SUFI ORDER AND RESISTANCE MOVEMENT:

THE SANÜSMTA OF LIBYA, 1911-1932

A thesis ~ubdtted to the Fadty of Graduate Studies and Resevch

in p d fii Ifïhent of the requirements for the degree of Master of A a s

p - p p p p p p p p - p - - - - - - - -

- - -

hstitute of Isl?unic Studies McGill University, Montreal

1999

National Libraiy mm dC-& Bibliothèque nationale du Canada

Acquisitions and Acquisitions et Bibliîraphic Services services bibliographiques

The author has granteci a non- exclusive licence allowing the National Libracy of Canada to reproduce, loaq distribute or seli copies of this thesis in microform, paper or electronic formats.

The author retains ownership of the copyright in this thesis. Neither the thesis nor substantial extracts fiom it may be printed or otherwise reproduced without the author's permission.

L'auteur a accordé une licence non exclusive permettant à la Bibliothèque nationale du Canada de reproduire, prêter, distribuer ou vendre des copies de cette thèse sous la forme de microfiche/film, de reproduction sur papier ou sur format électronique.

L'auteur consewe la propriété du droit d'auteur qui protège cette thèse. Ni la thèse ni des extraits substantiels de celle-ci ne doivent être imprimés ou autrement reproduits sans son autorisation.

Author : Awalia Rahrna Title : Sufi Oder and Resistance Movanent: The Sanisiyya

O€ Libya, 191 1-1932 Department : Institute of Islamic Studies, McGill Universi9 DeWee : Mastez of Arts

This thesis is a stdy of the Sanïîsiyya osdex, in which partîculaf

emphasis is placed on its role as a iesistance movement Based on a m e y of

the socid, economic, rebgious and political adVities of this s u f i b m t h d d

and its involvement in the mbd system of the Noah Afkica diiting the first

three decldes of bis century, an attempt will be made to identifir on the one

hand die fhctom th ccmtgbuted to the stxength of its resistance to Italian

invasicm, and cm the other, the elements that led to its fidur;e. It is ygraed that

its Mitiail success m the resistance benefited fiom the netwodt of the qibiyus

where kdbxvin h m diff-t tcibes were intepteci s o d l y and eccmornidy m

accordance with strmg Islamic values. However, hck of d t v p training and

w e a p s , dependenq on a prominent figue, cornpeting ambitions witbin the

SmÜG fvrmy and geographical distance dtimately weakened the resistance.

Auteur : Awralia Rahma Titre : Ordie sufi et mouvement de résistance: La SanÜsiyya

de Libye de 1911 à 1932 Département : Institut des Études IsWques, Université McGill Diplôme : WAt&e ès Arts

- - --

Ce mémoire porte sur i'énide de l'ordre SanGsiyya, avec une attention

particulière sur son mouvement de résistance. En se fondant s u r les activités

sociales, économiques, religieuses et politiques de la fratemité sufse, ahsi que

son impfidon au sein du système txibd pendant la pénétration occidentale ea

-que du Nord durant les trois premières décennies, la recherche tentera

dSidenti6er d'me p m les fiacteurs ayant contniué i la force de sa résistance à

l'invasion italienne, et, d'autre p w les éléments qui ont causé sa chute. Il a été

débattu que le succès initial de la Sankiyya dans la rédstance a pu tirex parti du

réseau des x&ytas où les i M w 2 des &€fiérentes tribus fixent intégrés

socialement et économiquement et ce, avec des valem islamiques solides.

Toutefois, le peu d'entraînement militaire et d'mement, h dépendance à

l'égard des leaderss Ies cüffkentes p e r s d t é s au sein de la fàmille S a n s et

les distances géographiques ont &Ni la résistance.

I w d d like to express my gratitude in the k t place to Professor Eric L

Onnsby, my academic advisor and diesis superclisoq whose schohdy cntiLism,

patience and encouragement have made this thesis possible. My thvlks ais0 go

to Pmfessor A. Üner T-y, the Diffaor of the Institute of Islamic Studies,

fa his imightfd couxnents. I wodd aiso like to thank my teachers at die

Institute, espediy Pmfessor Hemian Landolt, my former academic

supervisor, and Fmugh Jbbakhsh who widened my insight mto Islamic

mystiusm and die Pe- hqpage. My thanks are also due to S h Ferahkm

and Wame St. Thomas of the Islamic Studies Libram for their assistance in

0 4

obtaining i e s d m a t d s . I wodd also like to record my t h a h to Zakgi

Ibrahim fbr his rneanhgfd help m the very eady stages of my study; and to

Steve Wez for his editoriai help, espeady as he accomodated me in spite of

his own busy schedule.

1 wkh to acknowIedge here the generosity of the Ministry of Religious

Afftus of the Republic of Indonesh, the Canadian Intemational Development

Agency (CIDA) and the Mcclll-Indonesia Project in providiag me with a gmnt

to s t d y nt McGill University. My th?nks h go to Prot Dr. Nourouzzaman

Sbiddiqi and PmE Dr. Buzhanuddin Daya of Yogyakarta for di& moral

e support and encouragement 1 am likewise gntefbl to my Indoneskm fiaends

for th& wum fiendship during m y stay in Montreal,

I wodd also iike to express my heartfelt dimks to m y parents H.

Abubakar M d and Hj. Isrmwati and to my yomger bmthers and sisters for

their suppm as wd as to my father and mother-in-law who were so

encoutaging. F i d y 1 dediute this thesis to m y husband, Kusmana, who

desemes s p e d ho= and thanlrs for his constant love, criticism and support.

The system of transliteration of Arabic wods and names applied in this

thesis is h t used by the Instihite of Isl?mic Studies, University.

The table of tr;uisliteration is as follows:

b =+

t =a

th =&

j =c h =t

kh =i d = 3

d h = i

=J

Short :

Long :

vii

TABU3 OF CONTENTS

Abstract R é d Acknowledgements Transli teration Table of Contents Intrioductim

Chapm 1 THE POLJTICAL AND ECONOMIC BACKGROUND OFLIBYA IN THE EARLY TWENTlETH CENTURY A. People and Land

a B. Economy C. Politid Situation

1. Ottoman Administration 2 Tripolitanian Resistance and the Emergence of the Repubk of Tripolitania

3. Itahm Penetration

Chapter 11 ROLES OF THE SANÜSZYYA: THE CENTRAL POSITIONS OF smm, I K H W ~ A N D ~FWYRT A Stmctuie and Oiganizaaon of the SanÜsiyya B. Socio-Religious Role

1. Dbikr as die essence of SanÜsiyya's Mystical Teachkgs 2 Education 3. ?'&ai Integration C. Economic Role

Chapter III RE!SPONSES TO COLOISIAIJSM A. Baclrground of the Resistance B. Responses tu Colonialism

1. Responses of the Libyan People 2 The SanGsiyya Responses

C. The SanÜsiyya Resistance: Roles of the Lea&g SanÜsiyya Leaders 1. The Role of Sayyid A i p d S h d f (1 813-1933) 2 The Role of Sa@ Muhammad Idris (1890-1983) 3. The Role of 'Uniar al-Mukhtk (1 862-1 931)

Conclusion Bibliography

.- 11

iii iv

INTRODUCTION

The Sanusiyya movement constitutes an interesting phenornenon in

Islamic history, and pvtiCUISlifly in that of North Ahican sufism. This sufi

bmtherbood wls narned a f k its founder, Mdpmmad ibn 's al-San= al-

~ham-bi al-~asd a1-1&; a-miijiii (1787-1859 AD), & - &O k n m

as the Ginnd SpniG, a prominent Sufi-scholat ia nineteenth ceatury Noah

Afnca. This &a evolved fiom a rrhgious to a politid movernent when ît

b e p to play a substantial part in the sesistance agrinst the French in the

Sdma, Wst the British and It?lians in Cyremica and m the emergence of the

Kingdom of Iibya. The latter was d e d at k t by SaniiSi's pdson, Çayyid

Mdpmmad Idris, who ascended die thme in 1951, d y to lose it in a miiitaq

coup d'état led by M u 'ammat al-Qaddafi in September 1969.

Muiy scholars have discussed the SanÜsiyya and their correspondmg

poIitica3 movement Most have noted the role of the Sankiyya in resisting

colcmialism in their homeland. B a r k for instance, points out that the Libyan

iesistance during the years 1911-1920 depended heady on Sankiyya foices,

Ahmida discusses the soapl cuItuial and historical background of

modem Libya h m the eady nineteenth centiiiy to the end of the amied

anticolonial resistance? H e believes diat Sufi Islam, tribai d i t zuy ocg?nizauon

and d traditions wem crucial M the f#ît against coloniafisfn. The politid

and cultural legacy of the resistance has ais0 been pmeiful strengthdg

Libyan n a t i d s m and leadiag to the mhl of a strcmg attichment to Islam

d the clan. The memory of this pePod has not yet fided, and appreciation of

this background is essential to understanding present-ciay Lib@

The p t Biitish anduopologist, Evans-Pritchard, cm the 0th- han4

interprets the Sanùsjlya's politicai development e s t th& historical

background in Tba S d of ~ ~ ' c a ~ Yet here the emphasis is more on the

development, traàng the historg of the SanGiyya fkom its ori@ to the @od

of Itlliui colonjzabon. The present thesis is however as indebted to this book as

are so muiy odiec writings tbnt focus on Liiya.

A pdcular character is amibuted to the SanÜsiyya by Nicola Ziadeh who

sees the brotherhds d e as that of a revivaiist movement. As Leoivalist

2 Ah Abcidatif Ahmidz. Th Making ofM& fi& Shte F o d n , Cdof*@im a d &abta=, 1830-1932 (Amiuiy, New Y&. S U W 1994).

0 3 E.E. Evans Pritchard, Tbr Saami o j f C w (Oxfd: Clarendon Press, 1954).

-e movement, the SanÜsiyya ans consexvative to the extent it did not recogaize the

dedopent "the w d d had known since the advent of Isiam." ' Research dl now hm covered various aspects of the order, such as

reiïgiosity, ethnic, economic, and sochl issues, and politics. Howeveq only fm

scholars have tned to see the interconnection between the doctrines and the

political movement of the &a One scholar who has, Knut S. Vikor,

ccmcluded that the political movemmt was not the central aspect of the

Thus the histoy of the Sanùsiyya is dso the history of a Sufi bmtherhood

which welded the edinic identity of the Sahafan bedouin and neighborhg

The movement hm also become m y focus by mon of its distinctme

Wahhabi doctrines, a unique blend that consïsted in maintainhg Sufi values

and &g for a retum to the fundamental IslYnic sources, the Q 6 a n and

Sunna. 1 propose in this thesis to mvestigrte why the Saniisiyya became

Nicoia A. Ziadeh, SP*~ A S* $A RanPdirt M o l ~ ~ ~ ~ l e n t in l'hm (Leiden: E.J. Bplz 1983), p. 3.

0 invohred in resisgog col- and what fàctom tended m strengthen and to

weaken the &stance. 1 propose to investigate die nature of the j h i 2 (hot

war)' which was such a major feahire of the tesistance and to compare diis to

sLnilnr nuieteenth-cenhirg A6ican movemmts which may have influencecl die

- - San* the TijG Tokolor, al-Hajj Umy in west Sudan; the S-

M-d Alpud; the S&-IclÜsii, Mdpmmad ibn 'Abd AU& Hasan in

7 AccordLig to Peters, modem theones ofjb<ul fidis into two categones; '%ose comected Mth the pmpaption of Isiam and those co l lpd with the idea of defend' The nIst type! indude: 1) %trengtheniDg monotheism and destroyhg polytheism and false @S. Thip based on die nearlp identicai verses K 2: 193 a d K 839 (Fight them und there is no pasecuticm and the reiigion is God's [entirely1). 2) pro- the Iskmic mission a&st those who stand in its wry. This way ais0 W a h d e d piooecting fieedom of w o n . This &dom of religion is to be nAked by removing aü obstacles that blodr fiee missionay activities. AU men must be fkee to heat the cnll of Islam and to emb- without any -ce, oppression or persecutim on the pm of tix! autharities or on the part of tbQr fdow-mm. This cause b Plso scripnirpny founded on K 2: 193 aad K 8: 39 (5. . u d ttiere is no perseeution.. -3.

As fbr the causes connected with the iden of defeace, these are::l) repelling lggression on Muslim lives a d pmperty in case OC ui actuai or eqected attack by enemy f m , f o d e d on @ 191: "and tight in the way of God with those who oght pu, but aggsess not"; 2) pieventing oppression and persecutim of M u s b outside the Cemrorg of Islam. This is closdy 1Liked with the idea of pcotedng fkedom of religion. It is baseâ upon [4: 7Sj: gIow is it with yw. that you do not fight in the -y of God, and for the men, women, and the cMdren who, behg abased, Say, 'Our Lord, bPng us forth h m this city d o s e people are d o e r s , and appoint to us a pmtector fiPm Tbee, d appoint to us fiom Thee a helper"'; 3) retaliahg agakt a b d of pledge by the enerny. This is supported by @: 14: "But if they break th& ooths afoer thPt covenant and &mst at your .etigion, then tight che leaders of unbelief; they ixwe no sacreù oaths, haply they d give O-." See, Rudolph Petes, JiU ni Chrricol d Mardsnr I s h (P~ceton: M d w Publisber, 1996). pp. 120-121.

0 Sormlin; the Fâdir;-Bakk&Qadi;i Ma' alalCAiaain and his son Alpnad al-Hih

M Morocco; the Mahdi in sudana; and the Qàdiii 'Abd al-Qadir al-Jaza'iLi in

Alge& in die period 1839-1847'.

To answer the question, 1 intend to employ a histCKical appioach,

addresshg the probIem descriptively md analytically. This method will involve,

respectively, colectiug, aiticiilnng and interprebing the data and M y , nanakg

the d t s in the €km of a complete storg.

The thesis itself will commence with an introduction to the sources and

r e s d mediods use4 and then move cm to the hrst chapter *ch anB

pfovide an account of the political s e h g in Libya during the hrst three

decldes of the 20"' centuq. The second chapter wiU investigate the institution

of the gknr>ct and its d d e s , while the diiid dl trace the forces worktig cm

behalf of tesisiance. FFinany, in the conc1usim,I d dnar together the t h r d

of my argument and spithesize the results.

7. Spencer T+imingham, The S@ Ordm in Lrlirs (Mord: Oxford University Press, 1973). pp. 240.241.

Rsphael Danzigex, %&d al-@& d L A & n h : O th F m b mid I n t d G~llsohkWbn (New York, London : Hoknes and Meia Publishers, 1 977).

THE POLITICAL AND ECONOMIC BACKGROUND OF LIBYA

IN THE EARLY TWENTIETH CENTURY

A. Peopie and L a ~ d

It is diflicullt to h d exact data on the population of Libya in the late

Ottoman period, since a large put of the population consisted of n o d

12,01vÙd] and s e m i - n o 4 (m'ha) and because people hid the true number of

M y members fhm census takers in order to avoid paying a larger tax bill

This being said, scholars have estimateci the population of Tripolitania for this

pehd at betweetl800,oOO and 2 d o n and that of CyLenaica at between

190,000 and 500,000~

The population of Li+ in the d y twentieth ceaturg was a mixnire of

Anbs, Betbers, Twegs, Dawada, Tebu and foreign minorities mch as Jews,

Italians, BPtish, French, Spanish, Dutch, Greeks, Swiss, Austrians and

Fezzan and Cyrenaica. Berbers and Jews were predollljnandy setùed in the

coastal Mediterraaean city of Tripolitania, dong with otha forriga minorities.

Agha Mohamed Barbar, Tdc T&h ( Z ~ ~ I I ) Racrr*Lsa th 1- III&= 1911-1920 (PhD. d i s d o n , University of Wlsconsia-Midison, 1980), based on the Ottoman statistical yedmok Tmb- V?'k'SlulnmircJi for 1911, pp. 6-9.

Anbs, descendants of the origmal conquerors, iived almgside the indigenous

Berbem in Cyasmica. Berba-speaking Tuaregs a d Daanda lived in the

mtehr in Fezzan, together with Tebu-speakbg slaves?

The European mborities had th& own communi~es and mahtained

th& oam laws administed by th& chiefi or coundois; however, they &O

intexacteci Mth other populaeims in the area, pacticularly for economic

reasond Jews, on the other hand, led a difkrent lik compared to other

minotities, being much more! mvolved in die commmity M which they 1ivd

Not oniy did they hold administrative posts, such as those of local tithe and

tu collectors, but they also had a iepresentative in the city council and two

iepresentativcs in the vlhyet cotmd Rabbis from this community played the

same role as a district zbaykb, a&g as mediators between the community and

the aQniaistrati~n.~

3 Wrighf LraJrs pp. 24-25. The Tuareg m d y live in the oses of Ghat and Ghdaniesy the nrto of western Fezzan and parts of the Sahaca down to Tibuctu. Tb& dationsliip with noah Afncan sufi brotherhoods, UicLudiDg tbe Sankiyya may be found in Henry Duveyxier, Lm Lartwaq & N d E x p h f i n 1 Sobmrt (Nendeki: Kraus Reprint, 1973), pp. 301-315. S a also, Fm& Renne1 Rodd, Peqûb ofthe K i 1 (Loodoii: h k m d h , 1926), pp. 48-49 ind 200.

The da&-slanned Tebu, who live in southem Cyrenaica and Fezzan, are beiieved to be descendeci frwn an ancieat Saharan race. See W-t, Ijbyo, p. 24. See a h , Eise Fan- Li& &rAn#tqmm&tribr T i k (Berlin: RamPr Hobbhg 1933).

The Dawada, the %dm eatiers," are said to be the spangei or esnotes commupity, and have appanmdy lived for centuriesy in thiee oillages in the Ramla al- Damda between the Wadis AjaI nad Shatti in Western Fezzan. See W-t, fiop, p. 25.

Barbar, Th T&k, pp. 50-51.

Bedouin of Cpmaica, who phyed such a key sole in the rise lad

development of the SanÜsiyya, were of mixed Arab-Baber stock. The Arab

mbes B?nU F@l and Ban6 Sulaym took L i a in the deventh centurp- They

were both origjnaily kom Najd and of Mu+ luleage, of which the Ba&

Suiaym were the senior branch. They moved hto upper Egypt afier the

downfiill of the Cammthian movement in kabia, out of which they had

ewolved. The 3anÜ ?@l mwed w e s m d to Tdp01itamia and Twiisia while the

Ban6 Suiaym mainry setùed in Cyrenaica, where di& descendants have lived

down to the present &y.

Meanwhile, the teibes of Cyrenaica belonged to one of two rmin

groups, the Sa5di and the Mnnbu&. According to ~vans-Pridiard,' the Sasdi

were diMded into taro mnM branches, the Jibarna and the l$ariibi, the Jibama

tribes behg the 'Aw%$r, Magharba, 'AEd and 'Arziba, and the HGbi tribes

the 'Abayda~ HZsa, 'Aiht J?âyid, Bara'asa and Darsa. These tribes Jived

throughout Cyrtsnaica and shved the h d among diem in what they d e d

wq&m. The Sa'adi dso claimed desceut for the Banu Sulaym. The MiGbu2in,

on the otber han4 were either Arab triberneil or Berbers who Pyeicipated in

the oïighd invasion or came f b m Morocco to Tripoli and Cpreil2ica. n i e

Ma&bu@~ used the km4 but did not have the right of ownership. Because

they were only few in number and therefore wed, each dan was tied to a

p o w d Sa'Zdi tdbe7

In Fezzan, the main mbe were the AwGd Sulapiin, bie ~ a s ~ w n a , the

Faqaha and the Maq* The A d d Suhymàn used to h e in the Süte area

und about the middle of the nineteenth centurg. Dining th& wars with the

Qlauaml is m 1831-1835, the tribe mwed to the south, where they occupied

most of Fezzan and dien held the political power in that regon? The E & w b a

were the second krgest mie k e ; they lild once lived amund the Sabha-

Mua& a r a but later invadecl the area northwest of Sabha where they

a evmtually sedeci once the AwlZd Sula* came to occupy th& fomer

tefritory. The invasion of the m k m a forced the M e a tdbe in him to

move &om the Sabha region fiutha noah to the Huriij momtaias area.g

In TPpo1itania province, the A d d Bk3 and Wardilla tribes lived in

the Wad* area The other tribes and th& locations were the AwGd

Masallem, ai-HaWatim, the A d d Mu'uaf and a l - D d b of Tarhuna; al-

' . of M a s a l h FaGtL; AwGd al-Shaykh, Bathna, Awlad GEt, Fiijui

7 Evans-Pritdiard, Th SIII)YI; p. 51.

B&u, Tb, Tllmavku, p. 99.

Barbu, Th Tu&k, p. 100.

and ' A ~ y k n of 2%- Z i y a m Ma'adân, and al-Qa&fà of Siae; al-@ba

of GhadZmis and 11-Zuik; and ai-Rujiban and al-Md$Ünid in the Jh and

Jabaî al-Gharbi or Nafka areas.lo

The m i way of life is one of adaptation to a &en environment In

Cyrenaica, cow, sheep oz clme1 h d m moved 6nw one place to another

according to the season in order to obtain suffisent water and the basic needs

of huwn beings and ananals. Nevertheless, a few tnrd groups stayed in the

same place diniag whter and s u m m e r seascm, e-g., the Hadduth section of

~ara'asa"

Composed of 45 chief trïbed2 in the d y twentieth centuy, the

BedouM of Cyrenaica *etainecl the c o ~ l l t n e accepted tribal understandmg of

w+, %nnelaBd," and Lw$? (&go bwyt ) as a mbd subdivision that

constitutes an extended f?milg, the basic unit of tribal Me. This segment may

be described as a genealogical Iine or a politid mity.13 A collection of such

fàmdiies constituted a mbe and each mie had its own leader, the slqkb. The

relationship between the ~ h g k b and his people was exphùied as hllows:

Leadership is d e d in CpaPica when a camp is moved e e r y ben days or so in the a M y season- d e n decisicms k e to be made about plooghing. when the rrgalp wa- of animais is to begin, d o is to use the water, h m and where men are to gather for communai p q e r in the rnoming of the Great FestM, and on a whoie i d e range of the other mundane occasions. It is no accident that the men who iead in these activiiïes are also the men who are out in h n t when moments of high dnail are emacted or d o direct activities th& bases.I4

In a wider society, the Bedouin of Cyierilica built a systern of

dationship both within and without their community tbt made it

possible for them to estabIish and maintain thek own g~v-ent.'~ This

depended upon a network of dations between the various d g b ~ through

whom they looked a& th& collective interests.

They were in an economic sense a self-supportkig people, ading th&

home-made surplus pducts, e-g., homes, skins, wool, ctanfied buttes, suqIus

badey, honey and wax, for other consumer p d s . Some cornmodities, sudi as

tea, q a q Pce, and doth had to be imported fiom other c0unt8es.'~ Due to

hconsistency of rainfall and the distribution of water supplies, they became

not pepsants, but shepherds." Consequeatiy, it was hq#y uiimal husbandry

* Petexs, Th Br&&#? pp. 1-2 He argues against Evans-Pritchard's statement that the Bedouia of Cjremica were unable to pvem themsdves and that a for* pcmex should d e them.

17 This charactesistic distinguishes the Bedouin of Cyrenaica fFom their counterparts in Pnkstine, SpSa. Iraq, Egypt and the Ahgbb, w h ~ peas5~1try is dominant. See Evans-Pritchnid, Tk Smrwa; p. 46.

a that tumed the Pdi vwtation of the countrg into mil%, butteq meat, wool and

hides.I8

B. Economy

Duhg the Ottoman administration, the Liiyan economy was based on

agriculture, pas tdsm, handicraft hdus~es and local and fore@ trade.

Agkultural activities were u n d d e n only in the smaü fertile area in the

noah of the comtzy and in the -es of the hinterland, with the result that the

countq's economy dependeci mainly on livestock breeding. Yet, it was the

iand of Cyreriaica that was cmsidered the most f d e temain for cereal

dtivation in the entire country; in it was highiy p~oductive.'~ B d v ,

wheat and dates weze hanport export ~ommodities,~ along Mth caravans

whicb commercially linked regions withbi trans-Shriran Afeca to one another

and ultiarately to ~riiope? The Jewish population of conseal Tripolitania was

' 9 Anthony J. Caciiia, fibp ns&r rba S'd Oûbmnn O q t d m 1835-191 7 (ïripoik Govemment Press, 1945), pp. 9198-

20 &ca a p o d hq, ostrich feathem and Ahican hides to Europe and i m p d Jilt, gun and gunpcnvder. Sa, Shulrri Ghanem, The Libpn Econamy befm hdepndence,'' S d d Eamwmù DdprnCIXt tf Li&, E.GE Joffe and ICS. M d a c b b , eds. (Cambridgeshire: Middie East and Nonh AEeican SNdies, 1982). p. 142

libya was an important transfer point in the tmns-SPhuan d e between the interior of Mica (the area of Wadai-Boqu--Dsrfur) and Europe Th- aae ais0

a invohred in -de, cnfts and money-len* whereas the Itlli?ns wexe en@

in retail lad wholesde commerce md food proces~mg..~

The economy of the counbeg in the k t three decldes of the twentieth

centuy was dosely reiated to the s d and politid sphaes. This perid was

marked by the gradual implementation of a long term politico-ec0~1omic

pioject established by die Itllians to develop th& own colony, since Liiya was

regarded by then as Itaiy's burth shore. The k t phase, between 1913 Md

1936, limed at creatiag an dkstyucture that would attract Idians to setde in

Libya; this meant die construction of publie buildings, traasportation md

commUNcation hQlities, ali of which reqitiied a huge investmenta The next

step, duting the y- 1936-1942, was to be devoted to developing the

lgeidtural se- and piasuing land reclamation, lvgely in d e r to

accommodate as muiy Ialiui peasants zs possiile.

- -

ggnincant trnde mures between eastem and western Libp For rhis reason, -le of Libpa took advantage of the need foi semices on the part of the caravans and provideci camelsanddrivef$.

~3 Ghanem, 'The Libyan Economy,'' pp. 144-145. Pubiic buildings îike haspi&, b a a t s ~ d s d i o o i s a s w d ~ khwatersupplies and ase\rapge sysmn f o n d the second most costiy Fourth Shore pmject afta the mqortation projects which indudeci rorrds, h y s nid ports, ie. 10.175 Won Irnliza l in Sa h, Ciaudi0 G. Segrè, F&b S k Tbc I ' W @ n 4 L i û ~ ~ (Chicago and London: The University ofChicagoPress,l974).

The economic aspects of the Fourth Shore Prqect resulted in s d

disniminlkon that diffientiated westexners fian native fibyan in temis of

e c o n h c and CMc We, Ita&ins and westemers enjoyed d fàcilities and

+vileges, whereas Arabs rermined on the land, under threat of seizure and

deportation to concentration camps, if they did not coopemte.

Meanwhile, the people of Tripolit2ai?, Cyrenaica and Fezzan were

involved in different work. Most of the population of die Tripolitanian coast

and its sunoundings, Jebel Gharbï, and a s d part of the Cyr&can coast,

was agxicuitunl. Simple tmde in the fomi of buter was also c d on with

qpidturai goods, e.g. grain for dates.

The nomadic people of Cyremica weze largely involved in herâîng

camels and sheep and providing semices for cvravans. A pastoral economy

also meant the exdiuige of dairy products, e.g., milk and butte&, there ans

also exdi?age of ne& (movable wealth), like go14 anirmls and @dd

products but dso indiirting uiy item h t may be exchaqed for money and

inherited m succession cm an individual bah. Lady, there was exchange of

m% (prn~ezf~), landed property which is iahdted Smi~Itaneous~.~

In temi of colnmme, Libya tuded with Empan countries such as

Italy, Great BritaM, France, the Ottoman Empw and Aus- with d of

whom the p r t s T-li and B e n g k i did d e commerce, not to mention

the pozts of Misuzata, Khoms and Sirte. hi yan p d c t s such as i s e y for the

production of whisky and espart0 p s for the production of hi& quality

pape wge mainly e x p d to Brihin,

C. Political Situation

A h the downfdl of the Q d dynasty (171 1-1 835 A.D), the land

of Libya came under direct ccmtrol from Istanbul, a situation that pbsted

until1911. T b was fDîlowed by moie tEim a decade of Italian administration

iasttig mial the me of the secmd W d d Wu. H m Liiyans reacted to

O t t m and ItPliui coatr01 diroughout this p d and what ideology they

depended on to strengthen th& resolve will be discussed in the following

Pages-

î. Ott- Administration

L i and the Ottoman Empire in the eady twentieth centurg have been

d e s a i by one scholu as being "p-eis in pain,'' 25 since there wls litde

else m sham. The Ottomans were invited to Libya m the 187û's in ozder to

help the Libyans defend themselves +st continual attacks by the Spaaiards

ZI Shukti Gan- The Libyan Ecanomy befm Independence. S& Pnd Eam& Detx@mat ofG&p, 4s. E.G.H. Joffe a d KS. M J a c b (ChmbiidgeshLr Middle E?st and Nonb Afirican Studies Press Ld, 19û2), p. 141.

a and the Knights of St Joha As part of the Ottoman empire, Li- Wed fear

advantages, a d the country hced more thna its fair share of m a t d

depiivntion. Momover, because of the rernoteness of the cenbal govemment

M Istanbul, Ottoman ccmtrol over Libya was weak. Militay persornael a n s

limited,26 and the ecmomic benefits matteactive. These conditions did not

favour Ottoman attempts at goveming the county as a whole. It was a

ChalIeage for Ottoman admMistrat01cs to coUect taxes h m the nomads and

the inhabitants of the inteiJoq given the remoteness of certain regions and

their mwillingness to bend to centrai authoity. A large part of the population

paid no taxes by the EUne the Qarunnnlis came to d e the country. The

growtlh of Westem capitalism howeve~ ais0 affected the provinces of the

Ottoman Empire. The Q d s were detctrmined to collect tax diredy

and efficiendy, ma- no exemptions in thip regard Any =sistance by tribal

chiefs was to be put down, wïth the result that some tribes chose to cooperate

instead"

TI'herewere 1OOO Ottoman t m o p s in Cyrenaicain 1881, but the n u m k had dedined to only 300 by the Iate rineteenth centuy. With 20,ûûû men and modem equipment, the IalLns took oves Cyreoaica fiQr years later. Wright, L i h A M h Hidllg, p. 21.

Ali Abdullatif Mmida, Tbs1Cllikiifig $.hakm Li& (Aibany, New Y& SUNY, 1994). p. 57.

Undet Ottoman de, L i was divided into two administrative

regioneTripoli& and Cyrenaica. Tripolitania (rarabulw ol-Gbmb) was a

pfovMce (y&/#&l), with a govemor (d) assisted by a provincial board

(mrk-i k m i yk). The governor's subordinates took the sank of m&mwfand

kuyrnuh and they, too, had th& r e g i d cound. The status of Cyrenâica

(Barqa) changed s w d times. But fhm 1888 it was a district [mr;/tarmn$iEk)

headed by a mrr/kuanfdirectly responsibIe to Istanbd In matters affecting the

-y, posts, customs and judicial matters, the d of Tripolitania was also

respoasible to Cyrenai~a.~

On the eve of the I t a b invasion of Lt'loya, the province of T+litania

included four distdcts fiant&), each headed by a m&r;~~am$ under d o s e

juzisdicticm f d 21 subdismcts (hi), each headed by a h y m u h and 23

regions (nhye), each headed by a mt/uk The district of Cyrenaica hduded five

Between 1835 and 1911, there were two distinct periods of Ottoman

govemment, the Hamidina and Young Turk regirnes, respectively. The

administrative policy of both reghes towads the Libyan provinces was

g e n d y the same, p a r t i d y in the appointment of governom who were

a Rnchel Simon, Li& h m Oztommim u d N & n h : Tk 0-un Intrhmcnt

m Ur L&m &i"g ih Ww Wtb IlJy (191 1-1919) @dn: Klaus Schwna Vdag, 1987), p. 22.

29Ibid.

diuged &th mzintaining Istanbul's authozity. Genedy, Ott- contml

1 over Libya was weak and this hr seved reasms. In the Hamidian pdod, fo+

mstance, the gwemor's r e p t s on provincial administration were hvdly

accurate, since govem01s tended to use these as a fonmi to express personal

hatreds. Lata, under the Young T d s , hexe ans an absence of pariiunentaq

controJ, due to the brief existence of the constitutional-pariiamentar~r regime

(1908-1911) and the remoteness of the prince itselEm

Under Ottoman nik, development phns were d e , but fm were

reatized, due to la& of fimds and t h e . " The chief development projects

were focusecl on Beqhazi and Tiipoli- wtiere water networks, sewage and

rnuiupal de?nmg skcces, pmt devdopment, roads improvemen~ schooIs,

diaics, and public buildings were provided The authorities also arranged for

councils to mvestigate the deveIopmeat needs of Libpns in die fields of

industy, agriltrue, trade, colnmunicati011, education, hdth and

transpoctation, but th& reco~endations were not implemaited3*

Several attempts to develop I ibp were also made M the three y e m of

Young Turk d e - impmved education and mgional security baag diief

among them. Increased political a&ty in the fomi of clubs, md r a i d

politid c ~ l l ~ a o ~ ~ l l e s s through the medium of the press, helped to in-

the feeling of connection and identification with the Ottoman empire. 33

During di& presence in Liya , the Ottomans fotmd it riifficult to

defend the provinces from the Ando-Egypb fones to the east, the French

to the west and south and the Italjans' penetation to the noah. There weze

some attempts at coopenbion with the SanÜsïyya to push h e m out, but

m q h a i temitory continued to be lost. The SanÜsiyp's decision to coUab0iate

with the Ottoman was based to some extent on cornmon dgious ties and the

idea of Pan-Islaniism.

2. Tripolitdan Resistance and the Emeigemcce of the Republic of Tripolitania

The Sanüsiyya, centered in Cyrenaica, were not alone in the Libyan

&tance movernent the people of Tripoli& had &O taken steps towards

autonomy, although it was not recognized by any Western ~ountrg.~

Resistance to the IPliPas began in October 1911 Mth an ;creeiibr Eorce that

consisted of a s n d number of tribesmen and th& leaders, n m e of whom

34 The Ieaders of the Republic asM foa rrcognition h m the Itahq British, French and U.S goveXIllllents. But I d y had a h d y secured diar dnims to mya

0

was well-eguipped. The Tripolitaniaas as a whoie were m fict divided d o

two rmin gmups: tribesman and aty-dweliers, the lattez consisàng of traders,

'h i 'and the local piissaries of Ottoman descent The urbui-based p u p

was ais0 divided Mto three political camps: those wîth the d to collabonte

with the Idans, d e d the Efmm, anodier that fled to Egppt, Tunis or

T d e y ; and a third, "the wait and see group," whose members bided di&

tiw until a arinner emergdu

The tribal l e a b induded SulaJrmàn al-Biûiï6 6rom the Nafika ares,%

al-=di d-Mu~ta$r and Alpnad al-Mwayid of Tarbuna, and 'AG TantÜsh of

the Tajura area. Together with a number of Ottmau foices they met the

Itz l iuishsevdbatt le~dui ingtheyevs1911-191~suchasindmt0~l l

Tripoh, Shz' &Shah 'Ayn Zk, and Bk Tub&. Although the resistance won

seved victories, the Ilians had by 1912 succeeded in caphiriag Tripoli,

Tajura, Sidi Bitd and 'Ayn Z a m The sesistance went on und the outbreak of

the First Wodd Wa., d e n it was Mteisupted by a pe&d of accord foliowing

the Treaty of Ouchy-Lausanne, siped in October 1912 by Itaiy, Bri& and

tbugh agreements with Engb<ad and France and th& allies in Wodd Wu L S e , Ahmida, Tk Mkkiqg i f . & Ldpq p. 125.

a the Ottoman Empire. One pvision of the mty ans k t the Sultan ans to

give fidl autonomy to the Tripolitanians. The Itllians &O offèred an amnesty

to those who had fought against them. This treaty ended Ottoman sovereispty

over the province and dieV f o d involvement m the resistance mmement.

However for the rn~i&&k, the Treaty had no sigdicance, smce they had

dedved that they would persist M th& resismce until the withbrawal of

I t d h forces. "

The yevs 1916-1920 mvked a decline, however, in this resistance. The

peLiod witnessed the British-Itdh Coalition, conflia among the ceibal leaders

and the emergence of the Republic of Tripolitank The resistance mded

because of its hdc of coordination whhin the provMce and vnong two 0th-

provinces; the withdrad of Ottcnnan's forces and since the ide? of Pan-

Arabism and Pan-IslaWsm did not help much for it was simply used ter

political legitimacg.

The new Otto- administntor, Nuci Pasha, b v e d in Tripolitania in

1917 and found that the Sanisiyya had made a peace agreement with the

British d Itabms. This fia led another Tripolitanian leader, Ramadk al-

Shuta* to decide not to coopente with the Cprenaicans and to attack the

Sanikiyp's followezs m S h B Since the ernergence of Sayyid Mdpmmd

Idns d-Sans M Cyrenaica, the Sufi order had adopted a diploznatic approah

to Britain and Itaiy, a poliq that was c k d e r e d by the leaders of the

T & o i i w resis*ince to be etp ident to collaboration. This event lwakened

then to the necessitg of haviag theL own autonomous govertment> sepamte

fiom di?t of the other province.

It was not und the autrnnn of 1918 th2t Tripolitanians uimessed the

biah of the J1;1m&&ya a;/-Tmbk&ya (Repubic of Tripolitania). This occurred

at a time when the country was in tunnoil, both political and economic, and so

it came as no surpiise that the newly independent country expired a h no

more t h four years (19184922) of existence. The Republic had no

intemational sponsor to htervene with the Itllians on its behalf; and once die

Fasusts came to poww in Rome in 1922, the Itahans took a much harsher 1Lie

The Republic of Tripolitania was the ficst f o d republic in the Arab

wodd The dti* force behind its fomding was S u l a y d al-Bamd, who

beforehand had wged that an autonomous Ibadi-Berber province be hnned

in Jabiil &Gharb under the Young Tudrs. The chance to establish his oam

39 Anderson, 'The Tripoli Republic,"~. 44.

e own pvernment came lfter the signjng of the Treaty of Lusanne by Itaiy and

the Ottoman Empire in 1912. The treaty resulted in a division of provincial

leadership, by *ch Itzly gaineci a fèw coastai tmms d e the Ottoman

issued a deCiSUSLtion to Libyans giving them M authmity over their own a&riis

and r e g the aight to aappoint an agent to protect Ottoman intemsts in the

country.

A f k the signing of the Treaty of Lausame, the Ottoman

administrators and provincial leaders of Tripolitania met at the ' . a

Congress to deade th& position on whether to accept autonomy under

Ottoman protection or cooperate with Italy which had already dedared its

annexatim of the country. No agreement; however, could be reached since the

participants in the congress had split nito two diflrerent interest groups; one

- wished to coopemte, the other to resist The first p u p was represented by

Fvhat Bey d o was inclinecl to cooperate with Italy, d e the second group

was exemplified by Sulaymin d - B u ~ 6 who decided to resist.

Even so it took s e v d years before die Republic was offidly

established Presideat Wilson's declanticm of his support for national self-

detennination in Januay 1918 more or less convinced the Anbs d Libyans

of their cight to libcnte themselves. To reaiize this goai, the people of

Tripolitania chose a council to d e the pmvince, comisting of Sula- 6

a

a Ba&ïi, R a n i a ~ al-~i~wa$di,* Alpad M@d of Tarhuna and 'Abd al-

Na% Bilkhayr of W& 'Azzam Bey was the council's secretay, and a

twenty-four member advisory group was fonned to mpresent most of the

regions and interest of the tepublic The Um wu to acbieve Ml independence

f h n Itllian d e by s&g agreement in prinuple to a Tripolitanian amirate.

Yet, they were fPr fiom United inter*, with the result that civil w u broke

out When the problern of the province was bmught to the attention of

Rome, Tripolitanians hund support fiom CommUlZists, Socialists and

"tmub1emakm of aJI kinds.'"' Neverthe1ess, Giuseppe Volpi was appointeci

Govemot of Tripolitania. Negotiations held in M d 1922 between Volpi

and die Central Re* Bolrd to h d a solut ion to the issue of an

independent Tripofitania widiout Icalian invoIvement Eailed in its effbrt. At the

same time, a delegation of Tripolitanians tumed to the Sansyya leader, Id&,

and requested that he takes up the post of amÛ of d Libya. Idris accepteci the

offa, dthoiigh he knew that it would meaa a confiontabcm 6 t h Italy. These

were the events that clused the demise of the short-lioed tepublic

Besides the Ottcnnms, there wem tbree main &en powess involved m

Libp France, Great Bitah, and M y . O n the m e han& the French m d the

British had established more less fimi footholds in Egypt. AIgxk, and the

S u h . On the other hand, Italy was stin tqing to find its c'pzomi~ed land"

a ~ y o s s the sea. The active influence of Itdy in Libya duzing the hist half of

traentieth centurg d s for fiutha discussion hem.

The ambition to atmex the temitory of Libya was due to swd seasms.

For Itaiy, Tripolit- was a p s t i o n of naticmal honor and of political and

eccmOinic basicaily &ce Tiipoli was die principai pxt and a majas

According to one schohr, Italy had three reasons for embylring on a policy of

planned colonbation in Iibya once it had paded it. Fht, it hoped to d w e

its own high population deasity. Second, it wanted to keep 0th- powets out

of Liya. Third, it needed a cheaper and more effective way ofgamisoning the

--

42 Chdes Lapworth, T+d irad Yuaqg 1% @ ~ ~ d o s ~ Stephen Sud3 & Co., Ltd, 1912), 79.

43 The sedement was probably estabLished by the Phoenicians in the 7' centrnry BC as Ui'at kter Oea They established two o k colll~nerieial aties in Ijbya, Sabratha and Leptis, and the busiest Mediterranean port CYbtlge. in Tun- Major mauufnchnal goods anre amid b m Tripoiitatnia to Cmal Aûica by way of hao great raites wfnch met up about 250 d e s south of Ghadames Md continued as a sin& route to the R i v e N&. Job Wright, Libya (Ltmdotx EmJt Benn La, 1969). 33-36. About the live of ancieat Libyuis see, Ebrwbku, T& Nri-y, tmm. George Rawlinson (New Y& Alned A.. Toronto: R a d o m House, 1997).

a terri- than by troops mmnaip a bvnn shore and pmvisioned almost

entirely ffom the homeland? Fudemnore, Libya was ahrvays considered a

potential base for the I t a i b peneatim of Afkica to Lake Chad and beyond4'

The It?lian politicai iuterest in Ottoman North Afica was puisued at

hrst &O+ a pol iq of ccpeaceul penetration" of the economic and s d

life of the teriltoq, and not by conquest, starting in the 1880s. The hanciai

iastitution knawn as the 'ZBpico di Romas' was established m 1905 to begin an

cceconomic penetratim" of the land The bank iavested in lod agddture,

light industrg, mineral prospecthg aud shipping..' New businesses were

ficlmcced and controllhg intesest was acquUed in swing and m many sectom

of the expozt trade: cemais, wooi, ivorg, sponges and ostrich fathers.

E r p e d t i o n s to pmspect f a minerah in T.ipolitauia were h d e d , and within a

féw years the Banco di Rorm controlled much of the domestic and bneign

bude of Libys. 47 ItaüM -de had also extendeci to all the main Ldbyan ports,

aad schode were opened to spread the Italiyi Iuigunge and cuIture. The

- - ..

Martin Moore, F-b S b (Lood011; George Roudedge & Sons, Ltd, 1940). pp.13-14. See also, Claudio G. Segré. F d b .S'hm (Chicap and London: Chicago Universiq Press, 1974.

a Banco di Rorm t h d e r opened its fb t bmch m Tripoli m 1907, and 0th-

branches in Benghazi and 0th- Iibyan t o n . The effècts of the Eumpean

penetraticm of &ca on the Sahara and Sudan were p M y cornmerQal as

the traditional trade between Noah Afiica and the counmes south of the

desert ans drawn aany westwards and southwards h g the new, secure

dways and river mutes to ports on the Adantic CO-"

wth the advent of Fasasm, Itaiian colonial expansion entered a new

phase which saw an end to the poliaes of m o u s k'bernl govemments. The

rise of Benito Mussoltii m October 1922 mvked the beginning of a period

of unabashed impermlism, best artidated in his statement: ^We Fascists h d

the supreme unprejudiced CO- to an ouselves imperialistsP9 ~ h e

colonizatim of Libya, r e f e d to as a 'CfÔwth shore'' for Italy, was m addition,

considerd piut of "creating a avikatim" itself?

The significance t h the Fascists govemment attached to the conquest

and the development of T i i a was obvious fkom the hi& rank of the

governom appointed there in the 1920s and 1930s. In 1925, Emilio de Bono, a

leadex of the March on Rome that had brought Mussolini to power ia 1922

succeeded Count Volpi in Tiipolitania, while RodoIfo Gnazni came to be

a Wiight, fi& p. 15.

49 Wright, Ubp, p. 32.

knawn as the c c m ~ of Tripolitania. Theq in 1929 the Mushal of Italy,

Pietro BadogJio, was appointeci govemm of Tripolitania and Cyrenaica, *ch

had been mitd for bettet coordination of military ~ p e i a î i o a s . Under

Badoglio's direction GinPlni completed the conquest of Fezzan.

Fascist Italy needed oiae years before it could completely conque

Iibya, a result achieved throiIgb the aggressive r d t a y tactics adopted by

Gmzhni These were iequired m view of the fierce iesistance o @ d by the

SanùZyp. Gcuk i had come to the conclusion tb?t no Cyzenaican couid be

m t e d not to be a supporter of the SanSyya. H e tried to exploit the

jealousies and hostilities &ch other tri'bes felt toward the fattes. However,

mited by language and law, libyans as a whole q p d e d the It?liaas as

f-ers whom one migbt serve but not love. For diis reason, LyPns

partiupated e i t k dLectly or mdirectly in the resistuice.

Chnptef II

ROLES OF THE SANÜSIWA:

THE CENTRAL POSITIONS OF SI~IDWGKS, 1 l g l ~ 1 ~ ~ 7 f i

AND W - ' S

A Structure and OgMization of the SanÜsiyJra

adherents; iMwÜn, disciples; and 9 b g h . A m a n u 3 ieceived no prideges, aras

not Mitiated, so@t no blesshgs and couid iempni a foUowtz of other orders.

I&w& were initiateci, resided as a matter of a duty in the z&ya or the sufi

a lodge, usuaJly h?d some sort of education and helped out +th the znzUs of the

lodge d e n invited to do so. The chosen and most experienced i&& were

designated as zs(y&, and were entnisted with the administration of the q i a

Over aU was the Chief of the Oder, the d e r of al1 ~ jya and th& ~bgkbs.

The Chief of the Order anis lssisted by his councilors, the rnnqdhv, the w&i

and the A h @ These couadk, d e d al-&~~a/(y, aaed on behalfof the Chief

of the Order in the latter's absence, semed as the appoiated administrators aad

judges in the name of the Chief of the Oider and attended die annual 5d al-

Niwla k ZiPdeh. Stm&@zb: A SE-y ofA lkitdt Motrnl~nt % f i h , 2d d a @den: E.J. Bdl, 1983). pp. 1 1 &121.

0 A* f' and confe~ences, a m q o h ddes? The lvrlh? supemised the

m a t d and h a n d life of the qjbzym and received gifts and tithes on behaif

of the order. The -fa iesponsile for mdoctrination in the order supefvised

otha ru4- and tnnsmitted I the instructions of the Chief of the Oder

to his subordinatesesP However, hr the purpcwe of this chapter, whieh surrreys

the roles of the Sanüsiyya, o d y the three piincipal elements of the brethien-

~hwkh, i h k k and ~&ym- ppin be considesed It shodd furdiemiore be noted

that the title of sbg& bestowed on the head of the ~@vyu ought not to be

cmfbsed with the same tide bome by traditionai &bal leadeq ais0 r e f d to

as $bq&.

0 The qaXvryu s@& had two fimctions ia the eyes of the .*cf= one

temponl and the other spirituaL The k t devolved fkm his position as

anministator of the z&y~ which was his piimarg fuaction. This role extended

to acting as an lgmt of unification for tn%esmen, a task made necessay by the

incessant intra-tribai conflicts that arose o v e legai and economic matters. h d

owneship and Qsputed borders were arnong the main such problems, and it

was fdt h t the 2riMya ~bqkb, who benefited fbm the tepmation of Mâhdism

attached to Sayyid Mdymmad aiaiMiahdi nl-Sanz: was an i d d insaniment of

peace.

The second fundon stemmed feom his duty as a dgious patmn to his

disaples. In this resp- a $hg&, with the occasional assistance of his ikbüh,

served as the inr* of ddy payer or as a teacher. Srnethes, one of the i&w&

migtit read "ieligous WiSitiqp'' to a p u p of people.5 Here, the tenn 'gikbbt%k"

is used in a bioader sense, that is to say all adhemnts (hmt&) and disaples

f i b & ) of the S a n e a .

* This idea was aiarent in diffémnt regions of the Sudm Chad and Libya at aimost the sarne the. In the case of the San* it ans developed not isy Say$ M W al-Mahdi al-Sans himsel€ but by Sayyid Aipad &Shnfif, although it was aiticized by &Mahdi al-SanÜZ See, Horeir, p. 112, Ziadeh, S ' b , pp. 52-56. M m Ashbab, a i - ~ M d-S- (i'ripok Mafia'at Ma$, 1952). pp. 87-99. Fos the Sudanese Mahdi, see P M H& Th M u W Slra? rir the S& 11814898,206 ed. (Oxfd: Qvendon Press, 1970).

5 Nach- recosded that S a n s i . Rsd a rrtigious mt to the Kuka people of Wada'i on certain evenings of Rimqlb. See, Gustav Nrhrikl, S h and S d , uans. Aiian GB. Fisher and Humprey J. Fisher (Berlreley md Los ADgeles: Uaitrersity of Catifornia Press, 1971), v. 4, p. 12.

The tebal breakdm of SPnÜsigya membership indodeci mJlinly the Bedouins, the Tu- aud the Tubus. Prominent sub-tribes of the Tunregs induded the Awpelimmiden, Hoggass (Ahaggar), Asgus and Kelowh. According to Furlong, A s p and the Kelowis weze enthusiastic fohwefs of the San&+, esprmlly those who d e d in Air and Ghat See, Chades Wellicigton Furlong, Tda Gntary n> th S a k ObsCrCCZIiiOlls radEqknbw in T*b (New Yodc Chades Scr%nex's Son, IgOg), pp. 93-94.

W, DwepBec Wtes that the mbe was krgely spht betweea the S a n s and the Tir& orciers. See, Henrg Dwepiex, La Lcrbmq <II* N d E#mzz%n dic S h (Nendela: Krws Repant, 1973, &st published in 1864). pp. 300-310. Th& involvement in the order seems certain since t h e is an evïdence that a p u p of Tu* under Spli4 AbÜ ?&?un s d the SanÜsipo as a corps of "tmupes d'élite" for yeafs. See, Jay

Schoiars give dBkent opinions about the number of SanÜsiyya q&&asy

followers, and the areas where this ordm s p d Since th& r e s d was

conducteci at different times, howevec, di& h&gs tend to vug. At the htest

stage of its development, the d e r had spread throughout North f ica , the

Sahel, and b o n d into large parts of sub-Sahaam Afnca. In 1883, on the other

hand, d e n Duv+er pubLished his fbdings, there were 121 s*yas

distebuted in Eggpt (17 x+us), European Turkey (l), Asian Turkey and the

WjÙ (2), Tripolitania and Cyrenaica (66), Tunisia (IO), Algeria (8), Momcco

(S), and other parts of Afiica (12)? Later, Evans-PPtchard reporteci that the

nuinber had kicreased to 146 x e m , spmad throughout Egypt (31 qkya), the

IJi j j (17), Libya (84) and Sudan (14). 'O Zi?deh, for hie part, dismisseci repoa~

Spaulding and Lddwien Kapteijns. An I z U Ahma: 'A0 DwkÜ a ~ d th S e a , 7906- 1916 (Evanston, Iilinois: Nosthwestern Univexsîty Press, p. 16.

Tubu, Tbbu or Tebu is the name used inteschaqpb1y by s d schdars to descill'be this tdx. A c d g to Duvepier, d o caOs them Toubou, th- were six

operathg among tbis people mentioued in "other parts of AfXca'V M a , the Tubu of Wada'i, was suid to have been the k t mong the TU~US. Kmùa or Kada, ICoyo, Nghmip, Inpa and Kodem, to accept Islam. See, Gustiv Nachtigd, S A a d Sruclitrr, p. 164.

See, Heny Duv- Lrs T i dv N d ~ h n a h u rhu Sahm (Nendeln: KFUU Reprint, 1973, hrn published in 1864), pp. 300-310.

lo EX. Evans Pntd?ard, Th Sd $ C m (Odord: aarrndon Press, 19%). p. 24-25.

O dr?t the SanÜsiyya had established q&jus as f k mua. as South East A&

especdy Indoneska, describkg diem as only an exlggeratim." In ficZ the

Sanüsiyya had extended its inauence to Indmesia, althougti for political

reasonq it evolved into 1&yya.'* Therefme, it is the IdGiyp., not die

SanÜsiyya that is recogpized by the IndoneSinn Couacil of Tm;;ïù2 (Jamyiyyah

Ablith ThOJJqoh &Muytabamh an-Nahdiiyyah) m its decisicm dated Apd 19,

1981, and in its list of the forty-he r e c ~ s p i z e d . ~ a . ' ~

T.W Arnold nfw to Riddel d S n d H-je as sa* "the reügious oders rnoreov- have extendecl their orarniption to the Maia. AEchipelsgo, men the yo-t of them -the SmüQylb - hding adhaeng ia die most distant ialznds, one of the signs of the influence beiog the adoption of the name Sans by many Malays, d e n in Mecca they @ th& native fm Atabic names." Ziadeh, S*, p. 103.

12 Nerrertheless, Sagyid Ahmad S m once empioyed Hap Mu?mmPd Assad, h m the BUgtrese ' x k 3 a s his s~cretay for some tirne befm his retum to south S u l d in 1928 and them appointeci him the MW&CI. Wowever, it seerns that he did not s p d the ta@u. See, Muh. Hatta Waiinga, uKiyai Hnp Muammaci Assad Hidup dan Perjuangannya" (BA. thesis, FOCufq of Letrere, IAIN Alauddin, Ujung Pandang, 19ûû).

In the eady 30's. 'Abd al-Fattah anis also repmted to h?Pe gwie to see S?ygid Alpaad S U w h o then p e him as &a to mach a d s p d the docbeiaes of the .*a to ïndonesia, Shaiif also told him a kh@u had ?Lady been sent a> South Sulawesi. Tiateq Kiai 'Abd al-Fattah renamed the .lmju as 1- This tnnstomil9on was, a c w d n g CO van Bruinessen, a> psevent politicai pmblems whh the Dut& d o might have associatexi the , M a wib the the SanÜsiya iesiStance rnovement in Libp The small scal-a is now headed by Kini 'Abd ai-Fatth's son, Khi Dahian, centend in P- TaPitmalaya (arrst Jaen) and spmad in s e v d locai branches. See, Mvtin van Bniinessen, KI&& Kwag: Pa- dm Tm& (Bandung: MiPn, 1995). p. 202.

l3 See. Idvoh 'AligyPh, TsOnpob Mw4akrrb N , &marang: Toba Puma, ad), p. 38.

4

Wtth i@ to the importuice of the q&ym themselves, Trimiagtiun

writes, "the xpijiu was a center for mbd unity and tbis gave it strength to

the Sanüsiyya organization, as Evans-Pritchard put it:

UPülre the H d s of moat Isiamic Ordem. *ch have rapidly dkhtegcateà into autommous segments without contact and cornmon ditection, diey have been abIe to maintah this orgrniPtion intact and keep control of it. This they arw able to do by co-odnating the lodges of the O& to the tcibal stnicture.15

In a typical camp1ex, there were a mosque, schoolrooms, guest-

iooms, houses for the ~&kb of the and his M y , zooms fbr teach-

and disciples and houses for iMwim, d e n t s aad serants, and th& families, as

a w& os, sometimes, a garda and a cemeterg. l6 A A&+ initdly was built for

the purpose of digous, edu~athd, @cultural and s d actMaes. To $Z&

Latsrwish of the Maghvh tabe, al-San= wmte a letter, 'We built you a @iija

with a r@M to lead the prayers and teach the Qur'k so people can go back to

It ans in the @niyw of the S a n e a , in my opinion, h t "ethosu md

"arodchrid' " met and were manifested as a netwodc of social, religious,

commercial, judid, m i b q and political activities supefvised by the sbayk%rs.

Ziadeh explains that "... a ~iiay4 as conceived by the Grand S a n s w?s a

place for hard wodr, toilsome hbor a d productive efEmt Sansyah forbids

begging and abhors lazy Me. Woig is essentiai, and cooperati011 and fidl

cotfabotation are the bases of SmUG a~tkity."'~

The trao most kapottant aspects of the Sankiyya's mie were neiigious

ap- m have inspirecl a S u n 6 anci moderate sufisrqm while the latter was the

most miginal part of the Saniisiyya progam.n

l. DMkras the essence of the Sanüsiyya's teachhgs

The sufi doctrines or wIIIC?D-f of the SanÜsiyya focused on &b, even

though the fouadex himself lefi numemus writings on difkrent subjects such

J.L. Ttiaud, ecSanüsiyya," EI, ix, p. 24.

as Ab, q? al$@, &&th and histoy.= Smce the SanÜsiyya followers weze

mainly simple tdbesmen, accordïng to Homir, it anis iiegarded as d a e n t fm

them to levn how to pray and how to recite &h, instead of a high hl of

The okmia% founder, M-d ibn 'Ali al-San= (1787-1859) had

studied under a number of Sufi masters, including the founders of the

Darqawiyya and nj%yya orders, aLCAratii al-DqaG d Alpnad al-Tij-ii

respeetively. Al-SanÜG had several other Sufi afhliaticms, such as the

For smnnaqj O€ hiS Wfitings bet. k t S. Vior, .S$ a d Snbdia on tk Dant Edgc (London: Hiart and Co., 1995), pp. 218-239.

a AbduLllola S. El-EX&, ''%sciai and E c d c Tauurfmations in the Libyan Hinaedand durhg the Second Wf of tbe Nineteenth Centurf (Ph.D. dissertation, Uniresitg of CaWarnia nt Los Angeles, 1981), pp. 10û-109.

0 ShàdhiljrgP. J d y y a , N e a , Habibiyya and pmbab1y other orders? Thus

the doctrines of the SanÜsiyya were J d y a blend of Valcious beliel, with

borrowings f?om other movemenb and iadividuals, such dso the iefomrist

Wahhabi movement, the Malikite school of lnrr, Ibn Taymiyya and a l - ~ h a z & ~

himseif claimeci degiance to the .*a M n ~ m ~ k ' a ) the short chah lMking

him to Ibn Idas, by way of al-'Z'G and al-~abb-e.~

Al-SanÜG considered the Sufi &Ar the d y way to achieve spiritual

ascendanq h m al-# al-amrnàiq the d sod, to the divine souL The S&

repeatedly pedormed prayers and &kr to puefg the heart and prepve it for

nature." Perfomed collectively or in solihide, SanSyya dhikr is intended to

=ch more "the vision of the Prophet" thm "the viskm of God," but one is

a B.G. Marûn, A h L w BmrhcnboUdr in Nimtcwbb-Cndrry A i (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1976). p. 101. However, it appears that his d y dirwt ILik was with Ibn Ides and al-TjZd, see, RS. O'Faheg, Emgllllttk Sar'ntr @vauston, Ilfinois: Northwestern University Press, 1990), p. 132.

tS Ziadeh s-ts tbat the SanÜsiyya was a GhpZ?li?il d e c , in the sense that the bmtherhood combinecl the ckacterktics of the '-and the sufi nxcmmended by al- Gh* himselfregaded as the possible prototype of this nineteenth centurg Wer. See Ztaeb, Sua&@&¶ pp. 44-45.

0 not supposeci tn mach an ecsrPtic state. To the Pmphes" one shdd

concentrate on the image of the Prophet in me's own heart und one sees hW

waking and sleeping uid can pose questions to him. Before beMg able to do

so, howevei; a i e has to regard one's Sufï rmstez as the spkituai qiesentative

of the Prophet

The Saniisjrya treats the p d c e of &A.r like f o d such as d d y

prayeq hthg pilgcim?ge, etc., to the actent tk t befose and d&g the ritual,

one should comply with certain condibons. This attitude is interesting, since

d h i b is not an obligation for a Musiim, whereas the iattec ue. 'IttZh practices

etiquette.

A &Zr pedoaner is supposed to fulhll the followhg ccmditions? he

must sit in a piirified place; face the diipcàcm of die p& s p d perhnne on

each thigh and covez them with a doth; s p W e perhrme in the place where

the d k b is to be heM; purie one's Jiir (secret) and q& @mut) only for God;

a wey good, peffumed dothes; see tbt the man is duk and dose one's eyes,

Miaginnig one's hyM to be presenc obsesve ,4i4, that is, bllancing secreq

(ni), opexmess (hG&a), and sincexity @&@,), so as to purify one's deeds of d

doubc say &ihk ih0&3 in a loud voice and introduce the meanhg of d6iAr

into the heart with every iepetition; banish thought of every being 6com the

heart with Eiüibrr to establish the influence of i h - a thughout the heyt;

keep dent a f k the tbUd emptiness fh@b), so as to focus and piesent the

heart to the &-&it;. and nwer dmik water during the &Ar ceremony-

Furthemore, the ieciter mny not suspend a chain vound his ne& but

must cany it in the hand, h s t e a 4 no musical instrument is to be played; no

dancing or &gbg is to take place; no tobacco or coffee rlMikMp is allowed,

although tea is tolerated." In addition, there are other regulations phceci on

dtn'k which fàll under the headiag of etiquette. The five etiquettes (tZ&3) of

dbr'bare: " repentance (IiwEM), cleanliness &ho; quiet (nkii; wimessing in the

h e v ~ h t t h e is a spiritual chaM extending fnnn one's master back to the

31 Rinn, Mamhtr et Rbauriir, pp. 503-504. Ta W tolerated as long as it is sweetened by c a s d e siig~r, not the aystalizeâ white sugar- In their daiiy Me, the San&& are pmhibited îium any kinds of luxurg in the men's doth, silk, embroidmes and the -ents, iike also the money and goid utensiis. These noble metais CM legally be used only to nise the handle and the g d of the sanoid, because the swod is intendeci for the hoiy war- Womai on the cont.rary, are allowed to wea,r such oniaments, si&, and gold. See, Duveyxier, b CogHhé M d u n e , p. 7

0 Pmphet; md ackaow1edgtng the help of one's as a rrpresentative of the

Pmphet

The d b i b of the SanÜsiyya generaily consists of the fbflowing fodmdas:

1. "O my God, bless m e at the time of death and in the tests which fbfluw

death," repeated foag times afier the dawn pnyer wMe lying on the nght

side, the head piesseci on the right hand.

2 ~W&$'fiaC sepeated 100 times Mth prayer beads.

3. Loi* ik-A&ki& repeated 100 times.

4. ie A&&mrna '& ~qpi&"rh'-M~~&rnud aINaE 0 I - ~ m m z Pa- '&-

â&bi wa- ~ & ' & ' nw- ~ a h - repeated 100 times. " The second to fourth &h are repeated three t h e s dtogether. And as

an altemath to the second, the higher level su& can nad 100 times the

following formula if there are no outsiders listening in on the gatherinng: ~ZiLrbo

ih-&% &&mrnctd m7&3 ~pX&Mu&.rnmad f k& hnrbat tve fig5 '&&

mi warrrZtbv 'ih A&%%. 'Ihis fomiula, to which @al graFes are attache4 is

kept seczxd'

33 DuveyBer, La Gq* M i v s n , , , pp. 9-10; h u i s Rinn, M d et K6aru# (Alger: L i M e Adolphe JO& 1884), pp. 502-503; Octaxe Xavier and Depont Coppoiani in Lm G e Rc&ws Murahmm @%.th: Maisonneuve, 1897), pp. 553-554. See ais0 Ziaâeh, p 89. Tùere is a d i f f i c e among these sch01ars conceming the thLd fmula. Duveyxier urd Rmn siriguluiÿe the wod ,&bu, m p&&, arhile Depont and Coppolani plunlize it, mi &i%bi.

0 In addition, the Sanüsiyya demandecl thnt an individupl reute a formula

of &Xv fbr his imtisiticm. There are three forms of the formda, called a;l-~~d al-

M~&imrnd implemeated f a cMF&ent levels of m e m k 1) &kgWh%, 2)

Li- ihî i&-A'b Mu@mad mû? h%J hr56' hmQat wa nQ5 mÙ wcudkh

' i l n f i i , which sentence must be read 300 times and recited 100 times, and 3)

AUiilummu p E '&- J@M- M w m a d alalNatnt uI-urne lcvl '&- t3hi wa &&bi

wu JA?~

Al-SanÜii considered the best prayer to the Prophet to be Ibn Idns'

h o u s al'=.& d+, *ch he almost entLely incoiporated hto the rrl& al-

hbr'rof the Sanüsiyya." According to Sayyid Alpnad Shanf, there are & sut i

0 rrcitations: al-L&&y4 olF(3k'&a and al-2@mjyan Among these three, the

Eist is the best loved by the Sankiyya, which Padwick has tfiashted as

foIlows:=

37 Say@ Ahmad S m Anrvrii a/&- p. 59. nie other taro are tradated by Adains, ated in Ziadeh, p. 88. "O my Resource in every time of distress, the One w b answexs me on everg supplication, my Re- in evexy difhculty and my h o p when my own devices fail (Meaning, of course, God)," and "And unite me to his (that is the Pmphet) as thou hast United the spirit and the soui Çni mon) ouMnrdly aad i n d y , wakhg anci sleeping, and make him, O Lord, ta become s p i t of my oum essentLl sdf, him, of ali persons in the wdd, befm the lik of the HarPfoer, O thou Great Gd."

a Y Constance E. Padwick, M w h D c ~ v I ~ . ~ : A Si%@ fptsCr-&nd I Gmmm Vie (London: S.P.CX, 1969, p. 165.

My God, I ask Thee by the light of the Face of the k t God tirihich ad the bases of the Grrnt m e , and by which u p m the wodds of the Great G d , to cal1 d m b1essing on an Lord M- the geat in raz&, and on the hmily of the Prophet of the geat God.

2. Education

The educat id system of the San* was promoted MithDy by the

founder of the .&294 and fïuther developed by &Mahdi &San= and Alpnad

ShaGf. Al-SnnüG had established a pmgram of voluutaq &cati011 h e d on

two types of school fol the people of the hinterland: "permanent schools," and

"mobile ~chools."~ The fomm kiduded the @&ttyos WH were intendeci fm

permanent residents, whereas the latter were especially designed for nomadic

tribes. In the "mobile schooi" tachers were appointed by Sana hgdihs to

accompany the bedouin camps which for econornic r e a s m s W- constmdy on

the move.

In both kinds of school, teachers taught most aspects of Islamic shidies

such as the Qdaa, wam$ lFqb (Islamic LaxG)y @ aljqb (IsWc

jurispmdence), and Q d t b (Prophetic Tradition). In addition grammu,

mathernatics, astronomyy and other subjects were given to supplement these.

Nor were intdectual pursuits the ody concem, for sports and physid tddq

were o&rrd (- in the W e r instinxtim), as weli as vocational courses

in bookbinding, cupenty, smi&eq, metal wozk, dyeing, mat-making,

cotton-spmniag and weaving.." Some zrSMyw taught ody one subject oi two; in

the Sudan, for exrmpk, Qdanic schoois were found in Kawar and ilm ma,^' or

andJFqb were taught in the e y r t Msus a m q the 'A\alqL mi.'*

A mme advanced level of educatim ans aiso O-d M lruge qk$ws

such as &Bay& Kufk and Mizdah. And those who mtended to be teachers

usudy went to the Sanbi University at Jaghbüb." The University had 3 0

m& by the time of al-Mahdi and 8,000 volumes of books in its hibray on

Islamïc hw and jriiispnideace, mystiasm, philosophy, historg, Q d c a exegesis, poetry, astruniomy and ast~o~ogy.'~

40 Ho&, S d and Emmmic T @ ~ M , p. 94. Ai-SanZ h s d f \ms interemd in a great ruige of subpces, inciudiog mnthermtics, astrology, w h y , . music, law and politics. See, Dajjani. rJ&znk o/Sa&&w, 2°6 ed. ( C a k al-Mqtba'a al- F a n i n 1988) , p. 47. See aiso. E.A.V. de Candole, Th 4 8 ond T h q f f i r r g T h ofLi& e n d m Mohamed Ben Glialboa, lm), p. 6.

'1 J.L. T-d, LI( i+n& N b & jC .S'a&&, VOL 1 (Paris: Editions de h Miison des saences de l'homme, 1995), pp. 44&450.

a 45 Dweei; lp wt Muarliww, 11886, p. 24 and Evans-PntEhard, T h Sunui, p. 17.

The peak of dns e d u a t i d system wls rea&ed diimig the leadership of

al-Mahdi (1859-1902). In Algena, the number of S a n a f;o1lowezs was reported

to be 511 by Rian in 1 8 82~ Depoat and Coppolani e s h t e d in 1897 b t

more than 5,000 mm% were enrolled in sdiools m Cyrenaica, with 2,000 in

Jaghbüb alme? By 1890, the SanÜsiyya had amund 15,000 students in ail" Ln

fàct, when al-Mahdi moved the centex of the d e r b m Jaghbüb to 11-q ia

Kuhr m 1894, the transprtation of the ii'bnrp c01lection done necessitateci a

caravan consisting of 3,000 camels?

Undex the leadership of Ahmad & h a &Mahdi's successor, the

educational system in die Ltiyzn hintezland became espealny indebted to bis

schobhip as dl as his statesmuiship. H e criticized those "uoqualified and

insincete" tachers who hdd positions in the q&ya educatid system ody

because they bmiigFt high prestige and generous compensation. Consequently,

the q d t y of education declined, a point he d e s m a chapter of his w d on

educational pldosophy and peaagogical theories emtided F a dMawaXb ab

M w a &-al-N44Z dRabbb* o / M ~ Z a In sh- he underfkied the

m fict that not aU students codd become successfd teachers. The t&ers must

hrst nias- the methodologid and philosophical aspects of teaching, as weU as

demonstrate honesty, good judgment, and sharp analpis?

3. Tnid integration

When al-SanZ k t travelled to the hinterland, tribal disputes and

confiicts were endemic to the mgion. To ute but one example, his urivd there

in 1822 came immediately on the heels of the defeat of A d 'fi and the

J a d by the joint Corces of A@ad Bey a l - Q d and the 'Utnydiit In the

two btervals precedhg his next visit, many odier tribai wacs took place.

Among them were c d c t s invokg the Jakinah and the Fawa'id, the

JabœPnzh and the l$ambi and the lSbay&t and the Bara'sah. In addition,

t h e were intta-tribal conflicts like the war between fictions of the Jabiiioah

and the c d c t between the Kha&a and the Mughaprbiyah, both of the Iatter

behg subtriïs of the Bara'sa.?P

The process of making p c e was given its hist impetus by the coming

of SmÜsiyya iXbwÜn at the request of a given m i e to build a &ja in th&

tenit-. Then a J&& and severai i&Ün were sent to teach th& children, to

0 direct Fiidny prayers and to sohre th& problems. The sb&b of each *a

h c t i w e d as representative of the Chief of the order. he was the mediatoi

between the Bedoian and the Tiiikish arlministrator, dispenseci hospitality to

travelers, s~9ezviSed the coiledion of tithes, directed cultivation of gr?in and

care of st& dispatched suiplus revenues to the headquarters of the order,

acted as an ihtk Qeada of FPday prayer) and assisted in pieadhg and

teachMg.n

Gmdually, txibesmen were integated iato the order a d inevitably

becnie dependent on the SanÜsiyya's qwr(l sbuykh 9 the more so since they

could point to more successes tban could th& traditionai ~ b g M s SmÜG

membas had aice even solved interna1 c d c t among sectims of the AwGd

Sulayak and hnd med to ieconcile the Sulapin and Tubu with the Tuaregeu

In fàq by &g the tribes to Islam, the .*a succeeded o v d in creating "a

Iess violent way of Likewise m the case of the Z d y â mbe, the

SanÜsiyya lgreed to open a new x&ya in Kufka when asked to do so, on the

one condition thPt the ZuWayZ should stop thet mpaaous actions." Similar

. - -

52 Evans-Pritchard, Th Sclll~n; p. 80.

s3 Dennis D. Code& ''Eastern Libya, Wdai and the ~anüsiya," Th Jd $ &a?n H-, VOL 18,1,1977, p. 29.

54 Ibid.

0 redts wcxe obtaMed nfta the Islamization of the BiyaQt and Tubu, who

In dealhg with the prob1ems of disputecl borders and ?and owners, the

brotherhwd took the d-?ç.;P.ja"policy or "endowment fbr the x&yanSI

Disputed areas were designated for the 2mUryds use and the conflict of the

tribes solved through dtivating the land togethex under the supervision of the

of the ~ijvja T h i s policg worked better than the traditional kb& or

"tdd h m e race" whexe borders were roughly d e d " When this ausecl

disputes vnong tribes, the c&ym benefited by absorbing ir into the ~Cnvtza

communitfs land

5s Despite thek d e and independent characteastics, the Z&yâ soon oEered .iiegi?nce to the Gnnd kik i who had founded his capitai in JaghbÜb. Under the peaceEul guidance of the Gtand SanÜG and al-Mab& the influence of the Slinusiyya spread Lu, and tade with Centrai A6eica flourished. See, Ziadeh, Stznujob, p. 58-59.

57 Horeir, SbfUJad E~IIMIIIC Tmnr/-m, p. 120. Besides, the properties of the SanÛsiyya were @ed hom .pbp and €km individual s k . The total lands belongiag to the d e r amou11t.d to amtmd 200,000-S00,000 hectares in 1919. Sees Evans-Pritchard, Tbr Sand, pp. 74-77. Although the temi is used intefchangeably, plmnr maybe theconectone,as thettibewasgiventherighttocoatiaueutiliPngtheIand that the lodge itsdf did not deveiop; chus the ainsfer was not as cornelete as it usudy is in a sr& Sec, RS. O'Pahey and Bemd Radtke, " N e o - S u b R e c d e r e d , " in Da Ijh 70 (1993), p 75. Sa dsos Michel Le Gai& 'The Ottoman Govenunent and the SQnuPigga: A ReappraiSa,= ~&IKzI%RII/ Jd # W h Eart S- 21 (1989), pp. 97-99.

MMinge was aiso a tool of peace-rmlring. In the case of the Zuwiiyi, the

men of the mie mimed women nOm 0th- lin* or, in odier woids,

women were ex-d among the sub-tübes in d e r to &tain the p c e

agreement This agreement eventdy extended to --six J@& and applied

M m area of about 900,000 km2 which exteaded an>m Ajdabiya to Egypc

Sudan and Chad " A different peace agreement related to the slave--de. Duveyder reports

that nompds on the ficmtier of Eggpt and Tripolitania captured a awavan of

slaves 6Lom Wada'i and tht when al-SaniLi Ieazned of this he bought,

instmcted and f k d them, f k d y retuming the shves as missicmaries to th&

C. Economic Role

The re@ous activities of the ai were in reality dosely i n t d e d

with the commetcial pursuits u n d d e n by the various ~ ~ a , piasuits which

inciuded trading providiag security for stomge and exchange opening

warehouses to goods in transit or awaiting sale, and maintainhg the cuavan

route. Cordell says diat, "the Sanüsjra phyed a mdh-faceted d e in tnns-

~9 John D a . L i b ~ Polibcs: T A anù Rno&b ( Lundcm: IB. Tau&, 1987), p. 1 84.

a S l h l o n commeroe durjng the second half of the nineteenth centuy? 61 Al-

- -3 Sanusi s invoivement in made is seen by Abw-Nasr as h a k g been influenced

by Alpad TijSs ability to combme bis sufi &g 4th the acquisition of

The involvement of the Sankiyya in the life of the tebai communities

ais0 meant that it became deeply mvolved in the catavan ade, since the new

tnde route fMom Benghazi to Wada'i had been opened up by the ZuwZyii

mie.." 'Ibis route was the most important cuIwllly and peshaps ais0

comniercially of ln the desert crossingp." And d e r the tmnsfer of the San3siya

a Coideil, "Eastern Libya,'' pp. 21-36. Hoareoer, a l d e r of Chemidouz, of the

Tubu popuiation io Sahara, saw the peneaation of the =*a as ha* nothmg a> do with commette, but rather with education. See, TOaud, Lo -& N& + Ir S- vol. I, pp. 441447.

62 It is b w n that the G d S a n s was in Fez in 1814 (see, D.S. Mvgoliouth, "San+" in EIIC~C@W&Z of &bbip a d Etbia, xi, p. 194). that he came undex the inauence of Aiynad al-Ti= md zeceived instruction tn>m bim; and that he was pmbab1y iaitiaad into the ?"liikiyya order, see, Junil M. Abun Nasr, Th T1jrrny)M'A S@ O m k h a M h Wiw# (Oxtod: M o r d University Press, 1%5), p. 50.

a The tübe conqued Knnl about 1 W . See, =eh, Sum@&, p. 5û-59. It is &O mentioned in this book bat there were four ancient trade routes conuectiag c c n d Afg, and the Medi-- the fjrst, the westernmat route, wu fcom Trmbutrtu m AlgPm; the second, fmm Kano h Nigeria, Ain to Ghadames and Tunis; the third, the eastefnmmt route, hDm Chacl Bomu and WaQ'i, b u g f i Tibesti mountaïns anci to the covlt of Tripoli; Md iasdy, 'the Gatamaam Rd', hran the Libpzn des- a> the Darb d ~ ~ ' i n , Dufut in eastern Sadan to the Nüe near Asyut in Egypt See, Ziadeh, p. 58

a headquuters fkom JaghbGb to Kufn in Central Sudan, the expansion of the

order and the p w t h of trade reached its peak unda al-u ah&"

The qG+s, leadexs and members of the Saniïsïyya again phyd a

signiscant role in this long-distance -de. Z ' A T were established at the

intersection of local, and alcmg the trans-Saharan, made routes,66 whereas

leaders of the SanSyya controlled ccxnmerci21 affàirs; collecteci tous from

caravans and conducted trade on b&aü of the q&jm." Some men became

traders the mi the^.^ Among the SuiÜsipyl's i b a n , for instance, the Majabra

of Jab d the Z\IWayà of Cyrenaica were the mbes most active in the -de.

The ZUWay& who lmed in Ajdabiya and the centrai Saharan oases, traded with

and taxed mecchants using the SahYan route, cg. the A g a and ~ a l o ? ~ While

cornpetition between the two was fierce, accordhg to Hasanayn Bey, the

65 Codeil, ‘'Eastern Libya," p. 28.

67 CordeIl, Tastem Libya," p. 32

69 John Davis, L&m Po& T h a d Rm&on (London: LB. Tausis, 1987), pp. 184-1 85.

0 Majabra won the nputation of being the -test t m d a of the Liiyan des-

M e the Zuu6ya &ed the greatest influence with the SmïG familp.

In WIda'i, zojYjta were founded at Jabal Maua md Abeche, and a 0 -

school established in Nimm, an Mip<~taat tride depot7' In D e qii+ym

w w estsblished at al-Fasher, Bk Ali in h e m and at Faya, 'Ap G?hkkz The

second headquarters of the btotherhood at JaghbÜb (1856-1895) was located

where the mutes to Eggpt, Nubia and Arabia came tOgethecn Ku6a (1895-

1899 anci 1902-end of mu with the Itlliuis) was at the center of the t n a s -

S h y u i foute. QÜrÜ of Qini in Borku (1899-1902) iay on the main mute

In Kt&, merchmidise h m the port of Tiipoli lad the Sahamn interior

was erchuiged - d c h féathejc~~ i v q Y mdigo-dyed doth, hydar;iie, ssugrr, tea,

dfiigs, perhrmes, silk and beads and slaves." Liiya's cbkf trading pvbners at

"WMe the Majjbias are the Gieat tndem of the I i i i dese* the Zwayas have nbo theV ciaims to prominmce. The PwLy betaieea the two tribes is always present d e r the s d c e and occrsioiially it flashes €&th into the light Thae is some envy of the Z w a p by ali the other rribes of Cpennica because the man second in impoaaace to Sayed Id& ammg the Sanussis is Ali Pasha el Abdia, d o is a ZwayL" Hassan& Bey, Tb Laai 0a.m (toadon: Tbofntw Butmwod~, 1925), p. 98.

" Ibid.

73 Ibid

e the time were Engian4 the Ottoman Empire, France, Itdy, Austri?, TuMsiz,

Gemi~iy, Belgium, Egypt, the USA a d s e v d other countües. Itaiy and

Enghnd were perhaps the most active of dl. Ha+ enjoyed prospetity driring

the Kt& period (1894-1912), the SanÜaiyya's commercial fortunes dedined

f i e r the French attacked the caravan mutes m Chad, and e s p d y &er

hostilities between Anbs and Itllims emerged m Cyrenaia and forced the

aravan -de to move elsewhere m the counrrg.

Chapta III

RESPONSES TO COLONIALJSM

This chapter deals with the SanSiyya's resistance to Itakn coloni?lism,

which lasted fiom 191 1, when the I d h n d t a z y i n d e d fibya, to 1932, when

the SanÜsiyya's resistance was effectively ended. In this ch?ptex 1 d

concentrate less on narrating the history of this iesistulce, and more cm

i n t q t i n g its character and motivations, taking into consideration d the

elements that contributeci to the process. To do SO, 1 d focus iu tum on the

hckground of resistance; die resistance itself; and the d e of SanCsiyya leaders

such as Sayyid Alpuid S G f (1873-1933), Sayyid Mdyunmad Idns (1890-

1983), md 7 J m ~ ?EMukht& (1862 -1931).

A. Background of the Rcsistance

The political backgouad of Libya M the coloniai en has been sketched

in the tirst chapter. In this section, the discwsion tums to the rensons why Icaly

decided to annex Libya and why the Saniisiyya saw Itlly as a threat that had to

be resisted

The mens why Idy put into effect the ambitious 'Tourth Shore"

pro je and anaexed the country by the end of 1911, were varied. Rome was

a dàven in these circumstances by politicai, economic, demographic, geographiic,

military, historical, ideologid and even civilizational fàctors.' For the Italian

p h e minister Pascoli, Libya was the answer to Italfs demogaphic aisis, a

vast land which, for emigrants, would be "a continuation of th& native land,"

rendered even more f im i k by building the necessary inhtnicture. "Always

seeing our mcolor on hi& stined by the immense throbbing of out s a "

Pascoli also believed diat 1% had a temitozhl aght to Gbya because of

their geographical proximity and because of their s h d Romui heritage. "We

were there al~ead~,''~ ans his view, seeing in Roman i m p d history the

justitication behind recîaiming a piece of Itnly>s hexitage. This keiing of

historical des* had been expressecl by Mazzini many decades d e r , in 1838,

three yeam &er Tripoli had become a Turkish d z ~ ~ t - 'North W c a will ietum

to Italy- It has been ours once, and it must be ours again. ' said Corradini, and

in desmibing the potential of Tripolitania and Cyrenaica he also stated that

these two regions "are all that remalis to us as heirs of the empire which Rome

l For more de& on the ciàlizationai goals of the Itaiians see Paolo de Veccbi, Ih&>z G'n'&&g M s i o n ~A$~?uI (New York: Brentano, 1912).

Ibid.

Chades Lapworth, T@o& a d Yarnsg X&& (London: Stephen SwZk and Co., Ltà., 1912). p. 81.

a established on the Aitiican coast" Luigi Federzoni, a nationalist, stateù even

more ominous1y in an announcement in 1909 h t "the new Italian generaticm,

possesshg the consciousness of its historic mission, cannot be other than

nationalistic and imperialistic."

Seen as 'b tmvpmmcsm," the pmmised kad, the land of drearns, Libya

pohted the way to a better future for Itdy. ' Among the advaatages was

Libya's water supply, which "extended in an unintermpted layer fiom the

mountains to the sa'' P h and fïg trees, citnis goves and b?auia plaats med

the land "like a Ml-bodied whe." Stmtegic pozts with links to A k and the

Meditmanean, Tripoli and Benghazi were in a position to tmisshrp goods

£hm the main rruisSah213in trade routes to Europe and vice vema. The people

wae represented as an enmous resourte and a potential hbor force to

support I t a l ~ ~ 'The cdorrable prospaity of a race of pastod workers and

industrial cMfieSmen will provide a more diable element of suppo~ both

material and spiritual, to the homeland in the strenuous future that lies before

WiUiam C. Askew, EuirFpe a d X*'s Aq- #fi& 1911-1912 (Durham, Noah Can,lina- Dufre Unhredty Press, 1942). pp. 25-26.

For more on this pmject to 1940 h m its beeiamng, see Mvtin Moore, F d b Sbar Itodin Mnrr Gbn@i$on ofL-)rc (London: George Roudedge & Sons, Lod., 1940), and Seg., F d b S k , wbid, extends the smmy a> 1958/59.

a i t r s 9 Giuseppe Piazza, an ItPlian cocrespondent in Tripoli desaibed them as

'ltindly, peacefûl, 6riendly..""o The &te was "very healthfd," blessed 'krith

Italy's politid, m i l i q , economic and c u l d interest in Liiya was

emphasized by Crispi (1887-1896), a dominuit figure in Italian politics, who

admitted the politicai and rnilitaq sipifiamce of North f i c a and wamed that

I d y codd not dow any power who might some day be her enemy to occupy

territoy in that zegion.12 The Socialist Labriola, in respo~lding to the

condemaaticm voiced by Germa, soQlliscs against Italy said, "There m l y has

been a wu in which 'capitalism' played so s m d a part, in which the

l0 Segré, F&b Sbm, p. 24.

12 Pagliano, La l j 6 k g 1, p. 28, in Askew, p. 15

'3 Lapumrth, Trijbok caid Yomg I* p. 78. Lapworth aho remzdred that it was not basically baseû on any emao-capitalism tactor, but m t e d in a politid aspect :

"Tt is pue that Lbya is not so fnJdul and prospaous as of old, and that, so t i r as know, thae is no fàbdous 4 t h of goiâ and diamcmds to be obtained, which, accordhg to the peculiar 1ogic of scnne dtics, would have given the war a perfécdy m o d juaü5cation. &t the f?a ody semes to strengthen the contention thnt Itaiy was urged on by political necessity, and not by g&d of get-richquick capïcilistn Ibid., p. 139.

But in k t h p d in f i ~ t conlczdicts h a e what he stared in the prwious paragraph

0 and in many other p h of the samc work, es. p. 164.

That eccmomic interests pmvided the major incentive for the conquest has been &tiazed by Md=, '"A remarlrnble fèature of much fkign comment upon the

a that Geminny or some other F e r Iiiigbt cJaim Tripoli unless Itllg acted; thus,

Giolitti (the ItaIian Pfeaùa 191 1-1914) declaice4 ''id we bad not gone to Libya,

some other power would have done so either for political or econanic

reasons."14 This of course ans a matter of n a t i d security and defence," and

maintenance of the c~~f ldnm interests of Bdtain and Itaiy in the Mediterranean.

Another factor was national poktics: Fedeaoni wrote to Mussolini in A@

1927 i mernorandum in which he stated: "the colonizaticm of Libya must be a

means more than an end: it must dow us to place a fm hundred thousands of

ouf counixyrnen thete who win d e a part of Africa's Mediterranean shoies

Italiui m fàct as weiI as in hw. A problem o f c o l d politics m that its solution

is the only means to guarantee our dehnitive possession; and a pmblem of

fo* policy~'16

The Iclliui colmïzation of Liya amich a d y got underway between

1886 and 1911, and whKh encounteced strong resistance from local powers

situation is to be found in the suggestion dut the Tripoli enterp* is the resuit of a sudden, utmamnbg land-hunger- a greed for 'colonies' a d 'empire'- which has i e ~ t l y beset the Itaun nation." See, McCîure, p. 3. This stateinent challaiges Lapworth's idea that economy ans not the main bar and argues as weli tbat it was not the sudden conques% 'TrPly been charged with undue Prreapitanq, but if the conques was ber oniy motive, thai h a gunboats ?Wed off the T-litan coast much too iate; some of her present d mentors had "got th= k s t " La+, Trrjpbhd Y-g I&& p. 159.

(parti- the SanüsiWp), w u deeply mspired by ideologid and socio-

econotlljc motivations. 17

Meanwbiie, IItalian aationalists, a s d but hfiuential gmup, exerted

piessme of thQr own. They demandeddth?t a more active fmeign policy be

pursued, beginnhg with the annexltion . of . Tripolitank ni& founder, Emico

Corrad-dim, -te for the w, a nationalist review, an d d e pubrished in 1903

which sounded the "hist battle ay of the natidsts." A new and Ilnlitznt

pattiotism anis d o e d by trao othern?tionalists: Fedexip G h & in his Lo

t q a Ikda (1903) and Mazio Moaisso in bis L'impm'dmo ne1 nmh W C (1905)?~

and declared thnt Noah . H c a should' be .die fociis of this imp-~c

endeavor. He uzged nationalists to fmce the govemm-t to go to Trip~li'~

observe Tiipoli or capture it before the much desiied It?liui occupation could

be effected, a demaid&at was to shape public opmicm.20 Undet the leadership

of nationah m the Par&ment, public opinion- was dpped up to a patxiotic

enthusinan and h d y , to war Widl the Turks.

A differekt view was put forwnrd by the Socinlist deputies in the

pYii?ment Theyhisted that Tripoli haà no si@cant d u e and that it was

and to attempt its colonizatim wodd be to cmvext Tripoli into a vast I t d h . .

b d gound Leone CaetYii, an Itplipn deputy and n SociaSist, denied th the

sakk 'Cavery honest S o d h must disappmve of th&. liby.rn adventure. -It

means onty useless and stupid b~aodshed"~ Yct, the Socinlists' and the

Cieady, M y . had akady begun to psofit -hm its involvement m Liya . -

in economic,. s& md polidcal tenils. Thé èeqnomy qf Idy, O& of the gmat

*ers ki Europe nt the end the. nineteenth cent- and the beginning of the

. . Askew, -, p. 4 2

AsLw, Empe, p. 59.

twenh, was one of the fàstest gmwjng k t h e woddU Impoits haâ i n d

243 per cent oozr this peziod, d,whüe expoits had developed by a rmEgin of 224

per cent Agriculture and industries .tao had grown significandy. Yet the nch

hnd of Libya, with its valuable min& such as phosphate, sulphq iron, zinc,

lead and its 0th- c&odities such as sandstone and s d p was stin not fdly

expiored in addition, erports. of d e , sheep, e s p w , sponges, o h oil,

ostrich feathers, &tes, skins, wcd, eggs, old shrer, butter, mathg hema, etc.,

~Thes&suppLy&ngdicconstofCyrronicPansjpid~beeaougha>sPlt the wholeof E u r o p c , s e e , ~ T ~ 6 d Y ~ 1 ~ , p . 164.

0 country d be the mas te^ ofthe s u k m For me, the possession of Tuais has

not a tmth part the d u e of Tzipoli?"'

1910,~ its inûinaam cmis to tum to L i While h e nght to Tiipoli had been

mismanagement of Tripoli providecl yet anotha argument ffor an w e s s i v e

c o l d - poiicy. 'Tuirkey seemed . not onlg indifférent but averse to . .

imp.0vements of yiy kiad, appazently not wishing ta encounge either native

Hawever, Itdy's policy of peacefiil petration adopted m the eVty part

of the twentieth centuy . - as an alternative to the armed c~quest..ofTripoli was .

Ed?PftPdo Campezïo, an Itaiian e x p k Who bnveled in Tripolitania (1879) a d Cpennico (1881) &O crpmscd himadf'difhmtip, - . ' b p h d these h d s will à ~ t e me d e . - th SiiRan,: since the iaterpeaxf-he Bzitish and

- Fmchin the binte&d,.the trans-SQharaa mpde had ddined dramitiicply anci shihed to o&es mutes. See, Sqfe, p. 27.

fiiled and that.arined conqyest iild bixome necessq k o s e the Turks

w d h g n e s s to gnnt Itdy a shlie in the ecoaomic Me of TiipoIi, the Itrli?ns

Itdy began preparaticms for the &cupation of Tripoli inl:Angust 1911. .

An ultimatum was given to T'dey by &aly on Septembec 28' 1911.' Turkq

W ~ S @en twenty ho- to &muer the ul- Turkey's a n s w ~ was pnwipt. . .

- .

would-be' p t e d if diey did not &kt the hbegrity of die Itaiy

September 29, 1911. In anticipation of waq Itlly had amassed 824,000,000

h c s sufticient to tkuuice the was over a year.3s

l. Responees of the Ijbyan People

The response of Liiyws to the peaceful penetmtion of th& land by

Italy gen- t d one of two €bans: there wen those who sought to

coopemte widi the Itlli?as and those who refused to do so. n i e h t p u p saw

"Illiances 4 t h the colonial state as the spfest means to pmtect th& authority

0 members wexe for the most paxt merchants or businessmen?

Unable to maintain th& economic and politid independence due to the

fia h t comperibion among local tribes, on the one h d , and between local

powers and f* powers, on the other, was so intense, 1 4 taaders felt

obliged to ally themselves with colonial interests. In addition, the ItaIîans tried

to appmach them througti muiy avenues: bribq, positions, protection, etc.

37 As in Tripolitaaia, most of the consmi urban popdation in Cyrenaica died i d with ItalLns. This ws due to the fàct that they had only weak ties with the

a hinterland during the nineteenth century. On the other hand, the intexios, which rrrmicred under the Muence of the SQnÜsim resisted.

kige meLchaats, especially those afEiiated with the Banco di Rom?, fbr

exampIe, Musl i . merchants like the Muntasir ch," and Jewish merchants Iike

the Halfùns family, collaborateci Mth Italy in an e f h t to protext thek

economic interests. Hassuill QY?manli, for example, receioed a subsidy of

4,000 lire a month and afier the invasion ans appointed Vice-Mayor of

Tiipoli" These L'byans not only assisted IrPliui e c m ~ c and adtufal

interests in Tripoli City, but also helped the Itlliui amiy to ex- its control

over the city.' Anb chiefs were ofien employed to p d a s e horses fiom the

m i e s at higti prices, in an effort to "damage the war-making ability of the

hinterland ttiks.'*' In an effm aimed at co6pting the Smüsiyya in partiCUiZV, -

Itdy used Mohammad Elui Bey, an Egpptian who had more than once

rendemd services to the Italian govemmeat, to establish connections with the

-

* l3y the iate sulluner a d fd 1912, the Itahns had occupied Misa& Ghnrgan and Z d , and through the Muntasir M y they extendecl th& duence into Sirt and the F~Z~ZLO. Wmar Pasba, patxkh of the f d y , had been q& ~ C U I I of Sia and his son, SQLim heu the same position in Misratah. In Gbargan, t . hdd admiaistxative Pogtions. Supported by the Italiuis, the family regrti thet promicence fnw the Turks. See, Lisa Anderson, S m Und S d T m d i o n iri Tuniir and Lib, 1830-7980 (Princeton, New Jersey: Princeton University Press, 1986). pp. 189-190.

39 The BMco di Rama o h SOM pducts br las dian bad been paid for them. This fict obviously led Itassunr to support the Itaiim. See, Askew, p. 2û. This ans one of the atrempts, thEough bribery, to get supports h m the indigenousi population, a fia tbzt nlnrmed 11-Banid and A î p d a l - S m . See, Hoteir, S d and Emmmic T-n, p. 292

* Ahmida, T h pp. 108-109.

the Ishmic Uhersity of airo o.'* 'AE ibn 'Abd al-Rdjk w?s also r e m to

have reached a compromise with I d k authoiities thiough the Banco di

Those belcmging to the second p u p , on the other band, wea for the

most pyt from ninl areas, especizliy the t r i i of the intmoiW These rejected

collaboration with 1taiia.n peaetraticm, wisbg hstead to maintain th&

eccmornic md political independence. In QcS t h e were three diffrrrat p u p s

involved in resisting Itplian petration: the SanGiyya order, the Tripolitmian

republic, and the m i cdederations. The Sanüsiyya sought to ildraintain

contml over Cyremica and the hinterland, the TripoliClnians over di& own

O -

temitofy, and the interiof mies, me those of G i i and Sydca, the Awm

Sula- the TV, and most of the Arabs of Wada'i 11-Shatti, over the

+ans in wbich they were setded.

2. The Sanüsiyya's Rcaponses

Generilty, the attitude of the Sanüsipga towards fmeiga penetrraticm ans

manifiestecl in dirre anys: avoiduice, coopei3ation md iesistance. T h e w?s no

strict chronology to these thm rrsponses, although the kt response sas

more common in the d y period of the SanÜsiyya's existence when they felt

the pressme of westem and Tlirkish fones in th& vicinity. Reniaiiag fkom the

yij& in lW, alalSanusi decided to enter Mustagh9nim, Aigeria, his own

homeland, but he ans not dowed to do so by the French, who f e ~ e d that he

wodd join foms with the A& 'Abd al-Qadir in Algcrin>s resistlnceU

Perhaps this incident led alSan% to establish a distance between himself and

"the enemy," although w h t he meant by "the memy" anis still undefined.

SanÜG's expression for this was, "sevea 4 s between us and the enemy of

AH&." " On another occasion he SU& "evey Muslim must be ready for the

confkmtatim.'" Taken together, the two statements imply that the d e r was

to piepare in isolation for "necessay actions" if the situation required it.

Anohet example of the strategy of maintabhg a distance was the

establishment of the first SmÜii &Bay&?, on the higti land between

Dema and lhglmï, where it was "easily defaded and difficult to access. ss 47

Located several hundred miles f b n Tripoli, it maintained a considerable

B.G. Miuan, Ahh Bmtbe&d B Nin&& C'emby 4fia (Cambsdge: Cambridge University Press, 1976), p. 105.

disouice 6rom Ottoman poliq-malt- who might have otherwise taken notice

of the bmtherhd The order h o moved its @@a Erom Kanem, dere it had

won p a t influence among the A d d Sulaymk tribe between 1895 and 1899;

this transh was foIlowed by the SanÜsiyya's withdnwal h m B o h and

'Iibesti In the y e u 1895, al-Mahdi removed hic: seat fhm Jaghbüb to Kufn,

again in orda to presenrr the order 6com Turkish intemention." S k c t poüàes

with regard to foreign explorers were applied "to preserPe their independence

and resist penetration by colonial infl~ences,'''~ since explorers sometirnes

mimde~~tood the order to be a haticai sect, as evidenced by Fudcmg's

a statement 'The Senusi were the most powerf.ul and f'suiatical sect M Islam." " It was the F-ch threat 6ran Chad and beyoad, made more serious by

the capture of the SanÜsiyya's caravan routes lending from Bagkmi, Niger,

Kanem and W&i towards Libya, that f S y convhced the SanGiyya to put

th& diEimnces with the Turks aside and job &es Igntist the French. After

haxhg refused for yevs to accept Turkish npresentsitives in K u h , in 1908 the

" CariPintg apt to desclibe the brotherhood d e r the second leder, al- ahd di al- smùà *, Fodmg, Th GbmMg. p. 93.

SanÜsiyya welcomed th- in the ht-t of gaining th&

Howwer, Turkey codd only provide a token force to pmtect such distant

boundafi'es and Sayyid Alpad Siilnfwas f d to tum to Lord Kitchener, the

Bxitish agent and consul p e r a l in Egypt 1911-1914, since the Fiench had

already taken Bomu and mchading Qum and Wajanga, and had neady

ceached K u h The Biitish intemeneci to stop the French at Sayyid Alpad

S W s requesh and h d y the French withdrew to Tekro, on the Liiya-Chad

border, in 1910. Accordkg to Candole, author of a biography of Sayyid

Mdpmmad Id&, the fburth Chief of the Orda and later Kiag of Libya, these

0 were a d y the hrst contacts between %rirain and the SanÛsiyya (contrar~r to

daims that these onEg o c d up to the 1940s when Sayyid Mukpmmad Idns

went into exile in Esppt).

The policy of resistance may be traced back to the leadership of the

second Chief of the Order, al-Maûdi al-SanüG, and to the year in 1902, when

the SanÜsiyya were defated by the French and forced to leave z&& Bi'z 'Ahdi

in Kan- On the death of Sayyid 11-Mahdi siot months later, his position

devoived upm Sayyid Alpuad SM The latter was in Kufh in 1911 when

Itdy declared wu on Turkey, and he decided to hold a meeting attended by

Candoie, Th L j e and Tinacr, pp. 1617.

menibers of his council and by many important ibün anà adherentsF Some

of them seemed hesitant to begh a new war *en that they had just hished

@ h g one ?gainst the French and wexe now hmig the I&s, who had

aiready defated Tudrey. They felt b t theu chances of wiwiag were srmll,

and that the 1e;iliyis could cut off any aid that onight be fdcoming from

0th- Islvnic nations? But Sayyid Alpad al-Shan'f spoke to them forrefuny,

and med to banish thar tho@ts of defeat by readiag Qur'ââc verses

concerningfbtGd to thea H e emphasized diltjaàil was a duty that had to be

d e d out regadess of the difüdties of the power of the kq@ks Fkdy, as

Hm& tells us, he annomced, "1 swepr to Almighty Annh that 1 will fight them,

even if 1 must do it alone ymed d y with m y stafE'." The meeting adjoumecl,

after having dednred a )%ad on Jan- 23, 1912; h m that point onwards

Sayyid A&md begrn leadhg the SanÜsiyya's c e s i s ~ c e movement

C. The SanUsiya Resistance: Roles of the Leadiag SanÛsiyya Leaders

During the SanusjrYa resistance, both Sayyid Alpad Sh&f and 'Umar

11-Miikhtâr served as commanders m the field, d e Sayyid Idns acted 2s the

chief negothmi.. Fdemiore, the em-ce of 'Umar al-MatEr after

Soyyid Ahmpd Shaaf pmved the close and pow& s d ties between the

Sufi d e r lad the tr i i . Idns, cm the other haad, maintaMd the oiew dint

oniy through neggotiation could libyans radi independence.

i. The Role of Sayyid Alpad Shàn2 (is7Sl133)

Sayyid Alpuad ShGC the son of Sayyid Mulpmmd Shdf and the

gtandson of al-SanÜG, was the diird leader of the Sanusigya. Accordhg to

Evans-Patchard, he wls "a man of medium height, stow for pi Anb on the

da& side, with a îïtm and detecimineci face aàomed with a s d moustache,

a dosesut whiskem on the upper jaw, and close-cut bearrd." " He was diai in his

fodes. Mortmver, he WPS h- mpredictable in his judgements and

impulsive in his actions. He was besides p u d , quarreisome, and hatical. But

he was a good M u s h and a defiant and loyal mm, pedstent in his beliefs,

obstinate in uphoMiag his piinciples and s o h when defatedS6

Sayyid Aiynad S W s leadership of the d e r extended over three

distinct periods: Erom 1902 to 1912, when he was ccmfkonting the French in

the Sahprp; from 1912 to 1918, when he and his Bedouh foU<liarers were

resisting the Itahm and the British in Cyrenaica; and b m 1918, when he lefi

the country to go into d e , to 1933, d e n he died at M&"

In the k t period, he coIlabomted with the Turkish and the British in

d e r to pmtect K& from French ~ggression. In the second Wod, however,

Saypid Atpad S M h d himseIf opposed to both the British and the

Itriliirns. The Btitish be attacked at the instructions of the Ottaman Sultan and

the latter's German allies. His appointment by the Sultan as the Govemor of

Tripolitania in JuIy 1915 made it diftidt for han to refuse. But he ma. have

b e n misled on s e v d points. For one thing he was told that he arould be

suppotted by the A& 'AE tribe, that the Centrai Powers could win the war

then raging in Eufope, and that the wu with the British would be on a srmll

Yielding to Ottoman persulsion the Sayyid asked his followers in

C y d c a , Chad, and the western Egyptian desert to resist the British, in spite

of his d u c t m ~ e . ~ ~ He was deeply aume this decision would cut off most of bis

59 Hk reluctance wzs a b reflected in tom, intemiews on the frontk with Bhbashi Royie of the Frontiers Mministraition in November 1914. In these intemkws, h had stateà that the concentration was "not vmed at disturbmig the b t i e r but solely dirrcbd W s t the Itaiians." Evam-Pntrhud, p.125. H e sometimes mgzeed his hdf- heartedness later in lifc, as he said, "Sometimes it occurs to me that 1 was wmng to heed the caii from Istanbul, seventeen pus ago ... Wns not that pahaps the beginniag of d a t h not oniy for U ~ Y but for ail the Saausi? But. h m could I have done 0th-

supplies which were obaMed across the Egyptian h t i e r . Neveaheless, Slyyid

AJpad S G f Tiaity attldced the British in hte 1915. Although, the Sansyya

h d initial success in the desert they were eventuauy defeated by the

British whose fmces wem fu superior in number, ie, 60,000 troops as

corn@ to the SanÜsiyya's 20,000. They were fmed to leave Egypt and were

' lef i neady starveà in S-'" Furthesmore, they were prohïbited h

entefing CprenPca. Fin* himaeIfin a difiicult situation, the Sa# left Libya

to go mto exile. From 1918 to 1923, he lived m Istanbul. When Attaturk came

in puwer, however, and declareci TUtkey a se& republic, Sayyid Akpad Mt it

a was no longer the rigbt place for him. H e then le6 fbf Ambh, wheze he lived

und his death in 1933. However, even duWg his exile between 1924 and 1933,

Salypd Aipad ai-Shanf sti l l kept in contact aiith his foiiowe~~. He would write

letters to the latter, offemig them his suppm his prayers and his Winingness

to retum to Cyrenaica to lead thejX&61

when the CPliph of Islam asked m e for heip? Was 1 aght or was 1 fooLish? But whq exceps can say whether a man is Wt or hiish if he fdows the dl of bis conscience?" See, Muhzmmnd Asad, Th R a d * Mccm (New York Simon and Schuster, 1954), p. 366.

"Be diligent in gout sacreci jihad and stedàst in confronthg the treadiefous enemy of Ailab, for the enmiy wants ody to destroy you. Yet, he by the might a d power of Alloh w4l cerÉainly depart from Tripoli. Do not become weak, 1- hope or dupnir, for dief is at hanci. L a m sureiy coming to p u . M y stay in the Hi+ is exclusiveiy

a in your intefest and .the intexest of yow county. I pladge to p u by the mighty and powerofAllah, that Iwill shoidybe amongst pou, and b t m y b e h g w i t h y o u d be a souce of joy and happhess for me.. ." See, H& Soàzl and E w m d T w q p.

Sayyid AipllPd ShaZfs supporters in Libya, ie, al-Khagb?, =him al-

ZuwalE, Mdpmmad 'Abid and W." Mulymmad 21-'Abid served in southem

Cyreoaica in Kufn, where he based his conmi?nd at Fezzan. He was &O

involved in the events in Tripolitania and oigraized supply caravans to the

noah. His brothers were active m the noah: E$&l opezated mainly M western

Cyrenaica, while SZft al-Dk and 'Aii al-IKhaGbi were responsible for the noah

and the east of diat region. According to Horek, Sayid A.lpad ShanPs

innuence extended not only to Cyrenaica, but also reached Tripolitania and

Fezzan through the network of the @P&s." H e tumecl these institutions hto

a military camps, ogmishg bis people f b m one x&@a to another and

encoumghg tribesmen to upholdNhcia pSncip1es- His rdly staaed in Dema and

Bayda, then moved to the camp of B~n' sa Befote visiting the %&yu of MSUS,~

293. "Peiihaps someone may Say that Ahmad (11-SM al-Sanus] se& relaxation in the Hqaz a d t h t he left the conntrg and its people; by Almigiity Aliah, 1 wiii have no rest und I corne to yw. If 1 am physidy fu h m you, yet I am with yai in mind a d action. Do not M e v e thnt tbis sacred sauggle is mereiy as it appeam to be; nther in it t h e r i e n r e W e ~ s e a e t s w h i c h g o u d s g ~ t h y o n r o ~ e g e s , ~ w i l l i n g . ~ y A n p h , may H e be praised and exaiad, unite me with you smn by the giory of the belovexi proph- folAllah h a aadpurwas..." W.

Zawi, 'Unrp d . k b & , pp3û-39. Sadd 'Ali al-lCha6.b (188&1918), Sayyid Mu$lmmod (1893-1929) and Sayyid Mulymmad 'Agi (1881-1939) were dl the bmthers OC Sayyid Alpnad Shant

" P r h d y cornposeci of 'Aw@r tribesmen, the @i@z of Msus was then estabbshed as a tempOEary headquartear with a corncil consisted of Mami' and &w heads. The headquyoeni wms a place where the cound d v e à reposts fiom and

he went to the camp of KYu'ba, which ans headed by two &%, V- ai-

Md&& and ZTmran al-Sukuri. H e conhued his mission to the SuiapZn mbe

and established a camp a af-Shulyzinq whence he led a successtul attack on

the Itai;?ui fcnces.

IGiowing that the tribes had been integtated by Sayyid A lpd a l - S a

Itdy hied to sow discord by giviag gifts to merchants and by proaiising to

recogeize and maease the ~bqkb.? tribal auchority. The efforts were ultimately

unsuccessfid, howeveq and m e n convhced otber m i to mite, such as the

Hasa and 'Ubayciat tribes wbch for example fonned a guerrilla band m 1913.

In secognition of his influence, Sayyid Alp.nad al-Shaa'f was pioposed as

national leader by Cyrenaican 14kh1, pprwnrily the JabPrinah, 'AwiciÙ and

Mag&ibah, who sent a letter dated 1337 A.H. to the deputies of Sayyid

W d in Tripoli and to fiurnemus aibal chie& rmking th& wishes for

2. The Rak ofSayyid Migrunniod Idns (1890-19gf)

SaMd Mdyamnad Idns, the son of Sayyid M d p m m d Mahdi was bom

on 12 Mvch 1890 in ~aghbub.~ He was brought up me odier members of the

S a n Z familys in an atmosphere of pierg and simpliaty. His s w n g attachment

to his people led him to help mobilize the d e r in its iesistance @st Idy.

For instance, he helped Sayyid A l p d ShaÜf to c q m k e the mmernent at

Ajdabiya a k the Treaty of Lausanne in the eady perïod of theL wu Mth

~tal~? H~wetrer~ unlike his unde who was a dented commander in the field,

Sawid I&s taients na more t o w d diplonilq. Mdpmmad ai-Zuwayyy fot

0 instance describes him as "a good man, but no d m . H e iives with bis books,

and the swmi does not sit well in his hand." " I t a h Writem, who arr, with

some justification, scadimg in their coilllflents on most members of the

Sanusjrga w, speak of Sayyid Idris Mth respect '"'Ihey admit that he was

intelligent, rriigious, and gifted with a profomd m d sease and political

intuition. H e is fkn in decisions once he has taken them and keeps his

promises? The Bimsh authkty ackaowledged Sayyid Id& as a political

66 Muhpmmad Fiind ShulÙi AIS- D& au Dmvb (Caire: Dis aLFikr al- ' . i , 1948). p.183.

" Evans-Prichard, T h S-; p. 155.

Asad, Tk W h MW p. 341.

" Evans-Prit-, Tbe pp 155-156-

leader aiho codd act for die whole of his people in Cprea2ic2 His positim

was of pasticular significance since the triïsmen would only move as a

political d t under a S a n e a leadec Sayyid Idris prefmed peace to was and

so he opposed Sayyid b d aL-ShiÛifs proposal to attack the British in Egypt.

Sayyid Idas beiieved k t it would lead to a disaster for the d e r and he ans

proven ngbt When he ieaiized h m few troops he hnd left, SaWid Id& was

thereupon f m d to d e peace amh the BPtish and Itabns m Liiya During

the pdod 1911-1932, he negotisrted the v e n t s of 2 u w a . a (1916) and

Akazm (1917), the Treaty of Rajrna (1920) and the Pact of BÜ Mnrgam (1921),

a tespectively. These peace agreements were basidy "the p d u c t of a situation

paztidarly delicate for both," Le., the Itaiians and the SanGiyya, beaiuse both

were exhausted by the ordeaLfo

The accord of Zuwaytjna between the SanÜsiya, the British and Italy in

1916, hacl bought no d agr;eement since the SanÜsiyya and I d y were still

suspi~ous of each other. Moreover, the Italians, d o made more demands

than the British, were insisting upon the hand-over of Itaijan prison- and the

disaaning of the SanGsiyya camps. n i e f idure of the Zuwaytina negotiatims

The main &€Etdg in reachhg qpxment was a British undestakhg pnsiousiy d e in Rome, not to corne to trrms with the Seaussi w i h t the concurrence of t h e I ~ . O m ~ d d ~ f o c t h e ~ o f ~ u m , ~ d D e n i z to be openeci for trade without which we fàced starvaticm. k, renim, we were prepared a> hpad mer the IPlinn piisonas ia ouc hznds a d expel Todtish officers in Cpanaiu 1 b d no difEcdty in ie4ching lgrcment with the British: Co1oae lCabot ,whohd~mtheSndnn .ansaverg~e~~t~1 l1d ingnrra Bxigami was much more didicuit md insistai upon x e f e errrgthing to the Itaiian government who r e W to W v e the ?grcement despite the fkt it had been reached locally. In view of this, it wms mipossible fm us to continue the negotiaaops and they were broken off in eady October 1916. The British a d IpliVl representatives remmeci whence theg had come.71

Sayyid Id& opared zaother series ilepthtions with the BPtish and the

I&s m Akrama by Jan- 1917. The British stipulnted h t ail ailied and

Egyptian paSoners should be handed over and dilt no armed SMÜsiyya wodd

remab on Egyptian tenitocy or cm the hoatier. In retum, the S h trade

mute was to be opmed for hoci rhiprnents fiom Egypt m CyreLiaica, though

only cm the condition that nothing shouid fàU into Gemim or Tudash h d s .

The propeap of Sayyïd Id& m Egypt wls to be inspecred and the Jaghbub

oasis was to be administered by Sayyid ~ d n s . ~ Meanwhile, the Italians shouid

give recognition to Sayyid Idris' political authdty over the T o b d hinterland,

as wen as &dom of tnde for the S a n s tnaes with Ben#azi, Dema and

EAV. de Cadoie, Th L@ and T W d E n g Mir of- (L~ndotx Mohamed ben Galbon, lm), pp. 32-33.

D e Candoie, Th LjF a d Ti, p. 34.

Tobnik. The p&jm h Italhn teaeitcq would be restored to the Sulkiyya but

Saygid Idns had fkst to disarm his people?3

In 1919, the pmvinces ofTripolitania and C@ca were sepmted and

made self'veming. Nwertheless, when Rama* SuwayhiIi tried to a s s e t his

autharity over the fonneq the Iraliuis insisted that no fibyan was able to lead

the province. By the end of 1920, however, Tzipolitanks had rejected the ideP

of Itatipi sovaeignty, and duee representatives in Itdfs parliament won the

support of opposition parties fa off id recognition of a fully independeat

M u s h state in Ttipolitania."

The ackndedgement of Sayyid Idas as the mi? of the autcmomous

administiation of Jaghbub, A* Jdu and K u h aas put of the Treaty of

R a j j signeci m November 1920 with Italy. H e was also allowed to have his

own estabhh his own and received a monthly allowance for himself

and his fimily. However, he had to silence any political and d t a y activity by

his people.'' Later, the Pact of BÜ Maryam an agreement to disband the

SanSyya camps m al-Abyu, Taknis, SIanta, Aknma and M?lthili as a nist step

m disnaniag Cpmican tribesmen-was reached; this however did not work

troops. Meanwhile, Sayyid Idas was hced with a dilemma d e n Tripolitanian

notables p i o p o s e d him as a potedaIlam of Tripolitania even as he was trgMg

to keep to bis agreement with the Idhns. Considehg himself in a diflicult

position, Sayyid Idns left the county for Egppt. He said,

At a coderence of Tripohtanian notables at GhnaPn in November 1921, it was decided m fmm a Tip>olitanian amirate and offer the hg'& (Oath of Ailegiance) to me. They asked me to send repmentatives to Skte a> disaiss the matter. 1 sent my cousin Safi al-Din to meet them, at the same t h e infomhg the Govemor of BeaghazL The Tripolitrinians repeated th& offer for me to bec- th& Amir. Tbis put me in an extrernely ~ c u l t position Unce d e sympathking with the T r i p o l i ~ s desire to have an Arab at th& head, I did not wish to compromise my rrlations Mth the Itakns. I therefom rehised to give a decision but asked th IPüna pv-ent for p""m to meciiaae behaem them and the Tripolitaniam. This request was foicefidly tumed doam. The Italian gov-ent fmbdP m e to take any put in Tripolitanian affiirs as they regardeci C m and Tripolita.nia as mm separate countries.76

One of the reasms that he gave for leaoing was his unhapphess and

disappoSn~nient with the Itaiian govertlznenfs lack of hith regardhg most of

th& agreements, the Treaty of Rajma which never woiked satisfictody, bejng

one example. He was also cmcemed about the advances of the Fascists in

h i m s e I f q a e d to lead the cesistance in the fieldn

-

76 De Candole, Tk Ljrc a d T ~ C L T , pp. 41-42.

0 3. The Rolt of 'U- &Me&

Vmarwasbomin 1862inBat&,B?lpa to a fàmiiy oftheMïnifkcribe.

" His fàther sent him at about the age of 16 to a Sanüsiyya @kya at Jngbbïib,

to leam about ~u(ui." The Sanüsiyya leader at dint time, %Md al-Mahdi as-

Suiiiéi, then appoiated bim head of qii@w aLQasiir am- the ' A m mie in

JaM al-Akh* for two tams?' H e was then shifed to %%a 'Ayn Kalak m

Sudan unal his retum m 1903 to z..jYI al-Q& M Bvqe Howwer, he a n s

visitiag the SanSsiyya's @wya in Kufïa when the Itlliuis nrSt attacked Libya in

1911. On renimmg fbm K u h , he leamed of the se in i re of the town of h Ü

G e and he joined a w&h% camp in the a r a He formed a p u p of these

r n q u ~ i k and piepved to Inunch an attack e s t the Itnliuis, some of them

moving to Rajma, and odiers to Badanah, which is aromd 20 km. fiom BanÜ

Gh-ii Theg were cm the point of attackmg the 1 t a I . h ~ when Sayyid Aipad al-

S u the spiritual and militay leader of the SanÜsiyya, appePied in Dema m

* The 'Abid beibe wexe d e d "the lions" because to others they seerned diflicuit io ammL Umat *imcd th& ddness by teachhg them to use thek minds to d v e pmblerns. H e ais0 taugbt them d e s of behavior (dm a m a d s others. This enabled them to arork togethes with the Bara'asa tribe in supporting him as SanÜsiyya gu&. Set, Zirw, 'Umw abMwM&, pp. 3536.

May 1913, and took over die leadership of thh operation?' Howeve d e r his

depamue into de, Sayyid w d al-Sha;if appointed W m u a.LMukh& as

d t q leadez of the and Umv held the position continuousiy until his

death, when his successor, Sadd M-d Idas, took ove.

'Umar's strategy at that tirne, both as commander of the 'Abid band and

as commander-ia-chief of aIl the figbttig faces on the plateau, was to hold its

southem siopes with his guearilla bands. From 1924 to 1931 the guerühs

effective used hit- and - nm &CS l g y n s t their enemy. Th& success was due

to di& knodedge of the I d h n q ' s movements and the eography of the

deys , aves, and tails in the Jabd d-Akh*. In 1931 alme, the guerillns

anied out 250 attacks and ambushes e s t the Italian atmy.= The gu&

bands consisted of diffe~e~lt mtribes m Cyrenaica, and recéived volunteers from

TPpolitania and ~ u d u i . ~ Some of the bands induded the 'Awlaci'iir, Magharba,

82 The letter of appointment u w @ed by A&mad a l - S u al -Saas dated S h a d 15, 1342 A.H.. (see Ho&, p. 294). ". . . to whom it may conam of our Mujahidin brotherç of the Biua'sah, 'A-, 'Abaydat, Darsa, ma, 'Abid Murabitun and to ail our bmthem and the &y& of ZlajrrP, the people of Barqah and ai-JabaI ai- Akhdv. W e have deiegrted the pious a d biessed shoykh 'Umar PI-Mukhk as a representative of us, the SanÜsis and appoint him a gend deputy to admkister the J i . PfhiiS, d 1180 foo the defense ofour mighty nation agnmSt the deceitfd enemy.. ."

Hasa and 'Ahydng Bara'asa and D- 'Abid and 'AinEi respecaVely. Each

band had its S a n s fhg and cagaaized itself h g simple lines of comniuid.

'Umar maintained the resistance widi sttong discipline Fm &ek slfetg, he sent

the women and children to Egypt durMg the war, but lnowed them to stay Mth

the watriors in times of peace?'

Meanwfirle, Umar had bis foot and home groups of ikhava'n, supportexi

by the tribes which paid dran tidies to dehy the expenses of battle. The

collection of this fee was only one of his general administrative duties for all

the bands wbich * M e M y under hia They rnaintained commiinications

and worked out to a ~0111.1~1011 strategy. 'Umar had also managed to arrange for

caravaas to convey supplies 6eom Egypt, and to control their distribution to the

amied forces and maintained dso his conespondence with Sayyid Idns and

SanUsjrga elements nad sympathizers m Egyptu

The soldiers under Umar al-Mukhtar's cornmuid numbered about 1,500

in totai - 1 of them armed but only some of them on horseback. With th&

old weapons they had to Eice Italy's modem d t a . y force equipped with

asmored eus, liicufS ndio and trucks." However, MfOrmtition about Itaiian

tmop movements and phns was &y passed on to guerilh bands, for ZTmv

the iesistance and kept the Italians in a defmsive position. It was especinlEg

difFtCU1t for them to fo110w the pattern of the iesistuice, as Tenazi, a

Goverclc~ ni CyrmPca s d at that the ,

Tbus, m s t 200, 500, 1,000, 2,000 rrbels, dressecl in picturrsque rngs and badiy aamed, ofacn 5,000 or l0,ûûû of our sddiers are not sufficien& because the rebeis pn not tied down to an- ue not bound to my imegiiment, have nothlig to defend ar to pmtect and an shuw t h d e s today in one phce, m ~ ~ ~ c x r o ~ 50 km. w a y , and the foiiaaiing day 100 h. w y , to mppear a WC&

h b e r . ~ ~ ~ h f o r a m o n ~ t ~ ~ e b ~ & h l f g r m u l i i n a r m e d s h e p ~ o n a p t r d o f ~ , o r o n a m h n i i n w h i c h n l e s l l o n g t h e e d g e o f a wood, or the foot of a hilLb

Gmimi, the aext milihig Govemor of Cyiftiaica dso i e p d there were taro

govemments in Cyxenaica. On the one hand, 1dia.n~ were ''the Govemment of

the Day" and the SanÜsiyya, "the ~~~~ent of the ~ i g h t ' ~ Th&

* Giorgio ROdlilt, "the -011 of d t a n c e in CJrrenaica (1927493l)) in Enzo S a n d a al., Omar dMwkb&c th Ihhim RGîmpst $Li& m s . John G i i k (London: Darf Publisha, 1986), p. 44.

Evans-Pritchsud, Th Sarrua; p. 163. These agents were the sortonrrrJs Libylns who m d e r e d to the I t a h government They provideci inf'itiou, souers and catde, see Santadli, p. 46. Geed Mezzetti, the p"upa.I commander of operations in Tiipolitania ?fter GiPa?m, animed the I t d h govemment about tbis C'Senusiya and the comhnce of those who have subdd,' ' as %e principal source and strength of the rebellion." Therrfm he siiggestcd that Italy's d t a q operations shonld be acampmied by "an energetic, htelügent political progamme'' in orda to c.timinate tbem. Ibid.

90 Evans-Pritchard, Th S m ; p. 173.

supexidty duhg that thne was pPrmdy due to th& knowledge of the terrain

and the fPa that Itay's mïiitay govemors were handicapped by th& shoa-

team appOmtments. Thus driring the decade 1923 to 1933 there were five such

govemors, mmiting in an beffieaive a q o m e to the nsistance e f f o d '

The SanSyya were also fàced with p d e m s in that a division had

appeared M th& ranks between those who f n m d negotiations nnd those who

insisted cm the militaq sbniggle. 'Umar's fimes ccmsequendy deciea~ed in

n u m k and began to suffer defat more kquentty. Itdy wls also t?king

harsher measures to briog the SanÜsiyya resistuice to an end. Italian tzoops

killed auyone they fowd belon& to the rnovemeot, seized th& cade and

destroyed fiams and houses, leavhg Umar and his foiees without food or

shelter. Barbed arke fences were Ils0 laid dong the ficmtier to limit th&

movement. The latter worked wd since it hampered Sanüiyya

co~~llllunicati011q logistics and aid espakUy 6com Egypt Some experienced

g u d a leadem had already been killed, and the number of fighters decreased

sigdicantly. Vmu nevertheless contliued the scniggle, und he was wounded

and captured on September 11, 1931. On September 16, he was hanged,

becomMg a ~hahr'd for his nation and religion,w before thousands of witnesses

92 In the t d conducfed by Gmanl Gcazhni on 12 September 1931, when 'Umar was asked why he fought the Itaiians 'Umar uisaprad, "fm my homeland and re@o11,"

among the people of Cjrieaaic2 The executioa of 'Umu e&ctively ended the

sesistance movement There were stiU amund 700 fjghters le& divideci Mto

three pups led by the lieutenants of 'Umu. Thœe h e e leaders eqeienced

dinerent fates: 'Abd al-Hanid al2Abbar succeeded in breakkg throiigh the

wire into Egypt; ' U s m k ShanG subsequendy surrendered himself; and Yïisuf

Bü R?hil was kdied in ?n w e n t in ~ a n n a r i c a . ~ ~

'The Icrlta poliq-f131kers erpected to occupy Libya with limited

militaq opemtiions, ,hmlmiP that die natives hated 'Ottoman tyranny and

backwardness.' Instead, they faceci one of the lcmgest and mœt militant a d -

colonial movements in the histoy of ilfricta in that pehd."%hmida's

Grazinm then asked, "Did you d y think gou couid aiin this war?" Umar replieci: V a r isadutyforusandvicmryamies noaiGod."Sae, Zkii, ' U - d W , p p . 11 and 49. When Gnzwi asked him what if Itaüan govemmt?nt aceed him and Y he muid promiseci to speud the rest of bis live in pena, Wmar ~ s w e d , "I shaü not cew to 6ght 1&rinst thee and &y -le untü either gw k e my country or 1 leave my Jifè. And IsarrrrtodKebyHUnwhoIm~whtkinmea's hearts thatifmyhandswesemt bound diu vag moment. 1 d d fight thee with mg bace hancis, dd anci broken as 1 un-.."See,Asad, TbcRaIdteMwrqp. 343.

93 Evans-Pritchard, Tk S'; p. 190.

statement lads us to ask what fiutors gave die SanWiyya the strength to

defend th& county, then what caused the resistance to dedtre.

It is obvious that the notion ofjZ&h defending th& religion and th&

country wls the k e behiud the resistance. Reiigious zeal also played a

put in motivating th& opponents as well. Italy for instance o b used

ChüstiPn Entrean troops @st the d e r ? ' According to Sayyid Id&, this aras

done in order to ueate a reiigious war, indeed it was confinned somewhat by

the D d h explomq Hoimboe, who saw the soldiers with a cross sewn on the

breast of th& unitorms.% G m z k i c m h e d this sentiment in his speech

addressed to the Eritrean tcoops,

My brave troops h m EPtrea, you who have foiIowed me ithrough the c a m e in THpdi agrinst M d and Fezzan, pw who with m e are 6ghting in OLderth?ttheItaaul~eshplls~its~a~ewavertheold RomuiLibya, accept the t h a h of pour Gend for what you have donc New batdes iie before you, but 1 know that gw will be victorious oogether 6th us Itaüans, who profas the sarne dgion as you. Let us cry EtrMtra'for Ialy and h a colony of Eiitrea. 97

In addition, the &stance was directly supported and guided by the

Sana funily, especiaîly Sayyid al-Mahdi al-SanG who b d t the Sankiyya into

the most pwerful Sufi organizaticm of its the, and Sa@ s h a who

-

95 And they anae stül used by the Itaiians in th& openhoas in 1928, mastituted the bjggest part (five batdions), compyed to four I*JiPn batGJionsY and two Libgnn battatons. See, Sanrarelli, OmuralM&&.r, p. 41.

PL Knud HoImbaey Du& En- A n A ~ ~ W W S Jawnay thr<arbb It&n /J1Sicrr. transe He&a Holbek (Lond0~1: George G. Hanap & Co., Ltd., 1936), p. 276.

kdthem'besm~~tF~e~lchinChadin1899-1913mdtheBiitishin1911

1916 m Egypt, iespectkely Sayyid w d Shanf, also maintaked his position

as the d d s spirituai leader during the resis~ance by sendmg his messages

h m his exile in the Gis.

The resistance dso benefited kom the previous attempîs of the

SanGiyya to the educate people of the hteriand and O-e them s o c i g y

and econcmically mder a sgstem of religious &es. One of the resuits was

that different mies were integrated, puthg an end to the rapaciousness which

had caused tribal disputes for yeus. In its place there ans a network of ~aMyas,

0 where zhykbs, ik6s6v or adhirente w d e d togeha for the resistance.

Therefore we h d several sesistance leaders who were also Bedoiiin hybs,

iüre @ih Lataiwish, 'Abd al-H-d allCAbb&, Saifat and Mu$anunad BÜ

Farwa, Husayn al-Juwa.8, Brahim aCFallmih, EQil al-Mahashash, and Qtait BÜ

MüsL Among the Sanüsiyya i&wan who cmstituted most of die leading f i g u e s

in the resistance were Umar al-MukhG, YÜsif BÜ &diil, IChalid al-Hum&

ShaÜf al-Mailud, 'Abd al-Qadir Farlcrsh, Fa@ BÜ 'Umar, Si;lio a l a l e A d and

M d p m a d BÙ Na* al-~asmiüi.~~ They wexe not ody inv01ved in the

Evans-Psitchud gives an ides of thek deplogment dwbg the wac ''a a Latabwkh with bis Mnghvba tûbesrnea wete in Ajadabiyl; Ab6 al-Q-isim al -Ziod with

an 'A- band tkeatened the Italioa bases nt al-Abyar, al-Rajma a d 'Umar with the 'Abid mbol band contained the ~ t s in the A k j sectcq anci a detachment

milirug, but they &O contributeci tithes to rnm the expenses of ary under

' U m a r ' s arlministration.

To a cemia degree, e s p d y in its eady phase, the iesistance &O

benefiteâ Erom the idea of Mddism-ilot k t of the Sudnnese Mahdi,

M u $ d Alpuad," but the version eiabcmted by the Sanüsiyya's Sayyid

Mdpmmad -di al-SanÜisi (18441902). For Muslims, the Mahdi, or Hidden

Imàm, has long been expected to appeaz to spmd justice in a wodd dominnted

by evll and oppression Mahdism m the Sanüsiyya ans proposed by Sayyid

Alpd a l -SEC who knew bis people could be e a d y mtegrrted througà this

0 idea, although Sayyid Mahdi al-San= did not agnx entkely with this ide0 For

his people, ai-Mahdi 11-SanüP had the advantage of a gre~t personality and the

p t txadition founded by his Eidreq which befitted the figure of a Mahdi.

Ziadeh describes hW as follows: 'Oo

- -

under his lieutenant 9% Bu Rabayyim operated against communications between al-Marj and Tainmitha; Husain J d s Baragasa b d d the -LIS at q&y al-hy& al-Fayidiyn and Slanta; a d Qait BÜ MÜsà with his Has? and 'Abnidat volunteers MS

campai oppsite Khawalan." See, Evans-Pritdiatd, The Siamui, p. 168.

~ T h S ~ e s e M n M i i n h t k t o t r s m d - M d - S a n ü G U g a l tsmtosuppmt his cause, eitha bywrsirigtheijafrom his own mgion in the dLation ofEgypk or by him,celf making the blin, but the letter was never answed. See, P.M. Holt, Th Mabidlrt S M i th SIWtA 1881-1898: A S+ of I& ûn@u, D~tl~dpmcnt a d O ~ ~ , W ded. ( O x f d Clarieadon Press, IWO), p.113. See &O, Haim Shaked, Th we of th SvlbMn A4h.M (New Brunswick, N.J: Tmnsaction Books, 1978).

0 =eh, Sa&&&, p. 52

Hia name, Jame otha phgsfp1 s@s, lilrt the mole on his fàce, the fict t h his Eathds name aras Mdpm.mad and hW mothds name ans %.mah, and that he muid attain his majozîty in 1300 a311 these Convinced the masses that he was the apecaed Mahdi. S a m &Mahdi W, fh h m en- any such ideas, often denied them cafegoriaUy aad emphatially, but crowds do not always accept logical matters. Thep prefei' th& own convictions.

For the Bedouin, Sa* al-Maha is still alive and it is o h said that he rides a

white hase, surmunded by white g;lzelles and antelopes. Wand&g unseea

thmugh the desert, he sucidenly appenrs amag his adhemnts at certain times,

somehes in two places at once. Falls reports that in May 1906, it ans officiaJly

mounced h t d-Mahdi had ietiimed han a seaet joumey to the oasis of

SanÜsiyya cesistance ultimately depended on one strong leader, so t h t

when he lefi the scaie, people were legs enmunged to condinue the struggle.

This mny be seen a f k Sayyid A l p a d al-Shlnfs d e in 1916, when the

EesistPace inevitably declind Um al-Mukh&, Yusif Bu Rahil ?nd 'fi

Hamid 'Ubaydi were moved thereby to send a letter to Sayyid Alpad & S M

cm Kjab 15, 1342 AH., reporthg h t his absence fiom the countq had

demopalized the people's d m Then a f k Umar's appointment as

representative general of the resis*uice by Sayyid w d a l - S a people were

- -

'O1 J.C. Ewald Falk, T h Ycms in thr L ' b p s Duat, tram. Elizabeth Lee (London: Darf Publishem Lod, 1985, k t published in 1913). pp. 3ûû-310. p. 310.

dnvigofated until hir cap- and exCCUrion, the events which red.y endcd the

resistance.

An added di&culty was the fâct that the SanÜii f b d y , the refmce

point for the i&w& was itseif divideci into two u m p s : those d o riesisted and

those d o c o m p r d e d widi the I h s . The reason for the division was the

nature of their perswnlities: fbr instance Sayyid Aîpad Shnaf was desmied as

mlû3 cc "a proud and headst~ong man, ex tmqpt and aggressive, who pfened

direct involvement, activism, splendor and dires negotizticms with local and

hreign fepresentative~"'~ whereps his successg Sayyid Id&, uns an

e introverted and sobtiuy man, who avoided dose contact with strangem a d

fond it diff idt to d e decisiolhs? The hrst hsbted oa opposiog Itdy,

whenns the second tried to sobe the crhb duough a political appiwch a f k

witnessing the SanÜsîyya's defat in Egypt This defeat in 1916 weakened the

intents of the resistznce movement considerab1y.

Prior to the I t a h invasion, the SanÜsiyya were a prosperous S d Order,

blessed with the lvgest amount of land in the hintedat~d,~"~ die best land'* in

*M Evans-Pritchard, Th Simmii, p. 77.

trems of wells, dnte palms, @enq and sp-, and in addibon the profits of

the caravan trade. The San= f?mily ans overwhekned by a surplus of revenue,

so that they had to manage the weaith separately in hur différent &m. 108

This arrs useM for die administration of the order, but the distance seemed to

d e consolidation under one direction quite diflficuIq especdly &er the

petration by the Itnli2ns.

lm Agbil Mobamed Bnrby, The Tarabulus (Li'byan) Resistance a> the Italian Inmmi011: 1911-1920. PhD. dissestation, The University of Wisconsin-Madison, 1980, p. 129.

CONCLUSION

Itdy's invasion and occupacion of Libya berneen 1911 and 1932 faced a

religious, s d and econcmic change on the countq, and created the

conditions which made it posst'ble for a Suti. oider such as the Sanusiyya to

become involved in the resistance movement Its amergence on Libya's

politicai stage aras inseparable the tribal situation in Cyienaica, where the

tsibes had been united under the SanÜsiyya through the network of ~&ym to

which they had become adherents, iXbm% or shqdh, of the Order. The

0 Eeligous and political responses to extemai k t were cleariy diose of a well-

organized movement shaped anci led by the !%US W y and its s b g h .

The Saniisiyya respbnse to foreign penebration grodually evohred h m

avoidance, to defice d e n attacked, resistance, and ultimately, negotiatioa.

The order was aware of den pliacal penetration in N d Mica 6Lom the

verg beginning of its existence, e s p d y under Sayyid Mdpmmad 'AE 4-

San&% and the eady period of his son, Saypid al-Mahdi d-Sanusi's nile Later in

1902 the brothdood revived its ?&&CI Bir Alali in Kanem, Chad, which had

previously been cap& by the French. Sayyid Alpiad al-Shanf, the next head

of the order, helped the Ottomans attack the British in Egppt, dien defknded

Cpremica fkm Itaiian enc~oachment until his d e in 1916. Witnessjng the

The SanÜsiyya resistuice movement dependecl completely on the

nemrork of *y, sboykbs and ikhva'n, as wd as adherents nOm vyiws mies.

It was SUCC~SSM in m?iintaining thek mutd coopemtion ùuough reiigious

teachings, educatiq sociai ?nd economic activities. These aCtivities, in tum,

Funiliafized the triiesmen with the call for j 'QIjyi by the S a n G M y , its

corncilofs and prominent s@.rtbs of the zesistance movement Thek 6ght over

the course of three decades anis moaviated by a WillMgness to be &e fbm

&en power and was infiuetlced by the ide? of the Mahdi, especi?lllr in the ey.19

stage ofiesistance.

The resistance waged by the Saniisiyya was the longest and most d t r n t

anti-colonial movement in the bistory of Afüca of h t ea There arere vazious

Circumstances that made this so. Psychologidy, most SmÜsiyya members

were a stubbom and ~ggnssive people who did not want th& land captured by

an outside power. This resistance was thus a rebirth of th& past expeiience of

i e s o ~ pblems ove+ disputed land Mth anothe~ mbe through ant. The

h d coUectivdy under the authO11ty of the z&ys. Itaiy's invasion brought

th& instinct to the Gre.

Jw on the other han& was &O a sigpificant Eactor in this lcmg-lasting

resistance. Not ody did the Sanzyya members h d the notion in the Holy Qdin and in the religious pLollouncernents of th& liaykh, but it was a

period of b e when the Muslim wodd was being invlded by westem, Christian

nations. In M c a Ilorne, Muslims had already aiitnessed other su f i

brotherhoods such as those of A& 'Abd al-Qadir in Algeri?, the QâdGyya

and Sh-&8yya in S d a , etc., stand up agaïnst the invader. The 1(h&

fiuthennore promised mg&bGn a blissM existence in Patadise. Thezefore they

welcamed the o p p d t y . And dthough diey W e d <nilitar)r rraMing and were

poorly-anned, they nevertheless knew th& country's geogmphy better than the

Itakns did. Throupti coordination between the xfiwjus, which provided

weapms and food, the SanÜsiyya leaders had their m~ahr'dr/ï practice hit and

nm tactics to cope with this imbalance. This was not enough in the long nia,

however, as Italy h d a lnrger supply of modem a r m s and more expdence in

&e.

Among the weaknesses which caused the resistance ro decline was its

dependenq on a charianatic figure, whidi caused it to becorne "a one man

show." In die case of Sayyid Alpnad a l - S M d W m u al-Md&& this

dependencg ineMtably ended the resisrance. Besides, the geographicd distance

betareea the g&ws and the ciifkxmt primities withni the SanG f h d y made

the resistance dïf5cult to consolidate.

The SanÜsiyya's &stance may be seen as an eady fomi of natioaalism

that shaped modem Libya. There are pvaUels between the SanÜsiyya and

contemporaq Libya. Both the SanGsiyya and QPdhiiti reject Western

Muences; both piize Sidependence; and both d for a retum to an Islam tht

is pnstine and austere. For this ieason, discussing the S a s 6 i e a foims a solid

basis for understanding the phenomenm of today's h i

. A tf th M q k b b the I~Ifarm'c Parod Cambridge: Cambridge UniverSitp Press, 1987.

Abushawa, Mnlür. 'The Politicai System in Libya (1951-1969)" MA. thesis, CSUEO Universiitg, 1977.

Ahaiida, Ali Abddatif. Tbc Mahng ofMoch Li& S ' Fm&#, Colim&&~, md Rcsrirkmce, 1830-1932. A i h y , New Yodc SUNY, 1994.

Ali, Ahmeci. A I Q ~ M ' ~ A Contcmpomy Tntlc~Lafzbn. Phceton, New Jersey: PBncaon Univdy Press, 1994.

1980. Princetg New Jersey: pcincekn University Press, 1986. -

Asad, Muhammad. Th Roud k Maaa New Y& Simon and Schuster, 1954.

11-Attas, Syed Naguib. Som+& @"@km a CT~&60d undpndvdAwong th Mahy~. Ed S W e Gordon. Singzpo~: W y s i a n Soaological Research Institute Ltd., 1963.

Bubu, Aghil Mohameà ''The Tarabdus (Liiyan) Resistance to the It;iliui Invasicm 1911-1920." Ph.D dissertation, U & d q of Wl~c~nSin- Madison, 1980.

Bacciap, S k Thomas. Th T-1- War on d h P m b h ~ . Londotx Coastabie & Co. Ltd., 1912.

Bennett, Emest N. Witb th Yorrng T b in T e k London: Methuen and Co., 1912.

Bey, Hassmein. Th Ld.ct Omw. London: Thomton Buttemorth, 1925.

Boehm, Max Hildebert. "Nationatism." In Euykpaab @ S u d Sn'mm. VOL 11. 231-240. ed. in fief. Edarin RA. Selignian. New Y& The Macmilka Co., 1933.

Bdggs, Lloyd Cabot Tnbar @the Sdam Cambridge, Mass.: Hazvatd Ua ivhv Press, 1960.

Budre, Edmmd "Understanding Anb Protest Movement" Th MqghtGb R ~ ~ G X Y 11, no. 1 (1986): 19-25.

. "Islam and SocvJ Movements: Methodological Reflectioas." In T J , , 0 PoJticr, a d Sad Motmrcntar. eds. Edmund Burke and Ica Lapidus.

Berkeley: University of Calif& Press, 1988.

CordeIl, Denais D. 'CEastem Libya, Wadai and the Sankiya." In Tb8 J o * d of &cm HÜtcny 18,l (1977), pp. 21-36.

0 Davis, John. l jbyar P o d ~ a Tnbd and RauIr/&n. London: 1.B. Tauris, 1987.

De Groot, A.H. "Shaikh Sayyid Alpad d-SanÜii (1290-1351/1873-1933)." In Tbe Encyclopact&a ofl~kzm, new ed.. eds. C.E. Bosworth, et al., vol. 9, 23- 24. Leidem EJ. Brill, 1995.

De Candole, EAV. Th La.?. and Timcr ofEng Idriz offiba. London: Mohamed ben Galbon, 1990.

Deny, J. Tasha." In T h EngcIdpaedt'a oflsbm, new cd., eds. C.E. Bosworth, et al., vol. 8,279-281. Leiden: E.J. BnU, 1995.

D e Vecchi, Paolo. IloCy'z CivXqitg Misn'on M Afn'ca. New York: Brentano, 191 2.

Duveyriw, .Henry. Lcs Twmg dg Nord ExpIotc~trOn du S b Nendeln: Kraus Reprint, 1973 ( k t pubfished in 1864).

LA Conjiré'tr'e Mu~ulmane de Si& Mohammed ben 'XE e.denoris et son Domoine Géog@@ue en /'annie 7300 de I%e&k=I883 ak nom h. Paris: Société de Géognphie, 1886.

Eisenstadt, S.N. c'Religi~n and the Civilizational Dimensions of Politics." In Tbe Po&,cd Dimenszoonr ofRrh@n, cd. Said Amir Arjomand. Albany, New York: SUNY, 1993.

Evans-Pritchard, E.E. T h Smwi d e n a r ' c ~ . Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1954.

al-Fathaly, Omu 1. and Monte Palmer. Pobtr'cuI Dmeîkpment and SooX Ch~tngc in Li&&. LeWigton, Massachusetts: D.C. Heath & Co., 1980.

Fisher, W.B. "Libya me Great Socialist People's Libyan Arab Jamahiriya)." In Tbe Nddh Eart a ~ d Nofib Afn'ca 1998, 44& ed London: Europa Publications Ltd., 1998.

Furlonge, GeofGey. T h Lpndr of Badaty. London: John Mufzay, 1966.

Gardet, Louis. "Dhikr." In Tbe EncycI~puedia of I h , new ed., eds. C.E. Bosworth, et al., vol. 2,226. Leiden: E.J. Brin, 2995.

Garh, Muftaza. ''Nationdsm in the Light of the Qur'an and the Sunnah," In Tbe Iqact of Nakkna&m on tbe Madm Wod, ed. hi. Ghayasuddm. London: The Open Press, 1986.

Geertz, Clifford. "Religion as a Cultural S y s t e a " In Antbr~rpo~ogtiaLApPtvache~ to tbe St@ of &&#o/I, ed. Michae1 Banton. London: Tavistock Publication, 1968.

al-Ghazz, Ab6 Hamid. I&a3 U&'m cr(DSn. Vol. 3. Baghdad: Matba'at Lajnat Nashr al-Thaqiifa al-Isl-amiva, 1 3 56 H.

Hahn, Lorna. Iilrjton'caI Ditttonuty offi'-ya. Metuchen, N.J. and London: The Scarecrow Press, inc., 1981.

Hargreavcs, J .D. Deco/oniqztzon in Afn2a. London: Longman, 1 990.

Herodotus. The His t~r i t~ Trans.George Rawlùison. New York: Alfred A. Knopf; 1997.

Holt, P.M. The Ma& State in the Sudan 7 181- 7898. 2"d ed. Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1970.

Horeir, Abdulmola S. el- and Economic Transformations in the Libyan Hinterland During the Second Hal€ of the Nineteenth C e n w : The Role of Sayyid Ahmad al-Sharif al-Sanusi." Ph.D. d i s s d o n , University of Clilifornia, 1 98 1.

Ibrahim, Abdallah A. Tvolution of govemment and sociev in Tripolitania and Cvrenaica (Libya) 1835-191 1 ." Ph.D. dissertation, University of Utah, 1982.

Idaroh 'Ahyyah. Thotir40h Mu 'tabamh Nahdhjyah. Semarang. Toha Putra, n.d.

Jarneelah, Maryam. T h e Gnm Ishmic Movements in the A d WorId of the &cent Part: T h e Movement of Shaakb Muhammad bin Abdul Waba6. the Sanussi Mowmen?, th Mahdi ofthe SU&#. Lahore: Mohammad Yusuf Khan, 1976.

Joffe, George. 'Umar al-Mukhtar." In Eneytkjûedia of the Modern ~MiddIe Ea?s eds. Reeva S. Simon, et al. vol. 3. 1277-1279. New York: Simon and Schuster M a c d a n , 1996.

Joffe, E.G.H. and K.S. Mdachlan (eds.). S o d und Econormir Dwe/;lpment o f LiLya. Cambridgeshire: Middle East and North Afncan Snidies Press Ltd., 1982.

Kamenka, Eugene, ed. ATdona&sm: The Natm and E~uZuion of an Idea. London: Edward Arnold, 2976.

Khaddwi, Majid. Modern Li&: A St@ in PokhcaI Devehpment. Baltimore, Md: John Hopkins University Press, 1 963.

Kucukcan, Talip. "Some RefIections on the Wahhabiyah and the Sanusiyah Movements." Hamhrd Ishmiw, 18, no. 2 (1995): pp. 67-82.

Lapworth, Charles. T ' .a5 and I%mg ItaLy- London: Stephen Swift and Co., Ltd., 1912.

Le Gall, Michel. 'The Ottoman Govemment and the Sanusiyya: A Reap piaisal." Intemuttioona/]oumu~ of Middh EUJY Studtees 2 1 (1 989), p p. 9 7- 99.

Le 'Tourneau, R. 'Dayi." In The Encyclopedia of Ishtz? new ed.? eds. C.E. Bosworth, et al., vol. 2. 189. Leiden: E.J. B a 1995.

h g s , M h . A SJ@ Smnt ofth Twentieth Cenfury: SbaM& Ahmad al- '&w; 2nd ed. Revised and enlarged. London: George Allen and Unwin Ltd., 197 1.

MalgeP, Francesca. Lo Guen-a Lr'bica (191 1-1 912). Rome: Edizioni di Storia e Letteratura, 1970.

bIargoliouth, D.S. ccSanusi.'y In Eneyclûpuedia of Re&hon and Ethic; ed. James Hastings, vol. 11, p. 194196. Edinburgh: T. & T. Clark 1980.

Martin, B. G. Musbm Bmthencioods in Nineeenth-Centug Afnka. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1976.

. "A Future Sanusi Caliphate? Muhammad 'Ali &Sanusi and his D m r a/- Surz&a.." Jozimal O f ~ a n Histaiy, 26: 2, 1992, p. 160-168.

McClure, W.K. If&& in North Af~cca. an Accounf oftbe T+oL Entephe. London: Constable & Co., 1913.

Mommsen, W o l f p g . TTheonés of I ipen'ah. Chicago: University of Cliicago Press, 1980.

Moore, Martin. Fou& .îhore: Ituhn Mars Colottizafron of *a. London: George Routledge & Sons, Ltd., 1940.

Nachtigal, Gustav. Sahara and Sudan, imns. Allan G.B. Fisher and Humprey J. Fisher. Berkeley and Los Angeles: University of California Press, 1971, V. 4.

O 'Fahey, R.S. Enigmatic SSorn Evanston, Illinois: Northwes tern University Press, 1990.

O'Fahey, R.S. and Bemd Radtke. 'Neo-Sufism Reconsidered." In Der Idam 70 (1993), pp. 52-87.

Padwick, Constance, E. Mus&m DevBriom: A St@ of Pruyer-Matluah in Common UJ*~. London: S.P.C.K., 196 1.

Peters, Emorys L. Tbe Bedom~ in Cynna'ca: Studt'es NI Persona/ and Corponte Powez Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1990.

Renier, G.J. H&y: 1' Puqose md 2i/Iethodr. New York: Harper Torchbooks, 1965.

Rinn, Louis. Maraboutx et Khanan- Alger: Librairie Adolphe Jourdan, 1884.

Sabine, George H. "State." In Encyclopuedia ofSonÜ1 Sciences, ed. in chief. Edwin RA. Seligman. vol. 15, pp. 328-332. New York: The Macmillan Co., 1933.

Santarelli, Enzo, Giorgio Rochat, Romain Rauicro, Lui@ Goglia. Omor a/- hIukhtut: The Itukan Reconpe~t of Lz'bya. Tram. John Gilbert. London: Darf Publishers Ltd., 1986.

- 4 - h î a ~ â U al-'& ~Z-M~samma Brgbyah rrlMag@dfl Nw&a alMaran2 2nd ed. Cairo: Shirka al-pb?'a al-Fanniyya al-Mutt&ida, 1960.

. A/-Dwar a-San&yapAkhbÜi a M i h a/-Idn>&ya. 3 rd ed. Cairo: Shirka al- Tiba'a al-Fanniyya al-Muttabda, 1960.

. KttÛb al-Manhua( aIIRaRamT al-Rarq fl Asanid a(- Wl,m wa Usd al- TarZiq. 1 ed.Cairo: Matbaca .jazi, 1954.

. Al-Memuil al-M~khtÜra. Manches ter: Muhammad ibn Ghalbun, 1990.

Satyam~ahi, T.V. N&zbnuL~-m in the Contemporury WorId Pokkd and Soc1ukgicaf Penpecti.. London: Frances Pinter, 1 983.

Santa &laria, Bourbon del Monte. L9shrnismo e Za Confdernitu d ~ . pienu.'sz; Rome: Città di Cas telio, 1 9 1 2.

Segrè, Claudia. Fowtb Shn: The Italun Cdoni~atioon of l ibya. Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1974.

. ccColonization in the French Maghreb: Mode1 for Italy's Fourth Shore?' The Maghreb Re2new 1 2, no. 1 -2 (1 987):34-37.

Shaked, Haim. The Life ofthe Sudanese Mahdi. New Brunswick; N. J: Transaction Books, 1978.

Shukn, Muhammad F. al-Sani't&ab: D% tva DQLV~. Cairo: DG al-Fikr al-'Arabi, 1948.

M Libya drrnng the War Mth Itah (1 9 1 1 - 191 9). Berlin: Klaus Schwarz Veriag, 1987.

Simons, Geo& J 2 . a the StmggIefir Survivo 2* cd. London: Macmillan, 1996.

Stoddard, Lodiiop. Tbe New WotId oflsliun. New York: Chades ScPbner7s Sons, 1923.

Streiker, Allen. ccGovemment and Revoit in the Tripoli Regenq 1795-1 969.'' M.A. thesis, Norttiwestem University, 1970.

Triaud, J.L. "Sanüsiyya." In The Engc@aedia of Islirnr, new ed., eds. C.E. Bosworth, et al., vol. 9. 23-26. Leiden: E.J. Bd, 1995.

- . c%hquête sur une Conkécie: Redécouvrir la Sanusiyya." uI Tran.vftis.h du Sauoir dam le monde mwzdma~ pek$hè%que, 1 2, (1 99 2), g p. 1 -7.

. Lo Legende Noie de ui laania&a. 2 vols. Paris: Editions de la Maison des

O saences de l'homme, 1995.

Trimingham, J. Spencer. The Sufi Ordetr in I~--lam. London: Oxford Universis. Press, 1973.

Van Bruinessen, Martin. E2ab fining: Pemnfm daa Tdnkat. Bandung: Mitan, 1995.

Vikor, Knut S. ccAl-Sanusi and Qadhafi-Continuity of Thought?" The Maghnb ReMea, 12, no. 1-2 (1987): 25-28.

. .î$ and Schohr on the Demt E& Muhammad 6. 'Al al- SanGT mtd bis Bmtberhood. London: Hurst and Co., 199 5.

I~ilIard, Henry Serrano. fibu: the hTew A d Kingdom of AWth Afnica. New York: Comell University Press, 1954.

Walinga, Muh. Hatta "Kiyai Haji Muammad As'ad: Hidup dan Perjuangannya." B.A. thesis, Faculty of Letters, IAIN AlauddLi, Ujung Pandang, 1980.

Wright, John. E&a. London: Ernest Benn Ltd., 1969.

. Lihyu: A Modm Hirtoty- Baltimore: John Hopkins University Press, 1982.

. "Mussolini, Libya and the 'Sword of Islam'." The Maghmb Ren'ew 12, no. 1-2 (1987): 29-33.

Xavier, Octave and Depont Coppolani. Les ConfnZe~ Reh@eu~-es M u ~ - d . . e ~ . PaBs: Maisonneuve, 1897.

Ziadeh, Nicola A. SanU@ab: A Atm$ f u Rev~va/ist Mouement i t z I d m . hiden: E.J. Bdl, 1983.

- . .a.-

(Source: EAV- D e Candole. Tbe L#% rmd Timu of Sig Idnj ofL'&a. London: :! f Mohammed b& Ghalbon, 1994 pp. xiv-xv.) ... .

(Source: Dennis D. Cordell. T a s t e m Libya, Wadai and the SanGya: A T d q a and a T'rade Route." In tbc]owrnaIdf@can Hamy, i8,1, 1977, p. 25).

-- . City or town Region Tribrl Tenitory

(Source: Lisa Andmon. The State and Soaal Tiansfomiltion in Tunisia and Libya, 18304380. Phceton: Primeton Univefsity Press, 1987, p. 4)