors: the open admissions policies from the 1960’s and 1970’s
(Nystrand, Greene, & Wiemelt, 1993), and a need to break away from departments of
literature that were attempting to dictate the research agenda of scholarship about writing
instruction (Nystrand 2006; Silva and Leki, 2004).
We begin this conversation with the intention of accomplishing two major goals: 1.) to
share with teachers what we know that can help them be more efficient educators in a
classroom that teaches writing, and 2.) to gather data from faculty experience and
expertise to add to the research in Writing Studies.
EfficiencyTipforweek#1:Assigningwritingtogivestudentspractice
thinking,andassigningwritingtotestperformanceandproficiency,arevery
differentthings(Bean,2011;Stiggins,2012).Use writing for everything you
want to teach, but not for every thing you want to test. If pressed for time and
energy, consider not using writing to test things that can be tested in a more efficient
manner--like by a short answer quiz or a multiple choice exam (Stiggins, 2012).
3
Writingassignmentscanallowstudentstoexperimentwithideasandwrestlewith
intellectualchallengesinawaythatmakesthoseideas,successes,andstruggles
obvioustoboththestudentandtheteacher(Bean,2011).Writingassignmentsalso
canrevealinformationaboutstudentlearningthatallowsteacherstotestthat
learningonmultiplelevels(Stiggins,2012).
Beforeassigninganessayorpieceofwriting,askyourselfifthegoalofthe
assignmentisa.)toencouragepracticeorb.)totestperformanceandproficiency.
Thisdiscernmentwilldictatehowyourespondtowhatthestudentswrite,and
determinehowyouweigh(ordon’tweigh)thequalityofwhattheywrite.
Beingclearaboutwhetheryouareassigningwritingtofosterpracticewithideasof
genrestylesortotestperformance(contentknowledge,skillswithgenreetc.)
enablesyoutodesignyourassessmentstrategyaccordingly.
Teachersassignwritingtoaccomplishavarietyofthings.Someteachersassign
writingtotest:
• understandingofthematerialwithinaspecificknowledgedomain
• proficiencywiththegenresofaspecificknowledgedomain
• abilitytomarshalevidenceinsupportofaclaim
• abilitytoarrangethatevidenceappropriatelyforaspecificaudience
• proficiencywithmanagingthegrammarofwrittenEnglish
Oftenteachersusewritingtodetermineproficiencywithallofthesethings,and
withhowthesecomponentscohere.Teachersalsousewritingtodetermine
whetherornotstudentsareabletoperformanarrayofcomplexandlayered
cognitivetasks(analysis,synthesis,prediction,evidenceevaluation,problem-
solvingetc.).
Becausewritingisamulti-facetedandcognitivelychallengingactivity,testing
studentsonthingstheyhavenothadachancetopracticereducesstudent
4
engagement(Wiggins&McTighe,2005).Assigninglow-stakesassignmentsand
formativefeedbackthroughoutthewritingprocesscanprovidesupportforstudent
practiceandimprovemotivationforlearning(Bean,2011).Formativefeedback,or
formativeassessment,canbeprovidedintheformofconstructive,informative,non-
gradedfeedbacktostudentsabouttheirwriting(Adsanatham,2012).Such
assessment"treatsatextaspartofanongoingprocessofskillsacquisitionand
improvement,recognizingthatwhatisbeingrespondedtoisnotafixedbuta
developingentity”(Horvath,1984).
Poorqualitystudentworkcancomeasaresultofstudentapathyasmuchasfroma
lackofproperlysupportedstudentpractice—andinmanycasesthesetwothings
arerelated.Thenegativeattitudesmanystudentshaveaboutwritingcanresult
fromwritingbeingusedtotestthemforproficiencymoreoftenthanforletting
thempracticeimprovingtheirwritingskills.Writingisadeliberatepracticeskill
(Ericsson&Krampe,1993;Kellogg&Whiteford,2009).Thismeansthatittakes
thousandsofhourstodevelopgoodwritingskills.Ifwewantstudentstobegood
writers,itisinourbestinterest(andtheirs)toinspirethemtopracticeandgive
themgoodguidanceastheypractice.
Giventheveryrealtimeconstraintswithinaneducationalenvironmentwhere
everyoneisexpectedtodomorewithless,itisnotefficienttousewritingasa
testingtoolunlessyouarewillingtospendthetimethatittakestoevaluateit
thoroughlyandfairly.
Putinitspropereducationalcontext,writingisagoodwaytodemonstratecomplex
cognition,butitisnotalwaysthebestwaytodemonstrateone’sabilitytomemorize
informationand/orregurgitatefacts.
Goodwritinginstructionrequiresteacherstogivefluentanddetailed
response/feedback/feedforwardthatfocusesonahierarchyofvaluesthatisrelated
totheover-archinglearninggoalsofeachassignment(Straub,1992;Angelo&Cross,
5
1993;Rysdam&Johnson-Shull,2016).Ifateacherdoesnothavetimetoprovide
thiskindoffeedback/feedforward,andgivesabbreviated,cryptic,correction-happy
(orsometimesevencruel)commentary,moreharmthangoodcancomeofthisuse
ofteachertime(Batt,2015).
6
EfficiencyTipforweek#2:Themorethingsyouuseonepieceofwritingto
test,theharderitwillbeforthestudenttoshowmasteryofallofthedomains
askedforbythe“testing”situation(Shepard2005;Stiggins,2012).Scaffolded
orsequencedassignmentscanhelpstudentsbuilduptoawritten
performance(orpresentation)thatrequirescohesionofmultipleelements.
Scaffoldedorsequencedassignmentsareeasiertogradebecausethe
evaluatorisnotlookingfortheintersectionsorinteractionsofmultipleskills,
butonlyforthedemonstrationofoneortwothings.
Writingagoodessayrequirestheabilitytointegrateseveralskillsandcognitive
processessimultaneously(Bean,2011;Stiggins,2012).Inorderforonetowritea
successfulessay(particularlyatthecollege-level),awriterneedsto:
• understandthegenreconventionsofthedisciplinetheyarewritingfor
• comprehendinformationaboutan(ideally)inspiringandchallengingtopic
• narrowthefocusofthetopicrelativetothelengthoftheessay
• grabthereader’sattention
• organizetheinformationinawaythatislogicalandcoherenttomost
educatedreaders
• wieldasubstantialandvaried(andproperlyspelled)vocabulary
• summarizeandsynthesizeinformationwithanawarenessofaudienceneeds
• recognizethekindsofevidencethatmustbebroughttobeartobe
convincing
• identifytheneedfor(andhavetheabilitytoapply)citationconventions
• constructsolid,sensibleandcorrectlypunctuatedsentences
Anyweaknessinanyoftheseareaswillresultinalessthanstellaressay.
Itisimportanttokeepinmindthelevelofintellectualsophisticationrequiredfor
thewritingtasksyouassigntoyourstudents(likethedifficultyofanOlympicdive),
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andtoacceptthefactthatmanystudentsmayhavenotachievedthedesiredlevelof
sophisticationintheirwritingbythetimetheytakeyourclass.
Dependingonthechallengesofcomprehendingparticularcoursecontent,andofthe
limitsorpossibilitiesforexpressingthatunderstandingindifferentformsorgenres,
writingalwayshasthepotentialtobeachallengeregardlessofhowexperienceda
writeris(Bereiter&Scardamalia,1987;Colyar,2009).Thisiswhyitisimportant
fortheteachertohavealistofprioritiesrelativetotheassignedessay--sothatthe
studentcanfocusonimprovingthemostimportantteacherprioritiesfirst(Angelo
&Cross,1993;Stiggins2012).
Expectingastudenttoimproveallaspectsofanessaywithinonlyoneortwocycles
offeedbackandrevisionisnotrealistic(Knoblauch&Brannon,2006).Itislike
expectingaballetstudenttomasterallofthephysicalcomplexitiesofapolished
danceperformanceateachpractice.Inthelearningprocess,skillsneedtobe
isolated,andworkedoninisolation,beforetheyareputtogetherinafunctioning
andaestheticcomposition.
Sincetheaccumulationanduseofknowledgeisaprocess,andeverystudentyou
havewillbeatadifferentdevelopmentalstageinthatprocess,itwillbeimportant
tothinkaheadabouthowtostructureassignmentssothattheybuildincomplexity
(Shepard,2005;Gronlund,&Brookhart,2009).Scaffoldedandsequenced
assignmentsareassignmentsthatbuilduponeachothertowardalargerandmore
cohesiveandcomplexgoal.If,forexample,mygoalisforstudentstowritean
evidence-based(researchbased)persuasivepaper,Imightbreakthatgoaldown
intoseveralsmallerpapers.Thefirstassignmentmightbefocusedontopic
generationandtopicnarrowing.Thesecondassignmentmightaskforoneortwo
summariesofarticlesrelatedtothechosentopic.Thethirdassignmentmightask
forathesistobegeneratedbasedontheinformationthestudenthasgatheredand
summarized.Thefourthassignmentmightaskfortheinformationtobeconverted
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toevidenceandcounter-evidenceforthethesisclaim.Thefifth(andperhapslast)
assignmentmightaskfortheevidencetobeorganizedintoapersuasiveargument.
9
EfficiencyTipforweek#3:Evidencesuggeststhatdespite“bestpractice”in
theteachingofwriting,teacherstendnotonlytobearbitraryintheir
responsebehaviors,butarehabituatedtonegativityintheirresponse
behaviors(Durst).(Theyalsotendtocopyeditstudentworkwhenitisn’ta
productiveuseoftheirtime.)Thisarbitrary,negativepracticecanreduce
studentagencyandmotivation.Agencyandmotivationinwritingarecrucial
becausewritingisadeliberatepracticeskill(Ericsson,Krampe,Tesch-
Romer).Thismeansthatifstudentsarenotmotivatedtopracticeoverand
over,theywillnotimprove.
Despite no real consensus on what teacher response practices are most
educational (Marzano, Haswell, Straub), the scholarship on writing response has tenets
that are basic to “best practice.” Richard Straub’s findings suggest that, “Students
preferred comments that offered some direction for improvement,” particularly those “in
the form of advice and explanations, since these comments typically are specific, offer
direction for revision, and come across as help” (1997). Straub summarizes that, “First
and foremost, these students wanted comments that are clear and understandable and that,
in their eyes, are valid and appropriate to their subject, point of view, and purpose”
(1997). Yetdespitethepleasinlate20thcenturycompositionscholarshiptopraise
andofferguidancetomotivatestudentimprovement(Daiker;Straub),aswellasto
moderatethecorrectionofgrammarasacentralemphasisintheteachingof
composition(Haswell1983;McCallister1982),evidencesuggeststhatcomposition
specialistshavenbeenrathertenaciouslyhabituatedtodefiningstudentslargelyin
termsofshortcomings(Durst2006).
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In her 1982 article “Responding to Student Writing,” Joyce MacAllister writes
about the common inconsistencies in written response practice:
The best way to begin improving student writing is to banish three popular beliefs
that frustrate students and teachers. One is the belief that instructors should write
a lot in the margins and between the lines. Another is that instructors ought to
know and use a lot of specific grammatical rules and grammatical terms if they
want to comment effectively. A third is that the most effective responses to
student writing are instructor-written comments on the final copy. All three
beliefs are false. (59)
The scholarship in English Composition that addresses writing response indicates that
good practice is praise-filled; aligned with assignment values and expectations;
dependent on a hierarchy of rhetorical concerns that values focused, organized, and
evidence-based critical thought over correct and conventional presentation; limited in the
amount of issues targeted for change; dialogic; and aware of patterns of both strength and
weakness. (See Daiker, Haswell, Straub, Speck)
.
Overtwentyyearsago,DonaldA.Daikerwrotewhatteachersofwritingshould
knowbynow,thatpraiseismoreeffectivethannegativityinrespondingtostudent
writing.Inhisarticle,“LearningtoPraise,”Daikerwrites“thatpraisedoesnotflow
readilyfromthemarkingpensofwritingteachers;itmustbelearned”(1989).He
citesseveralsourcesthatdemonstratejusthowfewmarksofpraiseteacherstend
towriteonstudentpapers.Onestudyshowsthatonly6%ofcommentswrittenby
teacherswerepraise“94%ofthecommentsfocusedonwhatstudentshaddone
poorlyorincorrectly,only6%onwhathadbeendonewell(Dragga1986)”.
Itissuggestedthatyounotwasteyourtimeeditingfororcommentingonstyle
unlessyouareteachingstyleasacomponentofthecourse(Medzerian,2010).If
youaregoingtoeditstudentpapersdoitforcorrectnessnotforstyle(Bean,2011).
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Toomanyteachersconfusestudentsaboutwhatiscorrectorincorrectintermsof
grammarandusagebecausetheyeditstudentworkbasedonstyleorconciseness.
Styleeditingisappropriatebeforeatextispublished,oriftheentireexercise(the
wholereasonforthewritingassignment)istomakeapointaboutstyle(Sommers,
1982).However,formostundergraduates,thefocusshouldbeonaccuracyof
content,thelogicoforganization,andcorrectnessofconvention.Afocusonstyle
(whichcanbehighlysubjective)canbeconfusingformoststudents(particularlyfor
internationalstudentsforwhomEnglishisnottheirnativelanguage).
Ifyouhave“petpeeves,”(asmanyteachersdo)aboutcertainthingsliketheuseof
contractionsinformalwriting,ortheuseof“I”inresearchpapers,informyour
studentsofthosepeevesaheadoftime.Teacherpetpeevesareoftendeliveredto
studentsas“Truths,”wheninfacttheyarejustpreferences.Peevescanbe
confusingtostudentsbecausetheyareasvariedasthepeoplewhohavethem.
Perhapstheareathatgeneratesthemostcontroversyintheteachingofwriting,or
intheusingofwritingtoteach,istheareaofEnglishgrammar(Hartwell,1985).
Manytimesteacherseditstudentpapersandre-writestudentsentencesbecause
theydonotliketoreadpapersthatareawkwardlyorincorrectlyconstructed.While
thiseditingorre-writingprocessmakesstudentworkmoreenjoyabletoread
(becauseitchangestheirworkfromstudentworktoteacherwork—andteachers
areusuallybetterwriters),itisnotaparticularlyinstructivepracticeforstudents,
anditisaformoftextappropriation.Editingstudentworktakestimeanditlets
studentsoffthehookforlearningproperconventions--sinceyoudidallofthework
(Haswell,1983).
Evidencesuggeststhatstudentsimprovemostintheirfacilitytomanagethe
conventionsofwrittenEnglishwhentheyarerequiredtoself-edit(Ferris2001).
Studentsshouldbeprovidedwithaself-editingstructurethattheycanworkwithin.
RichardHaswell,authorofthearticle“MinimalMarking,”suggeststhatteachersuse
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acodeinthemarginofthepaperthatindicatestothestudentwhetherthereare
spellingorgrammaticalerrorsinthatlineoftext(anxforeachspellingerroranda
checkmarkforeachpunctuationerror);thestudentisthenrequiredtofindthe
mistakesandfixthem.Noticingstudentspatternsoferror,andrelatingthoseinan
endcomment,willalsoprovideafocusingframeforstudentssotheycanmaketheir
owncorrections.(Makeacommentlike,“Youhaveseveralrun-onsentencesinthis
essay.Locateandpunctuatethemandre-submitthepapertome.”)
Researchindicatesthatnotallteachersagreeonwhatconstitutesseriouswriting
errors,thatteachersdonotmarkalloftheseriouserrorswhentheygradeessays,
andteachersarenotlikelytomarkaseriouserrorthatrequiresagooddealof
explanation(Connors&Lunsford,1988).Thislackofconsistencyinteacher
behaviorresultsinpoorknowledgetransferforstudents
Wedonotadvocatethatteachersignoreerror-filledwork.Wedoadvocatethat
readingpasterrorsinordertodiscernwhetherornotthestudentisgraspingthe
morecomplexmaterialpresentedinthecourse.Oncethedegreetowhichthe
studentunderstandsthecoursematerialhasbeendetermined,theteachercancome
backtoprovideinstructiononimprovingthepresentationofthatinformation.In
thecaseofteacherediting,lessismore.Savethetimeanduseittomakemore
substantivecommentary.
Ifyouwanttoprovideinstructionongrammar,startwithcommentsrelativeto
patternsoferror(“itlookslikeyouneedhelplearningtouseacomma”)and/oruse
arubricthatpointsoutthepatternoferrorbyevaluatingshort-comings.
Ifyouwanttoteachstudentssomethingaboutconventionsandcorrectness,you
mightconsiderusingarubricthatdeductspointsforlackoffacilitywithcertain
conventions(likepunctuationorspelling).Intheprocessofcreatingarubric,decide
(orhavethestudentsdecide)howmanypointstosubtractforhowmanymistakes,
andcommunicatethisclearly.Suchadecisionshouldberelatedbothtothenumber
13
ofpointsavailablefortheentireassignment,andtothoughtsabouthowimportant
grammaticalcorrectnessiswithinthecoursecontextorwithinthecontextofa
particularassignment.Avoidofferingpointsforsatisfactoryperformanceof
fundamentalgrammarskills.Correctusageisnotan“additionalpoints”skill.
Notethatthatthisrubric(seebelow)hascorrectnessasaneutralvalue.Theneutral
valueconstructionisdesignedtoreinforcethepointthatknowingtheconventions
ofwrittenEnglishisnotworthextrapoints.Notknowingit,however,willsubtract
pointsbecauseitdetractsfromtheover-allcomposition,andcausesadistraction.
CorrectSentenceRubric
Points 0 -10 -20
Allofyoursentencesarecompletesentences.
Thereareafewproblemswithyoursentences.Someareeitherincomplete(called“fragments”)orrun-on(sentencesthatruntogetherandhavenotbeenseparatedwiththeproperpunctuation.)
Therearemanydistractingproblemswithyoursentences.Manyareeitherincomplete(called“fragments”)orrun-on(sentencesthatruntogetherandhavenotbeenseparatedwiththeproperpunctuation.)
Asimilarrubriccanbeconstructedforpunctuationandspelling.
Teacherscommonlyleavemarksonstudentpaperwhentheyreadandrespond.
PoetWilliamStaffordcalledthis“leavingtracks.”Unfortunately,thesemarkings
oftenmeanmoretotheteacherthanthestudent.Thefewerthemarkingsona
student’spaper,theeasieritwillbeforthestudenttodecipherandprioritizethe
teachercommentary.Onewaytohelpstudentsdecipherteachercommentaryisto
makesurethatallteachercommentsarelegibleandallsymbolmarkingsarecoded
toalegendthattranslatesthemeaningofthesymbol.Symbolsshouldbeused
14
consistently.Inotherwords,ifyouaregoingtocirclewordsinthestudent’stextsto
indicatemisspellings,donotusecirclesaroundwordstoindicatetheyareover-
used.Letstudentsknowthatwhenyoucirclewords,itindicatesmisspellings--and
thattheyareexpectedtofixthosemistakes.Ifatallpossible,respondtostudentsin
completesentences.Thismodelsthecompletesentenceasavalueforteacherswho
assignwriting.
Whilemostpost-secondaryeducatorsexpectstudentstoknowhowtoconstruct
completesentences,spellandusepunctuationaccurately,anddemonstrate
proficiencywithcitationconventions,thefactisthatmanycollegestudentsdonot
knowhowtodothis(ortheyhaveforgotten).Themainthingistoacknowledgethis
factanddeviseawaytodealwithit.Onewayistosimplytellyourstudentsthey
mustfindaplacetolearnandpracticethisskillbecauseitispre-requisitetosuccess
inyourcourse.
Anotherefficientwaytogetstudentstopayattentiontoaspectsofgrammar,
punctuationorconventionistocreatehome-workassignmentsthatdovetail
content-basedcourseworkwithattentionpaidtothewrittenconventionsinthe
readingandwritingsforthecourse.Forexample,studentsmightbegivena
handoutonsentencetypesandaskedtore-readwhattheywroteforashortclass
assignment(oraskedtore-readacertain#ofpagesfromtheassignedchapter),
identifyingwhatsentencetypeshavebeenused(outofthe6mainsentencetypes).
Theycouldalsobeaskedtoattendtoandimitatethecitationconventionsused.For
additionalexamples,investigatetheonlinewritinglabatPurdue:
https://owl.english.purdue.edu/owl/
Thereare6typesofsentences:
• thesimplesentence
• thecompoundsentence
• thecomplexsentence
• thecompound-complexsentence
15
• thequestion(interrogative)
• theexclamatorysentence
Ifyouusepeerassessmenttodeterminestudentsuccesswiththeseexercises,you
willreinforcethelessonwithouthavingtodoanyoftheextraworkyourself.Be
awarethatnon-nativespeakersofEnglishwillneedmoretimeandsupportwith
thisskill(andanyskillrelatedtowrittenEnglish).Whendealingwithnon-native
speakersandwritersofEnglish,remindyourselfofyourownstruggleswith
learningtoread,write,speakandlisteninanotherlanguage.
Ifyoudonotwanttobebotheredwithhavinganexerciseinyourclassthatteaches
orremindsstudentsaboutsentences,thenconsiderusingarubricthatholds
studentsaccountableforthatconvention(Stevens&Levi,2005).Betteryet,let
studentsbeapartofcreatingthisrubric.Instructiveassessment“requiresthatwe
involvethestudentinallphasesoftheassessmentofherwork”(Huot,2002).
16
EfficiencyTipforweek#4:Thelensyoulookthroughdeterminestheview
thatyousee.Rubricsarethelensesweusetolookatstudentworkto
determinewhetherornotitismeetingtheexpectationoftheassignment.
Makesuretherubricisproperlyalignedwithcoursegoalsandteachervalues
ifyouwantstudentstomeetthosegoalsandvalues.
Thebestwaytosetyourselfupforsuccesswithgrading/assessmentofwritingisto
knowaheadoftimewhatoftheskillsthatyouareteachinginyourcoursearethe
mostimportantfortoseedemonstratedatthatparticulartimeinthesemester
(Wiggins&McTighe,2005).Thosearethethingsthatshouldappearinyourcriteria
forevaluation(oryourrubric);thosearethethingsthatwillmaketheevaluation
youdelivermoreefficientforyouandmorecomprehensibleforyourstudents.
Whileitisnotalwaysnecessarytousearubric,itisnecessarytohavea“framework
fornoticing.”Aframeworkfornoticingissimplyaschemeofvaluesthatprioritizes
certainaspectsofapieceofwriting.WSU’sGuidetoCriticalThinkingisanexample
ofbotharubricandaframeworkfornoticing,anditssolepurposeistoshedlighton
thedimensionsofcriticalthinkingthataredemonstratedbyapieceofwriting.The
guidetocriticalthinkingdoesnothaveacategoryforgrammarandpunctuation,or
acategoryfororganization.IfyouareusingtheCriticalThinkingGuideasthe“lens”
tolookatstudentwriting,youwouldnotbelookingatorlookingforissuesof
grammarandpunctuation(soifyouweregoingtoevaluatethosethings,thatwould
requireanadditionalrubric).TheWritingCenterusesaframeworkcalledAFOSP.
ItisanacronymforAssignment,Focus,Organization,SupportandProofreading.
Thislensallowstotutorstohoneinonthose5mainaspectsofapieceofstudent
writing.TheWashingtonSixTraitslenscategorizesthecomponentsinapieceof
writingusingContent/Ideas,Voice,WordChoice,Organization,SentenceFluency
andConventionastheavailablelenses.Aswithanylensyoulookthrough(social,
17
cultural,political)therearethingsitwillbringtotheforeandthingsthatitwill
relegatetothebackground.
Differentassignmentswillhavedifferentrubrics,becausedifferentassignmentsare
likelytohavedifferentgoals.Themorecomplextherubric,theharderitwillbeto
use.Seethebelowrubricforanexample(fromadifferentsituationotherthan
school).
Whilethismockrubricissilly(itisaboutsandwichmaking),intheteachingof
writingoursquaresmightincludelanguagesuchasAssignmentAdherence;Ability
toFocusonaMainPoint;SuccesswithOrganization;AbilitytoSupportanArgument
withAdequateEvidence.
RUBRICOFASANDWICHContributedBy:KelseyPhilips
Thissandwichreceiveda4(aboveaveragegrade)basedontheiraveragedscore
TASTE APPEARANCE
12345 12345
5.Tastebudsarestraightupraginginyourmouth;
dancinglikethere’snotomorrow
4.Yourtastebudsmingleandgettheirgrooveonin
yourmouth
3.Thesetastebudsaretheawkwardkidsattheparty;
notmakingmuchofaruckusbutatleasttheyshowed
up
2.Thesmelly-kidoftastebudsshoweduptothe
“tasteparty”andisstartingtorunhisB.O.alloverthe
mouth
1.Thissandwichtasteslikeithasbeenatahot,
sweatyparty…foraweek…thenthesmelly-kidoftaste
budsrolledaroundonit
5.Thisthingwassculptedbythegods;ithasperfectly
layeredingredientswithbeautifulproportions
4.Thelayeringofingredientsonthissandwichlooks
prettytasty;didyourmommakeitforyou?
3.Asliceofcheddarisfallingoutofthesidebutthe
generalstructureofthesandwichisstillsound
2.Thetoppieceofbreadhascompletelyfallenoffthe
product;didyourlittlesistermakeitforyou?
1.Thissandwichhasbeensittinginabackpackall
day—it’sallsmashed,disorganizedandsad
SMELL TEXTURE
12345 12345
18
5.Thefresharomacomingoffofthissandwichis
unlikeanyother;it’slikethebestsmellingperfumein
theworld…andyougettoeatit
4.Thesandwichissendingsweetscentsoutofthe
kitchen
3.Thesmellofday-oldbreadispresentonthe
sandwichandthescentofmeatisslightlytoostrong
2.Aftersmellingthissandwich,IfeellikeIjustwalked
pastadumpsteronthestreet
1.Aftersmellingthissandwich,IfeellikeIjustfeel
intoadumpsteronthestreet—andlivedtherefor
threedays
5.IfYingandYangwereeverrepresentedinanedible
form,itwouldbethissandwich.Itistheperfect
combinationoftoastybread,moist,mouthwatering
meatsandmeltedcheese
4.Texture-wisethissandwichlooksprettyawesome,
thebreadmaybealittlecrumblybutitwon’tstopyou
fromdiggingin!Meatandcheesearegood.
3.Themeatisfeelingalittlemorelikejerkythan
turkey,butthecheeseisstillsatisfactory.Breadistoo
dry.
2.Wastheresupposedtobesomethingfuzzyinthe
middleofthatbite?Meatisdryandcheeseismoldy;
breadisburnt.
1.Thisthingiseitherhardasarock,ormushyasa
bowlofgrits,buteitherwayI’velostmyappetite.
Neithermeat,norcheese,norbreadisup-to-par.
5=A;Excellent4=B;AboveAverage3=C;Average2=D;BelowAverage1=F;Unacceptable
Eachofthefourcategorieswillbescoredonasystembrokendowninto5requirements;thesewill
beaveragedintoafinalscore(1-5).
19
EfficiencyTipforweek#5:Don’taskstudentstowashrentalcars.Inother
words,createauthenticassignmentsratherthanassignmentsthatdon’tserve
ameaningfulpurposerelativetocoursegoals.
“Authentic”assignmentsarethosethataskstudentstoengageinarealrhetorical
taskorinamock-upofarealrhetoricaltask.Arealrhetoricaltaskisonethata
personislikelytoencounterinpotentialpersonalorprofessionalinteractions.
Authenticassignments,ormock-upassignments,usuallyframethewritingtask
withinthecontextofarealaudience/realwriterinteraction.Arealwriterroleisa
perspectivefromwhichawriterpositionshimorherselfrelativetoanaudience.
Forexample,ifagoalinachemistryclassisforstudentstounderstandconceptsof
chemicalflammability,anassignmentmightaskstudentstopretendtheyhavebeen
hiredtotalktoaclassofstructuralfire-fighters(intraining)aboutthecombustion
hazardsofcertainchemicals.Anauthenticassignmentisoneinwhichthe
demonstrationofknowledgeiscontextualizedbyarealworldscenario.Itis
importantwhenusingauthenticassignmentstorecognizethatstudentscannot
pretendtobeexpertsinafieldiftheyarestillstudentsinthatfield(sotherolethey
playaswritermightneedtobemodifiedtoacknowledgetheirlimitations).
Authenticassignmentsdiscourageplagiarismbecausetheuniquenessofthe
audience/roleofwriterframelimitsthepossibilitythatthispaperhasalreadybeen
writtenbysomeoneelse(and,asaresult,availabletoeasydownload).
BasicAssignmentDesignGuidance:
Usually,acoursebeginswithteachingavocabularyforthatparticulardiscipline(or
levelofthediscipline)andmovestowardaskingstudentstoexercisethat
vocabularywithinasetofmorecomplexcognitivetasks(application,synthesis,
analysis).
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Writingisbestusedwhenyouaredeterminingtheabilityofstudentsto
contextualizeacertainvocabularywithincomplexcognitivetasks(comprehension,
application,synthesis,analysis,evaluation,creation).Usingwritingtotest
vocabularyortotestthefactsofaparticularfieldofstudyisnotwrongorharmful,
butitistimeconsumingtorespondto.
Whenyoubegindesigningawritingassignment:
1.)Beclearaboutwhetheryouareusingyourassignmentprimarilytogivestudents
practiceorprimarilytotestperformance.
2)Knowtheskillsorgroupofskillsyouareteachingthroughpracticeoraretesting
forthroughperformance.
3.)Knowyourvaluesrelativetothethingsyouareteachingand/ortesting.
• Ifyouareusingwritingtogivestudentspractice,Whatis/arethemost
importantconcept(s)youaretryingtoteachbyusingwritingasthevehicle
forpractice?
• Ifyouareusingwritingtogivestudentspractice,Doyouhavearesponse
strategythatisconsistentwiththegoalsofyourteachingandthatclearly
considersthedifferencebetweennoticingstudentprogressthroughpractice
andevaluatingthatprogressorproficiencywithscoresorgrades?
• Ifyouareusingwritingtotest,Whatskillsarethemostimportantfor
studentstodemonstratetheyhavelearned?
• Ifyouareusingwritingtotest,Isthereahierarchyofvaluesrelativetothe
skillsyouaretestingfor?
• Ifyouareusingwritingtotest,Areyoutestingonlyforskillsthatyouare
teachingorhavetaught,orareyoualsotestingforskillsstudentsare
expectedtoalreadyknow?(Forexample,foundationalprinciplesfrom
previousorpre-requisitecoursesorgrammaticalandlanguageconventions
learned(ideally)inpriorschooling.)
Efficiencytipforweek#6:Peerreviewcanwork,butonlyifitisscaffolded
withinstructionsthatservetodeveloptheskillsover-time.
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Peerreviewcanwork.Itusuallydoesn’t,however.Thereasonpeerreviewdoesn’t
workisthatstudentsareaskedtocompleteanevaluativetaskonapeer’spaper
beforetheyfullyunderstandwhatconstitutesgoodwriting.
ThefollowingguideshowsthepeerreviewprocessthroughthelensofBloom’s
Taxonomy.
Whileusingthetaxonomytostructurepeerreviewisbeingproposedasbest
practice,noneofthesuggestedverb-drivendirectivesareofferedas“bestpractice;”
theyareofferedasrandomexamplesofhowtheverbsinthetaxonomycanmake
useofthelevelsofcognitivecomplexityinthepeerreviewprocess.
Level1isthelevelatwhichbeginnerscouldbeintroducedtothisprocess.
Level6isthelevelofexpertsandthereforeisnolongerinthearenaofpeerreview,
asitsevaluativefunctionindicatesauthoritative,ratherthanpeer,review.
Step#1:Havestudentsexchangepapers(eitherinpersonoronline)Step#2:Decidewhetherornotyouwantyourpeerreviewprocesstomoveupthelevelsofcognitivecomplexityovertime(witheachpeerreviewsessiondealingwithonlyoneortwocategoriesfromthehierarchy),orifyouwanttomoveupthehierarchyinonesessionbyhavingeachdirectivefortheprocessdealingwithaspectsofeachcategory.Step#3:Fromthefollowinglistofverbs,chooseactionsforstudentstoengageinthatbringtotheattentionoftheirpeersaspectsoftheirpaperstheymightnototherwisenotice.PeerReviewatLevel1ofBloom’sTaxonomy(Showingknowledge)IdentifyIndicateLabelListSelectUnderlineLocate
22
CircleHighlightExamples:
• IdentifyandList:o Thethesisstatemento Thecalltoactionintheconclusiono Thecatchylead
• Locateandunderline:o Sentenceswherethewriterusespassivevoiceo Sentenceswherethewriterusesactivevoiceo Alltheverbsthatareusedonlyonetimeonthefirstpage
• Locateandcircle:o Anywordsyounoticethataremisspelled.
• Selectandhighlight(inblue,ingreenetc.):o Anycompoundorcomplexsentencesthatre-statethethesis.o Anywordsthatareusedmorethan5timesinonepage.
PeerReviewatLevel2ofBloom’sTaxonomy(Showingcomprehension)ClassifyDescribeDiscussExplainParaphraseRecognizeRestateSummarizeTellRecordExamples:
• Paraphraseandrecord(writedown)thewriter’sthesisasitiscurrentlystated.
• Restateandrecordthewriter’sthesisinyourownwords.
23
• Summarize(writedown)yoursenseofwhatthispaperisaboutintwotothreesentences.
• Classifythepaper’s“genre”type(isitpersuasive,orinformative,orboth?)
andexplainthischoice.
• Tellwhatyoulearnedfromreadingthispaperthatyoudidn’talreadyknow.
• Describetheevidenceyouseebeingusedtosupporttheideasinthepaper.PeerReviewatLevel3ofBloom’sTaxonomy(Showingapplication)ConstructInterpretOrganizePredictTraceExamples:
• Constructacounterthesistowhatyouseeasthewriter’sthesis.• Interpretwhoanaudiencemightbeforthisinformationorargument• Predicthowtheintendedaudiencemightreceivethisinformationor
argument.• Organizeandtellthewriteryourthoughts(inaparagraph)aboutwhyyou
thinktheaudiencemightreceivethisinformationthisway.• Tracethelogicorprogressionoftheargumentthroughareverseoutline
PeerReviewatLevel4ofBloom’sTaxonomy(Showinganalysis)CompareContrastCategorizeInventoryInspectQuestionExamples:
• Compareyourpeer’sresponsetotheassignmentwiththedirectionsfortheassignment.
• Contrastyourpeer’sresponsetotheassignmentwiththedirectionsfortheassignment.
• Inventorythesentencesinthepaperandcategorizethemaccordingtothe6sentencetypesavailableintheEnglishlanguage.
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• Inspectthepaperforpossiblegrammaticalorcitationmistakes.• Questionthewriteraboutaspectsofthepaperthatyoudonotunderstand.
PeerReviewatLevel5ofBloom’sTaxonomy(Showingsynthesis)
FormulateComposeArrangeProposePreparePlanExamples:• Formulateaplanofactionthatyourpeermightundertaketoaddressnext
stepsinhisorpaper.• Composethatplanintoalistofbulletedsuggestions.• Arrangethatlistinahierarchyofhardesttoeasiestormostimportantto
least.
ReviewatLevel6ofBloom’sTaxonomy(Showingevaluation).Noticethatevaluationatthislevelisnotanactivityforpeers.Thereasonforthisisthatwhatseparatespeersfromsubordinatesandauthoritiesispowertojudge,rank,scoreorgrade.
AppraiseAssessDecideEstimateEvaluateJudgeRankGradeMeasureScoreExamples:
• Estimatetheamountofworkthatthepapermightneedinordertogetan
improvedscore.
• Decideifthisdraftisbetterthanthelastdraft,andifso,evaluatethedegreetowhichitisimproved.
25
• Compareyourpeer’spapertoanotherpaperofapeer(evenyourownperhaps)andjudgewhichisbetter.
• Select3papersfromthepeerreviewprocessandranktheminorderof
ascending(ordescending)quality.
• Appraisethequalityofyourpeer’sworkaccordingtothestandardsyouthinkitwillbemeasuredby,andthenassesstheworkwithahypotheticalgrade.
• ExampleofPeerReviewthatmovesupthehierarchyisonesession:
• IdentifyandListthethesisstatement(showingknowledgeofwhatathesisstatementis)
• Restatethethesisinyourownwords(showingcomprehensionofthethesisstatementusedinthepaper)
• Constructacounter-thesis(showingapplicationofone’scomprehensiontoadifferentproblem)
• Inventorythepointsthatsupportthethesisandinspectforsupportthatmightbemissing(showingtheabilitytoanalyze)
• Proposefurtherevidencethatmightneedtobegatheredtosupportthethesis(showingtheabilitytosynthesizetheinformation).
Efficiencytipforweek#7:Ateacherisnotthesameasapublicaudience.A
teacheristheonewhopreparesthestudenttointeractwithapublicaudience
byprovidingopportunitiesforpractice.Theteachercanguidethestudent
throughthepolishingforpublicationstage,andtheteachercanactas
“authenticaudience”forapublishedpiece(orapieceturnedinforagrade),
butthegoaloftheteacher(ascomparedtothegoalofapublicaudience)isto
assistintheimprovementofthepresentationratherthanmerelyjudgethe
qualityofthatpresentation.
Noticeyourownbehaviorandexpectationsrelativetoanypublicpracticethatyou
engagein(exercise,dance,music,art,sports):Howmanyoftheseinstancesare
instancesofpracticeratherthanofperformance?Whatkindsofcommentsdoyou
26
findhelpfulwhenyouarepracticing?Howisthatdifferentfromthecommentsyou
findhelpfulwhenyouareperforming?Theanswerstothesequestionswillhelpyou
decidesomeimportantthingsaboutyourvaluesrelativetothedifferencebetween
practiceandtesting.
Writing,whenusedasavehicletogivestudentspracticewithideageneration
and/orexploration,usestheblankpageasanintellectualspaceforexperimentation
andfortheevolutionandrevolutionofthinking.Aswithanyspaceandtimeused
predominatelyfordiscoveryandexperimentation(ascomparedtoformal
presentationandproduction),freedomandcreativityisencouragedover
conformitytoconvention.
Ifyouareusingwritingtogivestudentspracticewithformandconvention,keepin
mindthedifferencebetweenpracticeandperformance.Writingthatisusedtogive
studentspractice—evenifitispracticewithformandconvention--mustbe
revisablebasedonteacherandpeercommentary;itistheprocessofpracticing
multipleiterationsofsomething(draftsthatreceiveformativeresponse)that
ideallyimprovesstudentperformance(Kellogg&Whiteford,2009;Stiggins,2012).
Teacher(and/orpeer)feedbackonwritingthatisusedtogivestudentspractice
shouldbeformative(instructional),andfocusonhowthethinkingand/or
discoveriesdemonstratedwithinstudents’writingcanbechallenged,changed,
furtheredorimproved(Angelo&Cross,1993;Bean,2011;Stiggins,2012).Good
feedbackonstudents’practicewritingcontainsquestionsrelevanttothetopic
underconsideration,givesguidanceformakingmorelogicalintellectual
connections,andmightprovidecommentaryonthequalityofevidenceusedto
defendtheassertionsmadeintheexploration.Goodresponsefocusesona
hierarchyofassignmentvalues,“Toputresponsesinsequenceaccordingtoa
hierarchyofconcernsreducesthelikelihoodthatastudentwillconfuserevising
witheditingorproofreading,andallowshertoworktowardbetterproseviaa
seriesofmanageabletasks,attainablegoals”(Horvath,1984).
27
Goodresponsetopracticeisalsocarefulnottodrawprematureconclusionsorlevel
evaluativespeculationsonwhathasnotyetenteredthearenaof“polishingfor
publication.”
Polishingforpublicationmeansthatthepieceofstudentwritingisnolongerinthe
expressivestagebuthasenteredastagewhereitbeginstostandonitsownasa
performance.Itisinthisstagethatthefeedbackreceivedbyexternalaudiences
focusesonpresentationandnotonexploration.Itisatthestageoftheperformance
whereitcanbeassumedthatthethinkingprocessisover(ifsuchathingever
happens),andthattheeffectivepresentationofthethoughtbecomesthepriority.It
isatthisstagethatthestudentmustbecomeawareofthepublic-nessofthe
performance.
Onceapieceofwritinghasbeenpolishedforpublication(thisincludesgivingittoa
teacherforagrade),theresponsestrategychangesfromformativetosummative.
Summativewritingassessmentispresentedintheformofagradedfinalassignment
andin-classgrades;itishighlyevaluativeandfocusesalmostentirelyonthe
demonstrationofskillacquisition.Summativewritingassessmentexists“outsideof
acontextinwhichastudentmightimprovehisorherwork”becauseassessors
“considerastudenttextfinishedanditsvaluefixed”(Huot,2002,p.167).
Intermsofassigninggradesandvaluestostudentwork,wediscourageteachers
fromusinga100pointscaletoevaluatestudentwriting.Theevaluationofwriting
isalwayssomewhatsubjective,nomatterhowhardwetrytomakeitotherwise,
anda100-pointscaleimpliesafinelytunedquantification.Ifyoucannoteasily
explaintoastudentthedifferencebetweenand85andan87onapieceofwriting,
youarebetteroffusingamoregrossmotorscale.Thefive-pointscale(A-F)ora10
pointscaleismorereflectiveofthegrossmotorrealityofevaluatingwriting.
28
Efficiencytipforweek#8:Functionandformarerelated,butfunctionismore
importantifyouhavetoprioritizeoneofthem.Thismeansthatifyouare
pressedfortimeandresourcesinevaluatingwriting,prioritizethefunction
overtheform(unlessthefunctionistheform).
Ideally,functionandformworktogethertocreatenotonlyaworkingsystem,butan
elegantone.However,insituationsoflimitedtimeandresources,wesometimes
havetochoosetoprioritizeoneovertheother.Anexampleofthismightbeusing
anadult-sizedwoolgloveasababyhatifcaughtinsnowandwindwithouttheright
wintergearforyourkid.Thebabywill,ofcourse,lookridiculouswiththeglove-
fingerssproutingaboveitsheadlikeacock’scomb,butitsheadandearswillbe
covered.Anotherexampleofthisismydriveway.Itissosteepthatwhencovered
withsnowandiceitisonlypassableonfootifyouhavecrampons,Yak-Traxoran
ice-pick--unlessitismodifiedwithsaltandsand.Assomeonewhoappreciates
beingabletogettomyhouseinthewinterwithoutmountainclimbinggear,Iprefer
thesandandsaltstrategy.Myspousecomplainsthatsaltandsandwrecktheform
ofourdrive-way(andourentryway)bycreatingpock-marksandscratches.I,of
course,amrightthatgettingtothehousemakesmoresense(evenifitmeansour
drivewayerodesintoanuglypittedconcretesurface)thanfreezingtodeath
admiringthe“like-new”lookofslickcement.
Writingisthesameway.Themostimportantthingwithwritingisthatitservesthe
functionitisbeingcreatedfor.Ifitisbeingusedtoshowmasteryofthecontentof
thediscipline,orifitisbeingusedprimarilytoposeandsolvenewproblems,the
effectivenessofthosefunctionsareworthmorethantheelegance,oreventhe
correctness,oftheprose.However,ifitsfunctionistodelightwithitsaesthetic
integrity(asinpoetryorliterature),theneleganceandcorrectnessarethefunction
andmustbethepriority.
Efficiencytipforweek#9:Beself-reflectiveaboutyourpedagogyand
29
bewillingtomakesomeminortweaks(slow,smallsolutions)inyourpractice.
Consideriftherearemoresubstantialchangesyoumightmakeforyour
futureteaching.
Usethisspacetobrainstormtake-awaysfromtheconversationsinthebrownbag
series.Whataresmallthingsyoumightchangeinyourcurrentteaching?Whatare
somebiggerchangesyoumightbewillingtotacklenextsemester?
FinalThoughts:
Thereareresourcestosupportyouinteachingwriting(andinusingwritingto
teach).However,atthecollegelevel,noaccesssiteorinstructionalagencycan
improveincomprehensiblewritingskillsinasemester.Writingisaprocess,andit
takesyearsofpractice.
Inthecaseofnon-nativespeakers,somestudentsmightneedsupplemental
instructionintheformofanadditionalcourse,orasetofcourses,thatfocus
specificallyonlanguageimprovement.Whileitisnotyourresponsibilitytoensure
studentstakethesecourses,itisimportanttobeawareofwhatservicesorcourses
areavailabletohelpyourstudents.
TheAccessCenter:
InthecaseofstudentswithlearningdifferencesordisabilitiesWSUhasanAccess
Center.TheAccessCenterwillsetstudentsupwithAccessAdvisorstoassistthem.
http://accesscenter.wsu.edu/
TheWSUWritingCenter:
TheWritingCenterisavaluableresourceforsupportingstudentswithwriting
skills.TheWritingCenteremployspara-professionalpeertutorstoworkwith
nativeandnon-nativespeakersateveryphaseofthewritingprocess(pre-writing,
drafting,re-writing).TheWritingCenterisawalk-inserviceopentoallWSU
students.
31
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