www.IV2S.at

Focusing on:Transport Fuels

VOLUME 2

AustrianTechnologicalExpertiseinTransport

2 Austrian Technological Expertise in Transport

IMPRINT

Owner, publisher and media proprietor: Austrian Federal Ministry for Transport, Innovation and Technology – BMVIT A-1010 Vienna, Renngasse 5

Responsible for content: Unit of Mobility and Transport Technologies Head of Department: Evelinde Grassegger Deputy Head of Department: Andreas Dorda

Editorial: Austrian Agency for Alternative Propulsion Systems (A3PS) Bernhard Egger, Stefan Herndler Tech Gate Vienna, Donau City Strasse 1, A-1220 Vienna

Production: Projektfabrik Waldhör KEG A-1180 Vienna, Währinger Strasse 121/3

Photos and illustrations: BMVIT project partners, fotolia, pixelio.de, Projektfabrik Waldhör KEG

Volumes already published:

Volume 1 – Austrian Technological Expertise in Transport, Focusing on: Hydrogen and Fuel Cells – Vienna, Dezember 2007

3

Preface...........................................................................................................................................................................................................5

Editorial..........................................................................................................................................................................................................6

Reviewarticleontransportfuels.............................................................................................................................................................8

A3-Projects..................................................................................................................................................................................................38

EU-Projects..................................................................................................................................................................................................54

Austrianinstitutionsinthefieldoftransportfuels.............................................................................................................................66

Contactsandinformation..........................................................................................................................................................................67

TABLEOFCONTENTS

4 Austrian Technological Expertise in Transport

5

Transportfuelsareacrucialfactorinachievingincreasinglyambitiousclimatepolicy

goalsandasustainablemobilitysystem.Alternativepropulsionsystemsneednewor

modifiedfuels,tunedtotheirspecificrequirements,andofferopportunitiesfor

reducingpollutants,greenhousegasesandnoise.

TheAustrianMinistryforTransport,InnovationandTechnology(BMVIT)hastherefore

fundedresearchanddevelopmentofalternativefuelsunderitsA3(AustrianAdvanced

AutomotiveTechnology)Programmesince2002,andnowinthenewA3plus

Programme.Tosecurethemarketintroductionofalternativepropulsionsystemsand

fuels,theBMVITissupportingpilotanddemonstrationprojects,includingsupportfor

theusersofthesenewtechnologies,withthegoalofoptimisingthesesystemsand

fuelsunderreallifeconditions.

78R&Dcooperationprojectshavebeenrealised,withanoverallbudgetof40million

eurosandsponsorshipfundingof20.4millioneuros;andafurther8demonstration

projects,withanoverallbudgetof7.4millioneurosandfundingof3.4millioneuros,

havebeenputintoactionbetween2002and2006.In2007another18R&Dprojects

and3pilotprojectshavebeenselectedforfundingunderthenewA3plusProgramme.

Austria’sautomotiveindustryincludessomeofthebiggestsupplysidecompanies

worldwide.With175,000employees,itisstronglyengagedintheengineeringand

productionofpropulsionsystemsandfuels.TheBMVITstrivesforsynergies,basedon

itscorecompetencesintheareasoftransportandtechnologypolicy,inorderto

securethecompetitivenessofthisindustrythroughconstantinnovation.Itis

furthermoreaimingtosolveurgenttransportandenvironmentalproblemsbyusing

newtechnologies.

Internationalcooperationisakeyfactorforsuccessinmeetingglobalchallenges,

whicharereflectedbyambitiousgoalsandmandatorynationalandEUtargetsfor

energyefficiency,securityofenergysupplyandreductionofpollutantsand

greenhousegasemissions.AustriathereforecooperatesstronglywithEUtechnology

platforms,FP7partnersandtheIEA.TheAustrianAgencyforAlternativePropulsion

SystemsandFuels(A3PS),withitscurrently27partners,isanimportantinstrumentas

aplatformforinternationalnetworkingandcooperationbetweenindustry,universities,

researchinstitutesandtheBMVITinseekingtoachievethesegoals.

PREFACE

CHRISTA KRANZL StateSecretaryforInnovationandTechnologyatthe

AustrianFederalMinistryforTransport,Innovation

andTechnology

EDITORIAL

Alternativefuelsareahotspotforthetransportandenergyindustryaswellasforthe

internationalresearchcommunity,hencetheyareofstrategicimportancefor

technologypolicymakers.Themarketintroductionofthesefuelscouldsolve

environmentalproblemsandsecuretheenergysupplyforthetransportsector.This

technologicalprogresswouldensurethecompetitivenessoftheautomotiveindustry

asakeysectorinAustriaandpreparetheglobaltransportindustryforchallengeslike

tighteningemissionstandards.ThecleargoaltomeetEuropeanCommission

obligationstoreducegreenhousegasesbyatleast20%by2020andforcontinued

reductionofpollutantsisachallengenotonlyforthevehicleindustrybutforthefuel

industryaswell.

Againstthebackgroundofsteadilyrisingoilpricesandincreasingdependenceonoil

importsfrompoliticallyunstableregions,strongpressuretochangetheexistingenergy

supplyisevident.Thetransportsectorisalreadyresponsibleforalargeshareofoverall

energyconsumption,likelytorisefurtherinthefuture.Accordingly,concretesteps

towardsimprovingenergyefficiencyanddevelopingalternativeenergysupplyare

indispensable.

TheAustriangovernmenthasthereforedecidedtoimplementanEnergyFundinits

governmentprogramme,withaninvestmentvolumeof500millioneuros,andhasset

upthefollowingadditionaltargetstoreachtheambitiousgoalofa20%greenhouse

gasreduction:

•

Increasingtheproportionofalternativefuelsinthetransportsectorto10%by2010,

andto20%in2020

•

5%ofnewregisteredcarsaretobeequippedwithanalternativepropulsionsystem

(Hybrid,E85,CNG,LNG,etc.)

•

Increasingtheproportionofrenewableenergywithintotalenergyconsumptiontoat

least25%by2010and(inrelationtothepresentproportion)doublingitto45%by

2020

•

NationwideimplementationofE85andmethanefillingstationsinAustria

•

Adoublingofbiomassuseby2020

•

Establishingamethanebasedfuelwithabiomethanecontentofatleast20%by

2010

•

Improvingtheregulatoryframeworkforbiogasfeedin

6 Austrian Technological Expertise in Transport

TheEuropeanCommissionhassetsimilarlyambitioustargets

forEuropeanenergypolicy.Basedonthealreadymandatory

biofuelsdirective,withaproportionof5.75%biofuelsin2010

(2008inAustria),theEUisaimingto:

•

Increasetheproportionofalternativefuelsinthetransport

sectorto10%by2020

•

ReduceCO2 by20%–30%by2020

•

Increasetheproportionofrenewableenergywithintotal

energyconsumptionto20%by2020

•

ReduceaverageCO2 fleetconsumptionto120/130gCO2/km

Researchanddevelopmentareessentialinachievingambitious

energypolicygoals.ThefundingofR&Dinthefieldof

alternativefuelsandnewpropulsionsystemshastobe

increasedsubstantiallyinordertorealiseasustainabletransport

andenergysysteminthefuture.Onlysimultaneousinnovations

infuelproduction,storageandvehicletechnologywillleadtoa

reductioninenergyconsumptionandingreenhousegas

emissions.

Respondingtothis,theAustrianMinistryforTransport,

InnovationandTechnologyhadlaunchedtheR&DProgramme

“A3–AustrianAdvancedAutomotiveTechnology”alreadyin

2002,coveringtheentireinnovationcyclefrombasicresearchto

demonstrationprojects,education,mobilityofresearchersand

internationalnetworking.A3focusesontechnology

breakthroughsandnotincrementalimprovements,andstrives

forsynergiesfrominterdisciplinarycooperationbetween

industrial,universityandnonuniversityresearchandbetween

suppliersandusersoftechnologiesinjointR&Dprojects.

LighthouseprojectsareanotherinstrumentusedbytheBMVIT

insupportingthemarketintroductionofalternativepropulsion

systems,throughfundinglargepilotanddemonstrationprojects,

optimisingtechnologiesunderrealtimeconditions,providing

proofofsuccessfuloperationandpreparingthepublicfor

technologicalchange.

TheEUunderpinsitspolicygoalsinasimilarwaybyfunding

R&Dinthe7th FrameworkProgramme,andthroughpartnership

withindustryandresearchinstitutionsinformulatingthe

StrategicResearchAgenda(SRA)oftheEUTechnology

PlatformsERTRACandBIOFUELS.TheInternationalEnergy

Agency(IEA)supportsglobalR&Dcooperationsfora

sustainableenergyandtransportsysteminitsImplementing

Agreements“AdvancedMotorFuels”and“Bioenergy”.

Thisbookletconstitutesthesecondvolumeintheseries

“AustrianTechnologicalExpertiseinTransport”,providinga

comprehensiveoverviewofR&Dprojectsandresearch

institutionsinthefieldoftransportfuelsinAustria,rangingfrom

A3andlighthouseprojectsfundedbytheBMVITuptoEUand

internationalprojectswithAustrianparticipants.Sincethefirst

volumeofthisseriesofbookletshascoveredthetheme

“HydrogenandFuelCells”(publishedinDecember2007),

projectsforhydrogenasenergycarrierhavebeenomittedfrom

thepresentbookletonfuels.Electricityasanotherenergycarrier

foralternativepropulsioninelectricvehicleswillbecoveredin

oneofthenextbookletsofthisseriesonhybridvehicles,

batterytechnologiesandelectronicsteeringcontrol.Thereview

articlewhichfollowsprovidesacompactandbalancedanalysis

oftechnologicaltrendsandacomparisonoffueloptions,before

presentingtheresultsofA3andEUprojects.

7

8 Austrian Technological Expertise in Transport

>TRANSPORTFUELS:ACRUCIALFACTORANDDRIVERTOWARDSSUSTAINABLEMOBILITY

>VEGETABLEOILANDBIODIESEL>BIOETHANOL>SECOND-GENERATIONFUELS–THEWAYAHEAD>BIOGASFROMANAEROBICDIGESTIONASVEHICLE

FUEL–REQUIREMENTSANDAPPLICATION>COMPRESSEDNATURALGAS–CNG>LIQUEFIEDPETROLEUMGAS–LPG>HYDROGEN–CARBONFREEFUEL>ELECTRICALENERGYASFUTUREVEHICLEFUEL>TRENDSINENGINEDEVELOPMENT>CONCLUSION

ACKNOWLEDGMENTS

Thecreationofabrochureofthissizeandcomplexitycouldnothavebeenaccomplishedwithoutthe

gracioushelp,collegialcooperation,andveryhardworkofmanypeople.Atthispointwewanttothank

allthosepeoplefortheirworkandcontributionstothebrochure.

Ahrer,Werner PROFACTORGmbH

Amon,Thomas UniversityofNaturalResourcesandAppliedLifeSciences,

Vienna–DivisionofAgriculturalEngineering

Böhme,Walter OMVAG

Conte,Valerio arsenalresearch

Dorda,Andreas BMVIT/A3PS

Egger,Bernhard A3PS

Geringer,Bernhard ViennaUniversityofTechnology–InstituteforInternalCombustionEngines

andAutomotiveEngineering

Hannesschläger,Michael EnergieparkBrucka.d.Leitha

Herndler,Stefan A3PS

Hofbauer,Hermann ViennaUniversityofTechnology–InstituteofChemicalEngineering

Jogl,Christian HyCentAResearchGmbH

Klell,Manfred HyCentAResearchGmbH

Lichtblau,Günther Umweltbundesamt

Noll,Margit arsenalresearch

Pirker,Franz arsenalresearch

Pollak,Kurt OMVAGCorporateStrategy

Prenninger,Peter AVLListGmbH

Rathbauer,Josef FJBLTWieselburg

Rudolf,Markus MagnaSteyrFahrzeugtechnikAG&CoKG

Seidinger,Peter OMVGasInternationalGmbH

Spitzer,Josef JOANNEUMRESEARCH

Urbanek,Michael ViennaUniversityofTechnology–InstituteforInternalCombustionEngines

andAutomotiveEngineering

Winter,Ralf Umweltbundesamt

Wörgetter,Manfred FJBLTWieselburg

9

REVIEWARTICLEONTRANSPORTFUELS

TRANSPORTFUELS:ACRUCIALFACTORANDDRIVERTOWARDSSUSTAINABLEMOBILITY

Againstthebackgroundofimminentclimatechangeand

increasingdependenceonenergyresourcesfrompolitically

unstableregions,policymakersaresettingambitiousgoalsto

reducegreenhousegasemissions,includingthosefromthe

transportsector.Toreachtheseambitioustargets,awiderange

oftechnicaloptionsisavailable.Changesinthepropulsion

systemrequireclosecooperationbetweenthefuelindustryand

powertraindevelopers.Apartfromcompressednaturalgas

(CNG)andliquefiedpetroleumgas(LPG),alternativefuels

includesustainablefuelssuchasbiodiesel,ethanol,biogasand

secondgenerationfuels,aswellasadvancedfuelslikedimethyl

ether(DME).Besidesthefurtherimprovementofexisting

combustiontechnologies,R&Disfocussingoncombustion

processesforalternativefuelsandnewpropulsionconcepts

suchasmonovalentgasengines,hybridandpureelectric

vehicles,aswellasfuelcellcars.Theobjectiveofallthese

developmentsistoimprovedrivetrainefficiencyandtoreduce

emissionsofpollutantsandgreenhousegases.

Sustainablefuelscanbeproducedusingalargevarietyof

differentfeedstock.Ingeneral,distinctionscanbemadebetween

oilcrops(rape,sunflower,etc.),starchorsugarcrops(maize,

grain,sugarbeet,sugarcan,etc.),lignocelluloses(straw,wood,

miscanthus,cornstover,etc.)andotherrawmateriallikeorganic

residuesandwasteproducts(manure,sludge,animalfat,etc.).

DirectCO2 emissionsfromvehiclesrunonsustainablefuelsare

generallypresumedtobezero.Theexhaustgascontainsthe

amountofCO2 thatwaspreviouslycapturedfromthe

atmospherebyphotosynthesis.Sincefuelproductionisitselfa

sourceofCO2 emissions,theactualimpactontheclimatemust

beassessedtotakeaccountofthoseeffects.Contingent

activities,suchascultivatingtherawmaterial(fertilizer,tractors),

alltransportationmovementsandprocessingthereforeneedto

bemonitoredforemissionstogainanobjectivecomparison.To

takeaccountofthesesocalled‘upstreameffects’,allactivities

necessarytoprovidethefuelatthefillingstationneedtobe

included.Calculationsareimplementedusinglifecycle

assessments.Theamountoftheseemissionsisstrongly

influencedbythegivencircumstances.Ifcultivationiscarried

outinanecologicalway,iftransportdistancesareshortandif

processingusesgreenelectricity,totalemissionstendtobe

low.Bestresultscanbeobtainedwhenthefeedstockconsists

ofresidualproductsandwasteproducts,becausemany

upstreamemissionscanbefactoredout.

Convertingthequantityofalternativefueltoamileagefigureis

realisedbylookingattheindividualenergydensitiesofthe

differentfuels.Thisisessential,especiallywhenaccountingfor

theactualsubstitutionlevelofsustainablefuels.Theenergy

densityofbiodieselisabout8%lowerthanthatoffossildiesel;

theenergydensityofethanolisaboutonethirdbelowthatof

fossilpetrol.Thereforeinordertosubstitutefossilfuelsandto

meetconventionalpropulsionefficiency,higherquantitiesof

sustainablefuelareneeded.

Purevegetableoilisobtainedbypressingoilseedsoroilfruits

fromoilcrops;subsequentlyitcaneitherbeuseddirectlyor

processedtoobtainbiodieselthroughesterification.Wastefat

(usedcookingoil,animalfat)canalsobeusedasfeedstockfor

biodieselproduction,afterappropriatetreatment.Toguarantee

sounduseofpurevegetableoilandbiodiesel,giventhattheir

fuelparametersdivergefromdieselasusedtoday,enginesand

vehiclesneedtobeadapted,particularlywhenusingalternative

fuelsinhighconcentrationsorinpureform.Alternatively,

vegetableoilcanbetreatedwithhydrogentoobtain

hydrogenatedvegetableoil,whichcanbeusedindieselengines

withoutanyspecialrequirements.

Theethanolcurrentlyavailableisproducedfromstarchand

sugar,originatingfromstarchandsugarcrops,wherethestarch

isfirstmetabolisedintosugarbyenzymaticdecompositionand

thesugarsubsequentlyconvertedtoethanolthroughalcohol

fermentation.Lignocellulosebiomassrepresentsanother

potentialfeedstockforfutureethanolproduction.Theabilityto

uselignocellulosesrequiresspecificenzymes,incombination

withspecialpretreatmentstofacilitatethebreakdownof

cellulosematerialintoitssugarcomponents,inordertoferment

ittoethanol.Useofpureethanolrequiresspecialengineand

vehicleadaptation.

Besidesusingbiodieselandethanolinpureform,which

requirescertainvehicleadaptations,theyareusedasblends

withconventionalfuels,atupto5%byvolume.Duetothe

smallproportionofsustainablefuelsintheseblends,thereisno

needtoadapteitherengineorvehicle.Thisfactmeansthatthe

majorityofsustainablefuelusedinthetransportsectoris

distributedasablend,owingtothelackofasuitablevehicle

infrastructure.E85,anethanolbasedfuelcontaining85%

ethanol,isofferedasfuelforsocalledflexiblefuelvehicles

(FFVs),whichcanbeoperatedwithfuelsupto85%ethanol.

10 Austrian Technological Expertise in Transport

Sustainablefuelsareusuallygroupedintofirstandsecondgenerationfuels.Allsustainablefuelsproducedcommercially

usingconventionaltechniquesandanyfeedstockapartfrom

lignocellulosesandcellulosesbelongtothefirstgroup;these

includeforexamplebiodieselfromoilseedsandethanolfrom

cornorsugarbeet.Besidesbeingdefinedthroughtheir

feedstockofwoodorstrawbasedrawmaterial,secondgenerationfuelsareoftendefinedbytheirspecialproduction

conditions,whichofferthefurtherpossibilityofusingtheentire

plantforfuelproductionandthereforeincreasingthepotential

amountoffeedstock(acreageperformance).

Biogasisgeneratedwhenorganicmaterialfermentsunder

anaerobicconditions(withoutoxygen).Organicresidues,plant

partswhicharepresentlydiscardedaswaste,aswellasall

energycropsarepotentialrawmaterial.Thecrudegasproduced

therebyneedsfurthertreatment,calledupgrading,toimprove

thequalitybeforeitcanbeusedastransportfuel.Biogasused

asatransportfuelmainlyconsistsofmethanegaswithalow

contentofimpuritiessuchassulphurorcarbondioxide,andis

thereforechemicallysimilartoCNG.

CNGhasalreadybeeninuseastransportfuelformanyyears.

Ithasabout25%lowerCO2 emissionsthanpetrol,significant

loweremissionofpollutantsandnoparticulateemissions.

InAustria,theconstructionofanationwidegasfuelling

infrastructureisinprogress.

BiogasandCNGcanbedistributedthroughtheexistingnatural

gasgridtoregulargasfillingstations,compressedandsoldonsite.Ifnogasgridisavailable,additionallogisticisneeded.

LPGisalsoinuseastransportfuel,especiallyinbusfleets(e.g.

inVienna).ItoffersadvantagessuchaslowerCO2 andpollutants

emissionsandischeaperthanstandardpetrolordieselfuel.

Agriculturallandavailableforenergycropproductionbeing

limited,theyieldofsustainablefuelperacreageisan

appropriateassessmentparameterforevaluatingsustainable

fuels.Furthermoreithastobeborneinmindthattheproduction

ofsustainablefuelscompeteswithsupplyoffoodandfeed,as

wellasotherinterestslikethoseofthepaperandwood

industry.Itisevidentthattoday’sfuelconsumptioncannotbe

coveredentirelywithsustainablefuels.

GenerallytheyofferadvantagessuchasareductioninCO2

emissionsandloweremissionsofpollutants,butthelongterm

goalisanemissionfreetransportsystem.Thesearereasons

whysustainablefuelsareperceivedtobepartofthesolution,

i.e.asanintermediatestepinmovingtowardsthelongterm

introductionofvehiclespoweredbyelectricpowerorhydrogen.

Atthemoment,gradualelectrificationofmotorvehiclesis

alreadyunderway.Socalledhybridvehiclesarecombining

combustionenginesandelectricmotorsinordertoimprove

vehicleefficiency.Forbothelectricvehiclesandhydrogenpoweredvehicles,furtherimprovementsrelatingtobattery

technology,hydrogenstorageandfuelcellsstillneedtobe

realisedinordertoachievemarketmaturity.Whileneither

technologyitselfcausesdirectemissions,itisnecessaryto

focusontheenergyproductionsidetoo.Iffuelproductionuses

electricityoriginatingfromrenewablesources,theoverall

balanceofemissionsispromising;ifusingelectricityfrom

conventionalthermalpowercrops,however,electricand

hydrogenpoweredvehiclesperformsimilarlytoexistinghybrid

vehiclesintermsofenergyefficiencyandgreenhousegas

emissions.

Thefollowingchapters,writtenbyexpertsfromAustrian

companiesandR&Dinstitutions,willguideyouthroughthe

topicofexistingandfuturealternativetransportfuels.

Thechaptersgiveanoverviewofthesocial,technicaland

economicaspectsofdifferentalternativefuels.Advantages

anddisadvantagesofvariousoptionsarediscussed,andyou

willfindinformationoncurrenttrendsinthefuelandautomotive

industries.Alltogether,thechaptersprovideaninteresting

insightintotheimportanttopicofalternativefuels–helpingto

enhancetransportefficiencyandtoreduceemissions.

11

VEGETABLEOILANDBIODIESEL

VEGETABLE OIL FOR DIESEL ENGINES

RudolfDieselhimselfwantedtorunhisenginesusingvegetable

oil.Scientificinvestigationswerecarriedoutintorunning

enginesonvegetableoilbeforeWorldWarII.Theoilcrisisin

1973revivedinterest,andresearchwasconductedaroundthe

worldintotheuseofvegetableoilinconventionaldiesel

engines.However,thetendencyofvegetableoiltocoking

significantlylimitedrunningenginesusingpurevegetableoil.

StartingfromCanada,thewidespreadplantingofrapehasbeen

asuccessfuldevelopment.Rapeisaplantsuitedtoregions

withatemperateclimate,andinNorthernGermanytheyieldis

3to4t/haofseed.Theseedcanbeprocessedusingproven

technologyinindustrialplantsandinsmallscaleunitsat

relativelylowcost.Asinglehectareissufficienttoproduce

2tonnesofproteinfeedforanimalnutritionand1.3tonnesof

rapeseedoil.Throughgoodfarmingpractice,breedingmeasures

andreducedexpenditureonmanureandpesticides,alongside

advancesinfarmingengineering,ithasprovedpossibleto

reducethecostsofrapeproductionby70%in35years.

However,globallyarangeoffurtheroilsandfatsarealsobeing

consideredasrawmaterials.Forinstance,palmoiliseconomically

attractiveowingtoitshighyields(upto7t/ha),butiscalledinto

questiononecologicalandsocialgrounds.TheJatrophaplant

promisessustainableproduction,particularlyinaridregions,buta

wholeagriculturalproductionsystemmustbedeveloped.

Tousevegetableoilasafuel,twostrategiescanbeenvisaged.

Enginessuitableforrunningonvegetableoilcanserveniche

markets,orifthepropertiesofoilareadaptedtothe

requirementsofexistingenginesthewholedieselfuelmarket

canbeopenedup.

BIODIESEL

isproducedthroughalcoholysisofvegetableoiloranimalfats.

Atriglyceridemoleculeisusedwiththreemoleculesofmethanol

toproducethreemoleculesofmethylesterandoneglycerine

molecule.Overthepastdecade,simpleprocesseswithlow

energydemand,hightransformationratesandgoodproduct

qualityweredevelopedtoproducemethylesters(“FAME“=

“fattyacidmethylester”;“RME”=rapeoilmethylester).

Transesterificationimprovesthedieselenginecharacteristics.

Viscosityisreduced,thetendencytocokingiscompatiblewith

therangefoundindieselfuels,andthecetanenumberand

lubricityarebetterthanthatoffossildiesel.Extensive

investigationsduringthe1990sdemonstratedthatbiodieselis

suitableformarketviable,seriesmanufacturedvehicles.Groups

ofresearchersinAustria(inGraz,WieselburgandVienna)were

worldleadinginthisfield.Withnationalstandardisationin

Austria,forthefirsttimeanywhereintheworldthe

preconditionswereestablishedforregulatedtradingof

biodiesel.

Since2004,EN14214hasspecifiedtherequirementsfor

biodieselasapurefuelandasamixcomponentaddedtofossil

dieselfuel.Since2006,4.4%biodieselhasbeenadmixedto

fillingstationfuelinAustria.Theuseofpurebiodieselrequires

carmanufacturerapproval.Althoughafter1990therewas

successinsecuringapprovalforrunningonpurebiodiesel,the

automotiveindustryremainshesitant.Indevelopingexhaustgas

filtertechnology,noaccountwastakenofthespecific

characteristicsofbiodiesel.Carmanufacturersareaccordingly

limitingtheadmixturetoa5%level,anda7to10%limitis

underdiscussion.Approvalsforrunningonpurebiodieselare

onlytobebroughtinforheavyutilityvehicles.

12 Austrian Technological Expertise in Transport

RUNNING ON VEGETABLE OIL

requiresmodificationstothevehicleandtoengines.Onthe

developmentside,designmeasuresneedtobetakeninrespect

oftheinjectionengineering,thecombustionchamberandinthe

designofpistons,pistonringsandvalves.Toaccelerate

developmenttheGermanStandardisationOrganisationhas

drawnupatentativeDINstandardforvegetableoil.Thecostsof

developmentandthesmallmarkethaveprovedobstaclestothe

introductionofVegetableOilTechnology.Toovercomethis

hurdle,theGermanMinistryforAgriculturehasfinanceda

demonstrationproject.Over100reequippedtractorshavebeen

operatedforseveralyearsusingvegetableoil,withmonitoring

byscientists.

OverseenbyscientistsatFJBLT,aprojectsupportedbyAgrar

PlusisunderwayinAustria.WithassistancefromtheMinistry

ofAgriculture,Forestry,theEnvironmentandWater

ManagementandfromtheRegionalGovernmentsofLower

Austria,UpperAustriaandBurgenland,andunderthe

Kommunalkreditlocalauthorityloanscheme,acomprehensive

monitoringprojectisbeingcarriedoutintothepracticaluseof

35reequippedtractorsandtheproductionofvegetableoilin

smallproductionunitsovertheperiodend2003–mid2008.

Theaimistoshowunderwhichconditionstheuseofvegetable

oilasatractorfuelonreequippedseriesmanufacturedtractors

ispossible,andwhatrisksarisefromthis.

Toassesstheoilquality,samplesaretakenandanalysed

periodicallyfromtheoilmills,storagetanksandvehiclefuel

tanks.Inthefirstyear,theintroductionofqualityassurance

measureshasseensuccessincomplyingwiththerequirements

oftheDINtentativestandard.

BuildingontheexperiencesinGermany,“twotanksystems”

arealsobeingused.Thesetractorsarerunusingfossildieselat

lowloadandwhenincoldcondition,andathighloadusingpreheatedvegetableoil,therebyreducingengineoildilutionand

carbonbuiltuponengineparts.Poweroutputwhenrunningon

dieselandrapeseedoilisroughlythesame.Thefuel

consumptionissomewhathigherwhenrunningonrapeseedoil

thanondiesel.Intermsofemissions,rapeseedoiloffers

improvementsinCOandhydrocarbonemissions,withworse

performanceintermsofNOX emissions.

Fortheengineoil,alltractorsusedproductsfromaGerman

manufacturerwithrelevantexperience.Thecustomaryoil

changeperiodsweremaintained.Theaveragerapeseedoil

contentofthesamplesfromtheengineoilchangesonatwotanksystemwas4.6%,whichwaswellbelowthe

correspondinglevelof12.5%ononetanksystems.Thefinal

investigationshavebeenunderwaysinceautumn2007.For

these,powerbehaviourandemissionsarebeingassessedon

thetestbenchandthedegreeofwearinvestigatedby

dismantlingtheengines.Theprogrammewillberoundedoffin

mid2008withacomprehensivereport.

13

BIOETHANOL

Toconserveresourcesoffossilmineraloilrawmaterials,andto

improvetheCO2 balancesheet,increasinguseneedstobe

madeofsustainablefuels.Theuseofbiodieselisalready

familiartousandisstateoftheart,whereassubstitute

biogenousfuelfortheOttoengineisonlynowbeginningtobe

usedinEurope,intheformofethanol.Currentlythesharefor

sustainablefuelinAustriaisaround5%,althoughthislevelis

settobeincreasedprogressivelytoatleast10%.

ETHANOL FOR OTTO ENGINES

Ethanolassourceofenergywasalreadyconsideredasa

possiblefuelatthetimethecarwasinvented.Thestarting

productforfermentationisrawmaterialcontainingsugarsand

starches.Whereasplantscontainingsugar(sugarbeet,

sugarcane)canbefermenteddirectly,ingrainthestarchisfirst

convertedtosugarthroughenzymeaction.Thefermentation

producesaproductwithanalcoholcontentof18%,andusing

distillationthisdegreeofconcentrationisincreasedto90%.For

admixingwithpetrol,inafurtherstepthealcoholcontentis

increasedtocloseon100%.

EthanolhasexcellentcharacteristicsfortheOttoengine,asa

purefuelandwhenmixedwithconventionalpetrol.Currently,

5%ethanolisadmixedwithpetrolinAustria.Sincetheenergy

densityofpureethanolislow,enginesneedtobeadaptedto

usepureethanol.

ResearchworkatViennaUniversityofTechnologyhasshown

thathigherlevelsofefficiencywithhigherperformanceand

loweremissionscanbeachievedusingethanol.Vehicleswhich

canbedrivenonpetrolethanolmixesofupto85%(flexiblefuel

vehiclesFFV)areonthemarketinSweden,BrazilandtheUS,

strongeffortstoimplementsuchtechnologiesaremadeinan

E85programbysomecompaniesinAustriatoo.

TheBrazilian“ProalcoolProgramme”wasthebiggestmarket

launchprogrammeintheworld.Asearlyas1997,273million

tonnesofsugarbeetwereharvestedoutofwhich13.7million

m3offuelwereproduced.Ethanolisprimarilyusedinmixtures,

andsince1999a26%admixturehasbeenused.Inrecent

years,automobilecompanieshavelaunchedFFVsonthe

Brazilianmarket,togreatsuccess.Now,however,theUSAhas

overtakenBrazil.In2007,tosafeguardfuelsupply,atotalof7

billiongallonsofethanolwasproducedin115plantsfrommaize

andgrain,andtheannualincreasefrom2007to2008was38%.

FUTURE POTENTIAL FOR ACQUISITION OF FUEL

Theincreasinguseofethanolasasupplementtoorsubstitute

forfossilfuelsis,however,becomingincreasinglycontroversial

today.Forinstance,triggeredbytheextensivecultivationof

suitableplants,therearefearsofdisruptiontotheecosystem

andethicalreservationsagainstusingplantssuchasgrain,

maizeorsunflowersforenergy,giventhatthesecropsare

simultaneouslythebasisforfoodproducts.Nevertheless,the

socalledfirstgenerationfuelshavealreadyachievedglobal

importancetoday.TheUSAandBrazilproducewellover30

milliontonnesofethanolannually.

Bycontrast,inthesecondgenerationfuels(thedevelopmentof

whichisbeingworkedonbyresearchersatpresent)thefruitis

tobeusedforfoodproductionandonlytheresidual

componentsor“waste”fromthecommerciallygrownplantis

tobeusedtoproduceenergy.Thiswouldopenupthewaytoa

sustainablefurtherincreaseintheshareofbiogenousproducts

infuel.

ADAPTING ENGINES TO RUN ON ETHANOL

Ifethanolistobeadmixedinhigherproportions,thenthe

engineneedstobeadaptedaccordingly.Dependingonthemix

ratio,ahigheroctanerating,alowerthermalvalueandincreased

vaporisationheatcanbeobtained.Giventheclimaticconditions

inEurope,admixingupto85%ethanolissensible.Thisrequires

adaptedenginemanagementparameterssuchasinjection

volume,ignitiontimingetc.VehiclesknownasFFVsareadapted

torunonanypreferredmixratio,upto85%ethanolinthe

petrol.Forenginesworkingwithahighethanolcontentinthe

fuel,oneoftherequirementsisthatthevalveseatsneedtobe

manufacturedintoughermaterial,sincethestressissomewhat

increasedandthelubricatingpropertiesarelower.Alcoholresistantmaterialsmustbeusedforfuellinesandseals.

14 Austrian Technological Expertise in Transport

OPPORTUNITIES AND CHALLENGES FOR USE IN ENGINES

Thefutureincreaseduseofalternativefuelsistherefore

predicatedonthedevelopmentofadaptedengines.Thefull

potentialofethanoltoincreaseefficiencylevelscanonlybefully

exploitedbyoptimisingtheenginetothespecialcharacteristics

ofthefuel.Asanexample,mentionshouldbemadehereofthe

higherknockrating,whichallowsthecompressionratiotobe

increased.Thisresultsinanincreaseinthermalefficiency.This

isnotpossibleusingconventionalOttoenginefuel,dueto

knocking.Knockingcomesaboutif,atfullload,pocketsofthe

fuelairmixtureignitespontaneouslysubsequenttothespark

plugignition,duetothehighpressureandthetemperature.This

isassociatedwithextremelyhighstressesontheenginewhich,

iftheypersistfortoolong,canresultindestruction.

Movingtheignitionpointlaterguardsagainstthisstress,butit

worsensthelevelofefficiency.Thisisnotnecessaryatallwith

ethanol,oronlytoasignificantlylowerextent.Thismeansthat

usingethanolnotonlybringsbenefitsintermsofefficient

conversionofenergy,buttheearlycombustionalsomeansthat

theexhaustgastemperatureissignificantlylowerthanwhen

runningonpetrol.Theoutcomeofthisprocessissignificantly

lowerneedforenrichmenttocoolthecatalystathighloads,

meaningthatadditionalfuelissaved.Futureethanolengineswill

comeclosetomoderndieselenginesintermsoftheirlevelof

efficiencyatfullload.

Iftheoptionistakenforflexibleoperationusinganypreferred

mixturesofethanolupto85%andpetrol,asforexamplein

FFVs,compromisesmustnecessarilybemade,sincetheengine

mustalsoworkwiththelowerknockratingofconventionalOtto

enginefuel.Inallcases,developmentsintermsofengine

adjustmentsarecertainlyrequired,butnofundamentalnew

designs.

However,usingethanolalsobringsaboutdisadvantages.The

highvaporisationheatandthehighboilingpointofethanolcan

leadtodifficultieswithcoldstarting,particularlyatverylow

ambienttemperatures.Thisgeneratesmajorchallenges,in

termsofinjectionstrategyandtheengineapplication,inorderto

vaporisesufficientfuelwhenstarting.Onepossiblesolutionis

multipleinjectionpercycleondirectinjectionengines.Thiscan

improvethevaporisationpatternandlowertheminimumcold

starttemperature.Inaddition,thelowercalorificvalueofethanol

comparedwithpetrol(aroundathirdlower)meansthatthereis

agreatervolumetricfuelrequirement.Whilstthismeansshorter

periodsbetweenfuellingstops,thelowerpricemeansthat

therearenoadditionalcostsfortheconsumer.Inadditiontothe

advantagesinfuelmanufacturing,therearealsolowerCO2

emissionsfromrunningtheengine,duetotheincreasedlevelof

efficiencywhenrunningonethanol.

15

SECOND-GENERATIONFUELS–THEWAYAHEAD

Currentlyarangeofliquidandgassustainablefuelsarebeing

producedandresearched;theyaremanufacturedusingvarious

rawmaterialsandvariousprocesses.Vegetableoil,biodiesel

andethanolareavailableonthemarket,anindustrialplanthas

beenconstructedtoproducehydrogenatedfuelsfromplantoils,

theuseofbiogasandvegetableoilinvehiclesisbeing

demonstrated,ademonstrationplanttoproduceFischerTropsch

(FT)dieselfrombiosynthesisgasisgoingintooperation,

seriousconsiderationisbeinggiventobutanolandDME

(dimethylether),processesfordirectliquefactionarebeing

announced,andstudiesareaddressingtheissueofhydrogen.

Therawmaterialscanbesourcedasprincipalproductsand

byproductsofagricultureandforestry,butalsoascoupled

productsfromindustryorasresidualmaterialsfromwaste

management.Inparticular,thelattercoveroilsandfatsof

vegetableandanimalorigin,traditionalplantscontainingstarchor

sugar,lignocelluloserawmaterialssuchaswood,strawand

miscanthus,andalsoorganicresidualmaterialssuchasmanure

andorganicwaste.

Thepotentialfromsustainablefuelsfromdomesticraw

materialsislimitedbythecompetitionforlandareawithfood

andrawmaterials.Inasustainablefuelorientedscenario,where

keysocietaldemandsaresecuresupplyofhighqualityfoodand

maintaininganenvironmentfittolivein,by2020itwouldbe

possibletogenerateupto1.4milliontoeofalternativefuels

fromdomesticrawmaterials(e.g.160,000toebiodiesel,

120,000toeethanolfromplantscontainingsugarorstarch,

700,000toeFTfuelfromgasificationofwood,woodwasteand

plantsfarmedasanenergycrop,and400,000to500,000toe

biogasfromwasteandplantsgrownasenergysources).The

fueldemandin2020isestimatedat0.7milliontoepetroland

7.4milliontoedieselfuel,witharound80%ofthisbeing

consumeddomesticallywithinAustria.Thismeansthat,using

theuppermostassumptions,22%ofowndemandcanbemet

fromprimarydomesticproduction.

Manufacturecaninvolvemechanical,chemical,biochemical,

thermochemicalorpetrochemicalprocesses.Examplesare

pressing,esterification,fermentation,gasification,gassynthesis

andhydrogenation.Thecombinationofprocessesandraw

materialsproducesarangeofpossibleoptions.Below,the

probableoptionsasconsideredtodayaredescribedinfuller

detail.

ETHANOL FROM LIGNOCELLULOSE

Toextendthebasisofrawmaterials,forsomeconsiderable

timeinvestigationshavebeenpursuedintothepulpingand

saccharificationoflignocelluloserawmaterials.Theraw

materialsbeingexaminedarewood,bark,straw,highyield

energyplantingsuchasmiscanthus,andalsolignocellulose

wastematerialssuchasusedpaper.Theareasoffocusin

researcharemechanicalpulping,hydrolysis,theproductionof

enzymesandthegeneticmodificationofmicroorganisms,and

theoverallprocessitself.Highconversionratesforcelluloseand

hemicellulosearesought,asisthecomprehensiveuseofallbyproducts.

The“RoadmapforCellulosicEthanol”fromtheUSDepartment

ofEnergyisshowingthewayinwhichby203030%offuel

demandintheUSAcanbemetfromlignocellulose.The

strategyisreliantonwholecropmaize,butgrassesgrownover

severalyearssuchasswitchgrassarebeinginvestigated.The

researchisbeingconductedin10nationallaboratoriesandat

200universities.Aseriesofcompaniesaresettingup

demonstrationplants,withpublicassistance.InCanada,the

companyIOGENisproducingethanolfromstrawina

demonstrationplant.Handinhandwiththemarketlaunchof

ethanol,flexfuelvehiclesarecomingontothemarket.

Europe,too,isengagedinresearch:foranumberofyears,

Swedenhasbeenoperatingapilotplantusingsoftwood;

Denmarkisbuildingademonstrationplantforstraw;andthe

EuropeanCommissionissupportingbasicresearchviatheNILE

Project.Austrianresearchersareusingsimilarapproachesin

seekingdifferentobjectives:withfundingfromAustria’s

“FactoryofTomorrow”[“FabrikderZukunft”]Federalresearch

programmeandfundsfromtheUpperAustriaLandgovernment,

the“GreenRefinery”isresearchingthelinkedproductionof

lacticacidasanindustrialrawmaterialandbiogasasanenergy

carrier,onapilotscale.

16 Austrian Technological Expertise in Transport

HYDROGENATED VEGETABLE OIL AND “INNOVATIVE BIODIESEL”

UnderthenameNextBtL,VTTinFinlandhascollaboratedwitha

Finnishmineraloilcompanytodevelopahydrogenatingprocess

toproducehydrocarbonsfromfatsandoilsoriginatingfrom

plantsandanimals.Forthis,therawmaterialistreatedwith

hydrogen,undertheinfluenceofametalliccatalyst,atbetween

250and350°Candatambientpressure.Theprocessproduces

mainlystraightchainhydrocarbonsintheboilingpointrangeof

180to350°C,andasabyproductCO2 andwater.Theproduct

exhibitsfavourabledieselenginecharacteristicsandcanbe

mixedinanyconcentrationsdesiredwithfossildiesel.Aninitial

industrialplantwentintooperationattheendof2007inFinland,

withfurtherplantsplannedinEuropeandtheFarEast.

Asimilarprocesscanbeappliedinmineraloilrefineries.For

this,oilsandfatssourcedfromplantsandanimalsare

processedtogetherwithmineraloilbasedintermediatesand

hydrogeninexistingpetrochemicalplants.

TheR&Dworkonbiodieselisconcentratingonoptimising

processes,e.g.byincreasingtheyieldandtheuseofbyproducts,withparticularimportancebeingattachedtothehighvalueuseofglycerine.Intermsofitsapplication,themainfocus

isontheselectionoffattyacidspectrawithfavourabledieselenginecharacteristics.

Thereisacommoninterestinthesearchfornewfuelsandin

optimisingrawmaterialschains.Thisrequiressocietal,

ecologicalandeconomicrequirementstobebroughtinto

harmony.Onehighlypromisingapproachappearstobethe

cultivationoftheJatrophaplantinariddevelopingcountries.

FUELS FROM SYNTHESIS GAS

Lowmoleculargasesaresuitableforsynthesesofalltypes.

Givenafreechoiceofsynthesisgases,itispossibletoproduce

awiderangeofproducts,andespeciallyfuelswithaspecificallysoughtcomposition.Synthesisgascanbeobtainedthrough

thermalgasificationofbiomass.

Austrianresearchersholdaleadingpositionworldwideinterms

ofgasificationofbiomass.Inthedemonstrationplantin

Güssing,researchershavesucceeded–throughresearch

programmesrangingovermanyyearsandestablishedona

broadfooting–indevelopingamarketmaturetechnologywhich

istheenvyofinternationalexpertstheworldover.

BioSNG,syntheticnaturalgasfrombiomass,canbeproduced

usingarelativelysimpleprocess.AspartoftheEUProject

“BioSNG”,ademonstrationplantfortheproductionofsynthetic

methaneiscurrentlyunderconstructioninGüssing,andsetto

gointooperationinsummer2008.Theplantcomprisesagas

purificationsystem,amethanationunittoconvertH2 andCOto

CH4andH2O,andthegastreatmentplanttobringitupto

naturalgasquality.Theplantobtainstheproductgasfromthe

existingbiomasspowerstationandwillproduce100m3/hof

methaneinnaturalgasquality.Thisistheequivalentofapower

of1MW.Thegasproducedisusedinanaturalgasfilling

stationandisbeingtestedinpracticaluse.Duringthepilotscale

study,a65%levelofefficiencyingasproductionwasachieved.

Astheresidualheatisusedintheplant,anoverallefficiency

levelof85%isanticipated.

Concreteplansforplantsofthistypearealreadyunderwayin

SwitzerlandandSweden,andinterestisalsocomingfrom

France,GermanyandAustria.

Methanolsynthesishasbeencarriedoutonamajorengineering

scalesince1928.Usingcarbonmonoxide,carbondioxideand

hydrogenandwiththeaidofcatalystsatrelativelylow

temperatures,methanolandwaterareformedinanexothermic

reaction.Methaneandhigherhydrocarbonsareformedin

secondaryreactions.Todate,methanolfrombiomasshasonly

beeninvestigatedforreactionkineticsandinthelaboratory,and

pilotordemonstrationplantshavenotbeenconstructed.>>

17

FischerTropschfuelsynthesiswasdevelopedinGermany

shortlyaftertheFirstWorldWar.Carbonmonoxideand

hydrogenareusedassynthesisgas.Thegascanbeproduced

fromcoal,naturalgasorbiomass.DuringWorldWarII,

significantquantitiesofFTfuelwereproducedinGermany.Due

tothefuelembargo,thecompanySASOLinSouthAfricabuilta

coaloperatedindustrialplantwhichhasbeenrunning

successfullyfordecades.Itproducesliquidpetroleumgas,

petrolandheavyfractionswhichareonwardprocessedusing

petrochemicalprocesses(CtL=coaltoliquid).

Germanindustryisputtingitsfaithinthe“FromSynfuelto

Sunfuel”strategy(“VonSynfuelzuSunfuel"),withsynfuel

referringtofuelsfromfossilsynthesisgases,andsunfuelthose

producedfromgasificationofbiomass(BtL=biomasstoliquid).

Thedieselfractionoftheintermediateproducthasoutstanding

dieselenginecharacteristics.BtLallowsforareductionin

emissionsofparticles,hydrocarbons,carbonmonoxideand

nitrogenoxides.TheCHORENIndustriesGmbHisworking

intensivelyonaBtLprocess.Pilotscaletestinghasbeen

conductedsuccessfully,andademonstrationplantinFreiberg

(Germany)isshortlytogointooperation.

BIO-CNG: NATURAL GAS AND BIOGAS

Naturalgasiscomposedalmostentirelyofmethane,whichis

alreadybeingusedinpressurisedcontainersinconsiderable

quantitiesinnaturalgasvehicles.Infrastructuresforsupplying

vehiclesarebeingintroduced.Vehiclemanufacturershave

developednaturalgasvehicles,andfurthermodelswillcome

ontothemarket.

Biogascomprisesaround60%methaneand40%carbon

dioxide,andisproducedfromorganicwasteandagricultural

biomass(suchasmaizesilage,grassetc.)usinganaerobic

fermentationinawateryenvironment.Purifiedbiogascanbe

fedintothenaturalgasgrid,andinfrastructuresfornaturalgas

vehiclescouldbeused.Austriaissupportingtheintroductionof

amethanegassystemfortransportusethroughBioCNG

projects.

LIQUEFACTION OF SOLID BIOMASSES

Thehydrothermalupgradingprocess(HTU)developedbyShell

aimstoreducetheoxygeninbiomassbyreleasingCO2.

Woodchipsareusedastherawmaterial,anddryingisnot

necessary.Theprocessoperatesat200bar,andforgood

reactionsprocessoptimisationsarenecessary.Theproductis

solidorliquidandsuitableasarawmaterialforfuelproduction

usingpetrochemicalprocesses.Theworkstodatehavenotled

toanymorefarreachingimplementation.

Incatalyticlowpressuredepolymerisation,thesolidbiomassis

heatedtogetherwithacatalystinaliquidheatingmedium.By

selectingsuitableprocessconditions(temperature,pressure,

catalyst),liquidsareproducedwithsimilarcharacteristicsto

fossilfuels.

Pyrolysisisthetermusedtodescribetheanaerobic

carbonisationofbiomass,duringwhichsolid,liquidandgas

componentsareformed.Pyrolysisproducesaheavy,tarryand

acidicliquidwithahighwatercontent,ahighcontentofsolids

(coke,ash)andacalorificvaluesimilartothatofwood.Flash

pyrolysis,attemperaturesbetween500and800°C,suppliesa

goodyieldofliquidcomponents.Pyrolysisproductswithahigh

proportionofcokearetermed“slurry”.Bothproductsarewellsuitedtothermalgasificationtogeneratesynthesisgas.

18 Austrian Technological Expertise in Transport

BIO-HYDROGEN

Hydrogenasanenergysourceforfuelcelldrivesisbeing

researchedintensivelyworldwideduetothepossibilityof

emissionsfreevehicles.Hydrogencanbeproducedinasimilar

mannertobiogas,usingabioengineeringrouteorthrough

thermalgasification.Hydrogenbasedtransportsystemsarenot

expectedearlierthan2030,duetothehighcostofR&Dand

duetotheneedforentirelynewvehicleandlogisticssystems.

“WHICH IS THE BEST?”

Theanswerdependsontheobjectives,theframework

conditionsandthedecisionsalreadytaken.Asseentoday,the

followingdevelopmentappearssensible:

By2020,marketviablesustainablefuelsaresettodominatethe

scene.Europehascommitteditselftobiodieselfromrapeand

ethanolfromgrainandsugarbeet.Theargumentsinfavourof

ethanolarethehigheryieldsperhectare,andforbiodieselthe

morefavourableenergybalancesheet.TheaimsoftheBiofuel

Directivecanbeachievedthroughthis,withthelimitingfactors

beingtheavailablelandareaandthemarketforproteinfeeds.

NorthAmericaiscommittingtoethanolfrommaize,Brazilto

ethanolfromsugarcane.

Theargumentsforbiogasarethehighestyieldsperareaandthe

simpleprocess,whichisalsosuitableforsmallerplants.Using

biogasintransportrequiresinvestmentstoexpandthegasgrid,

topurifythegasandfeeditintothenetwork,andthe

constructionoffillingstations.Austriaissupportingthe

expansionofinfrastructureandofmethanegasvehiclefleets

throughBioCNGprojects.

After2010,investmentsinnewsustainablefuelsarelikelyto

showdividends.EuropeistrustingtosyntheticfuelsandNorth

Americatoethanolfromlignocelluloserawmaterials.Both

processesbuildoncheapwoodandstrawlikerawmaterials.

Sincewholeplantsandresidualmaterialssuchasstraware

used,theavailablelandareascansupplygreatervolumes.

Successdependsondevelopment,accesstocostfavourable

rawmaterialsandonthepolicyframework.

ForEurope,itseemsrealistictoaimforavolumeof10to15%

oftoday’sfueldemandby2020.Iftheexpectationsinresearch

anddevelopmentoftransportsystemsaremet,intheperiod

around2030thechangeoverwillbegintoothertransport

systems,wheretherequirementwillsimilarlybefor

sustainability.

19

BIOGASFROMANAEROBICDIGESTIONASVEHICLEFUEL–REQUIREMENTSANDAPPLICATION

Anaerobicdigestionofagriculturalwasteaswellasother

organicwastesisawidespreadtechnologyinAustriaand

Germanyforproducingbiogas.Besidestheusualconversionto

heatandpower(CHP),upgradingtonaturalgasqualityand

feedingintothegasgridopensupnewpromisingareasof

biogasusageasavehiclefuel.Itcombinestheadvantagesof

decentralizedfuelproductionwiththewellestablished

infrastructureofthenaturalgasgrid.

POTENTIAL OF BIOGAS PRODUCTION IN SUSTAINABLE FUEL-BASED BIOREFINERY CONCEPTS

Todaythechallengeistoincreasethesustainabilityoffeedstock

productionforfuelsbyusinginnovativesystems,processesand

technologies.Sustainablelandusestrategiesmustbe

developedforsupplyofthebiomassfeedstockthatare

compatiblewiththeclimatic,environmentalandsocioeconomic

conditionsprevailingineachregion.

Itisnecessarytopromotethetransitiontowards“second

generationbiofuels”whilesupportingtheimplementationof

currentlyavailablesustainablefuels,andfurthertowards

“biorefinerysystems”whichwillbeproducingfromawider

rangeoffeedstocks,includingwasteandlignocellulosebiomass

(LAEUBiofuelsResearchWorkshop,FinalReport,SaoPaulo

2327.April2007).

Sustainablefuelbasedbiorefineryconceptsaresystemsin

whichfood,rawmaterialsforindustry,andenergycanbe

produced.Theaimofsustainablebiorefineryconceptsisthe

developmentofintegratedcroprotationsthatsatisfythe

demandforfoodandfeedstuffs,aswellasproducingraw

materials(e.g.oil,fat,organicacids)andenergy(e.g.biogasand

ethanol).

Combiningavarietyoftechnologiesachievesareductionin

productioncostsandminimisesuseoffossilenergysources,

whilstreusingexcessmaterialsandbyproducts.Thusthe

ecologicalfootprintisminimised.

Figure1showsthediagramofasustainablefueloriented

biorefinerysystem.Biogasproductionisakeytechnologyfor

thesustainableuseofagrarianbiomassasarenewableenergy

sourcewithinfuelorientedbiorefinerysystems.Biogascanbe

producedfromawiderangeofenergycrops,animalmanures

andorganicwastes.Thusitoffersgreatflexibilityandcanbe

adaptedtothespecificneedsofcontrastinglocationsandfarm

managements.

Currently,maize,sunflower,grassandsudangrassarethemost

commonlyusedenergycrops.Inthenearfuture,biogas

productionfromenergycropswillincreaseandconsideration

needstobegiventogrowingenergycropsinversatile,

sustainablecroprotations.Allactivitiesmustaimatsustainable

useofthemultifacetedcultivatedlandscape.Inaddition,more

byproductsfromtheagricultural,foodandenergyindustries

needtobeintegratedintoaversatilebiogasproduction.

Onehigherlevelaimintheresearchonbiogasproductionisthe

developmentofintegratedcroprotationsthatsupplyfoodand

feed,producerawmaterials(e.g.oil,fat,organicacids)and

energy(e.g.biogas,RME)andmaintainandfurtherpromotea

multifacetedcultivatedlandscape.Thisaimcanbeachievedvia

thefollowingstrategies:

•

Foodnonfoodswitch:alternationofcropsfortheproduction

offood,feed,rawmaterialandenergy

•

Cascadeutilisation:differentpartsofthesamecropareused

fordifferentoptions,e.g.starchfrommaizecornsandbiogas

fromtheremainingmaizeplant

•

Choiceoftheoptimumgenotypeandharvestingtime:e.g.

energycropsmustproducehighbiomassyieldsandcontain

optimumnutrientpatterns

Figure1:Diagramofafuelorientedbiorefinerysystem

20 Austrian Technological Expertise in Transport

Thepotentialofbiogasproductionwillbegreaterthanassumed

sofarwhencalculationsarebasedonsustainablesystems

ratherthanonsinglecropdigestion.

Thepossibilitytoproducebiogasfrombiogenouslocalbyproducts/residualproductsinAustria,attheleveloffivetoten

percentoftotalvolumesofnaturalgas,andtomakeuseofit

viatheexistinggasgrid,isalreadyinplace.Itfollowsthat

furtherplantssuchasthoseinBrucka.d.LeithaandPucking

willrapidlybeputinplace(notleastduetotheirhighenergy

efficiency).BioCNG(withatleasta20%shareofbiogas)can

thenbeexploitedtofurtherenhancethepositivecharacteristics

ofCNG(20%reductioninCO2,noenginerelatedparticulates,

noNOx,etc.)toachievegreaterCO2 reductions.

Particularlyintheareaoftransport,whereCO2 emissionsin

Austriahaveincreasedby86%since1990,theexistingpotential

toachievereductionsneedstobeusedurgently.Biogasisthe

onlysecondgenerationfuelavailabletoday.AchievingtheEU

targets(20%CO2 by2020)requiresCNGandbioCNGnow.

firingdata limits unitheatingvalue 10,7bis12,8 kWh/m3

Wobbe–Index 13,3bis15,7 kWh/m3

relativedensity 0,55–0,65

componentshydrocarbons:pointofcondensation Max.0°atoperatingpressure [°C]

water:pointofcondensation Max.8°Cat40bar [°C]

Table1:qualityrequirementsofnaturalgasinAustria(ÖVGWG31)

Figure2:Productioncosts(ct/kWh)ofinjectedbiogas

QUALITY REQUIREMENTS FOR BIOGAS AS A VEHICLE FUEL BY DISTRIBUTION OVER THE GAS GRID

Therequirementsofbiogasforgasgridinjectionaregivenin

Table1,whichisthegeneralgasqualityregulationfollowingthe

ÖVGWruleG31(ÖVGW–Richtlinie„ErdgasinÖsterreich.

RichtlinieG31(Gasbeschaffenheit)“,ÖsterreichischerVerein

fürdasGasundWasserfach,2001).Forthespecialpurposeof

biogasinjectiontheÖVGWruleG33hasbeenpublishedwhich

definestheadditionalrequirementsforbiogas(ÖVGW–

Richtlinie„RegenerativeGase–Biogas.RichtlinieG33“,

ÖsterreichischerVereinfürdasGasundWasserfach,2006).

FollowingtheÖVGWruleG33biogashastoconsistofmore

than96mol%methane.

Theremovalofcarbondioxideandsulphuriccompoundsareof

majorinterestinbiogasupgradingconnectedtospecial

technologies.Thetotalcostsforthesupplyofupgradedbiogas

intothenaturalgasgridconsistofbiogasproduction,biogas

conditioning,compressionandinjection.Figure2

showstheupgradingofbiogasisamajorcostitem

ofabout1–5ct/kWhdependingonthesizeofthe

plantandthetechnologyselected.Dependingonthe

substrateandscaleoftheplant,overallcostsforthe

injectionofbiogaspresentlyarebetween5and16

ct/kWh,withthelowestvaluesbeingcalculatedfor

biogasfromwasteproductsandplantcapacitiesof

500Nm3/hinthisstudy.Currentprojectstargeta

costof4ct/kWhforupgradedbiogasfrom

agriculturalbyproducts.

Legend:

PSA Pressureswingadsorption

DWW Waterscrubber

BG Biogasplant

50500 Nm/hrawbiogasproduction

G Substrate:Manure+10%energyplants

N Substrate:Energyplants+10%manure

B Substrate:Separatecollectedorganicwaste

Colorsofspecificcosts:

Lightblue Substrates

Red Biogasconversion

Green Upgradingcosts(waterscrubber)

Grey Upgradingcosts(PSA)

Darkblue Injectionandnetworkaccessfee

Orange Totalcosts(caseorganicwaste)

21

BIOGAS UPGRADING

Basedontherequirementsoftheguidelinesandthenaturalgas

operators,thecorrespondingpurificationtechnologyhastobe

chosen.Followingcomponentshavetobepurifiedtoreachthe

claimedlimitvalues:hydrogensulphide(H2S),ammonia(NH3),

water(H2O),siloxanes,carbondioxide(CO2).

ThecommoncommercialH2Spurifyingmethodsare

•

Biotricklingfilterorbioscrubber(biologicaloxidation)

•

Additionofferricchloridetothefermentationsubstrate

(sulphideprecipitation)

•

Impregnatedactivatedcarbon(catalyticoxidation)

•

Ironoxideonsteelwool(chemicalsorption)

•

Ironoxidepellets(chemicalsorption)

•

Scrubberwithwater,organicsolventorcausticsoda

(absorption)

ThemostcommonmethodsfortheremovalofH2Oare

•

Cooling(condensation)

•

Molecularsieve(adsorption)

•

Polarsolvent–glycol(absorption)

Themostcommonmethodsfortheremovalofsiloxanesare

•

Gasdryingsystemsandadsorptiononactivatedcarbon

•

Adsorptiononpolymorphicporousgraphite

•

AbsorptioninSelexol®

• CO2 scrubber

ThemostcommonmethodsfortheremovalofCO2 are

•

Scrubber(absorption)

•

Pressureswingadsorption(adsorption)

•

Membraneprocess(permeation)

UTILISATION OF BIOGAS AS A VEHICLE FUEL

Recentdevelopmentsweredirectedtowardstheutilizationof

mixturesofnaturalgasandbiogenousmethaneasavehicle

fuel.Forthispurposetheestablishmentoffillingstationsis

directlyconnectedtothefieldapplicationofsuchafuel.

Currentlyabout100publicnaturalgasfillingstationsarein

operationinAustria,withthegoaltoincreasethenumber

to200until2010.

22 Austrian Technological Expertise in Transport

EMISSIONS FROM VEHICLES RUNNING ON (BIO-)METHANE COMPARED TO PETROL AND DIESEL

Comparingtheutilizationofnaturalgasasavehiclefuelagainst

petrolanddiesel,someadvantagecanbeshownovertheliquid

hydrocarbonsintermsofemissionreduction.Comparedtoa

petroldrivenpassengercarfollowingtheEURO4standardupto

•

80%lesscarbonmonoxide(CO)

•

20%lesscarbondioxide(CO2)

•

80%lessnonmethanehydrocarbons(NMHC)

•

20%lowerglobalwarmingpotentialand40%lowerozone

generationpotential

ComparedtoadieseldrivenpassengercarfollowingtheEURO

4standardequippedwithaparticlefilterupto

•

10%lesscarbondioxide(CO2)

•

90%lessnitricoxide(NOx)

•

60%lessnonmethanehydrocarbons(NMHC)

•

practicallynoparticleemissions

•

10%lowerglobalwarmingpotentialand80%lowerozone

generationpotential

Employingbiogenousmethaneasanaturalgassubstitute,the

emissionsofcarbondioxidecanberegardedaslowerbecause

ofthebiogenicoriginofthesubstratesforbiogasproduction.

FollowingtheGEMIS–modelforCO2 calculationforthewhole

biogasproductionandutilizationchain,aCO2 emission

equivalentof30g/pkm(grammesperpassengerkilometre)has

beencalculatedforamodelscenario,i.e.decentralizedbiogas

productionfrommanureandinjectionintothepipeline.In

comparisonthedieselpassengercarshowsemissionsof

approximately120g/pkm.Otheremissionsaresignificantly

loweraswell:SO2:0.03–0.05g/pkm(diesel:0.07g/pkm),NOx:

0.09–0.24(diesel:0.43),particles:0.010.03(diesel:0.04).

However,usingothersubstrateforbiogasproduction(energy

crops)andassuminganonoptimallocationofthebiogasplant

intermsoflongtransportationdistances(50km),thescenarios

showthatthebenefitofbiogasisstronglydecreased.Inthese

casesCO2 equivalentsbetweenca.60and100g/pkmhaveto

betakenintoconsideration.

23

http:0.01-0.03

COMPRESSEDNATURALGAS–CNG

TheEuropeanCommunityaimsatreducingCO2 emissionsand

dependencyonoilbyspecifyingthatalternativefuelsmust

powermorethan20%oftrafficby2020.Sustainablefuels,such

asbiodiesel,ethanolorbiomassbasedsyntheticfuelsrepresent

onepartofthesolution,butthereisalsothefossilfuels

segment,wherenaturalgas(CH4;methane)issettocontribute

atotalof10%.

Naturalgasconsistsof98%methaneandisdeliveredasafossil

resourceviapipeline(gaseous)orship(liquid).Methaneisahighqualityfuel,duetothesecondbestH:Cratioofallalternative

fuels,andisthusaforerunnerofapossiblehydrogentechnology

ofthefuture.Likehydrogen,itcannotbeliquefiedatambient

temperaturesandmustthereforebestoredunderhighpressure

above200bars.Thiscompressionisdoneatthefuellingstation

andtheproductisafterwardsreferredtoasCNG(compressed

naturalgas).Althoughnorefiningorothertreatmentsare

needed,theenergyoutputofCNGisabout90%oftheprimary

energyofnaturalgas;10–13%ofitsenergyisusedasinputfor

compression.HandlingofCNGisnoncritical,duetomethane’s

nontoxicity,itshighignitiontemperatureof600°C(diesel230°C;

petrol260°C)andaddedodoursubstanceswhichmakeit

possibletodetectsmallconcentrationsbelowthevolumetric

ignitionlimit(below0.01%).

Methane’shighpercentageofmolecularhydrogenresultsina

reductionofCO2 emissionsof20%comparedwithpetrol,and

10%comparedwithdieselfuel.Enginedevelopmentsexploiting

thehighOctaneNumberofmethaneallowafurtherreductionof

CO2 emissions.Furthermorelocalemissionofpollutantsisupto

90%lowercomparedtodieselengines.Ifblendingofnatural

gaswithbiogasistakenintoaccount,onepartofthefossilfuel

canbesubstitutedandtheCO2 emissionscomingfromnonsustainablemethanecantherebybefurtherreduced.

Supplyingtheexistingnaturalgasgridwithbiogas,straightfrom

thepurgationandqualityassuranceprocesses,isstateoftheart.InAustriatherearetwoplantsforbiogasproductionand

feedinintothenaturalgasgrid,fundedbytheFederalMinistry

forTransport,InnovationandTechnology(BMVIT)asLighthouse

projects.Theymakeabout900,000m3(Brucka.d.Leitha)and

40,000m3(Pucking)ofbiogasavailableeveryyear,inaquality

matchingthatofnaturalgas.

However,evenaftercompressionto200bar,thelowvolumetric

andgravimetricstoragedensityisamajordisadvantageofCNG.

Duetoitslowvolumetricenergydensity(6MJ/l),CNGrequires

roughlyfourtimesthestoragespaceofpetrol(26MJ/l)forthe

sameamountofenergy.Thisimpactsonthecostsofthe

storagematerials.Furthermore,standardtechnologyforhigh

pressurestorage(steel)isheavyandrestrictedtosimpleshapes

(cylindrical),whichresultinanonefficientpackageintermsof

today’svehicleplatformconcepts.Modernlightweightvessels

(carboncomposite)wouldbemuchlighterandofferthe

possibilityoffreeshaping,butareexpensive.Duetothelow

gravimetricenergydensityofCNG(11MJ/kg)comparedtothat

ofpetrol(31MJ/kg),theweightofstoredCNGisaboutthree

timestheweightofpetrolforthesameamountofenergy.

ThesedisadvantagesarenotuniquetoCNGtechnology;

hydrogentechnologyandbatterysystemssufferfromthesame

problems.

TodayCNGhasalowerpricethandieselonanequalenergy

basis.InthelasttwoyearsthenumberofCNGfuellingstations

inAustriahasbeentripledto100,andissettodoubleagainby

2010.Todate,therearemorethan1000CNGvehiclesonthe

road,consumingabout2millionm3CNGperyear.Asthemarket

maturityofCNGtechnologyisalreadyreached,thenumbersof

CNGvehiclesisexpectedtorise.Therearealsonewvehicle

conceptsliketheMILA (figure1)andtheMILAalpin(figure2)

beingpresentedtothepublic.ThenextstepforCNGvehicles

willbeaswitchfrombivalenttomonovalentoperation.Thiswill

happeninacoordinatedmoveasthenumberoffuellingstations

andvehiclerangeincreases.

Toensurepropermarketpenetration,furthermilestones(like

creatingaconsistenttaxregime,raisingthenumberoffuel

stationsabove200andincreasingthedrivingrangebeyond600

km)needtobereached.Animportantstepinthisjourneyhas

alreadybeenaccomplishedbythe'CNG600’project,fundedby

theBMVIT,whichhasdemonstratedtheconceptofa

monovalentCNGvehiclewithadrivingrangeof600kmby

manufacturingaprototype.

24 Austrian Technological Expertise in Transport

Themonovalentuseofmethanemeansthattheenginecanbe

optimallyadaptedtothegivenframeworkconditions,whichis

notthecaseinbivalentuse.Itmakesitpossibletodevelopa

combustionprocessfordirectgasinjection,underwhichthe

efficiencyofagasOttoenginecanbeimprovedbyafurther1015%,throughacombinationofstochiometricandleanrunning

inthecharacteristicareasrelevanttothedrivingcycle,asis

beingimplementedbyAVL.ThismeansthatspecificCO2

emissionsvaluescanbeachievedwhicharebelowthosefor

dieselengines.

Inaddition,itisprovingpossibletoexploitthehighknockrating

ofthegasincombinationwiththelatestcombustionchamber

shapestoincreasethepowerdensity,withtheresultthat

averageenginepressuresingasoperationof>25barare

possiblewithturbocharging.Inturn,thispermitsusing

directioninjectiongasenginesofthiskindinhybriddrives,

resultinginafurtherreductioninconsumptionthroughan

adjustment(reduction)inenginepistoncapacity(“downsizing”)

combinedwithpartialelectrificationofthedrive.Ithasbeen

possibletodemonstrate,throughappropriatedrivingcycle

simulations,thatusingdrivesystemsofthistypetheCO2 output

perkmcanbesqueezed,evenonvehiclesinthePassatclass

(15001600kg)tovalues<80g.

Finally,ifbiogasadmixesaretakenintoaccount(e.g.1015%

“virtualbiogas”fromsustainableproduction,withoutcompeting

withthefoodandfeedindustrywithintheEU),itappearsthat

netCO2 emissionsfrommidclassvehicles(15001600kg

unladenweight)oftheorderof70g/kmarefeasible.

Figure1–MILA

Figure2–MILAalpin

Methanetechnologywillfocusonthefollowingitemswhich

maycomeintoserialproductioninthenearfuture:

•

Costandweightefficientpressurevesselsincomposite

technology,featuringhighsynergieswithhighpressure

hydrogenstorage

•

Innovativemethanefuelmanagementsystemstoassure

powertrainperformanceandtointegrateinactualvehicles

architectureanddiagnosis

•

Integrated,assembledandtestedmethanefuelmodules

includingemergencypetroltank(figure3)andaccuratefuel

gaugerelatingtostoredenergy

•

Newplatformconceptsconsideringthespecificgeometric

andinterfacerequirementsformethane,aswellforother

alternativestoragesystemssuchashydrogenandbattery

OPPORTUNITIES AND CHALLENGES:

Pros:

•

Technologyavailablenow

•

Lowcostpathtosimultaneousreductionofgreenhousegas

andconventionalemissions

•

Goodeconomyfortheenduser

Cons:

•

Lownumberoffuellingstations,althoughgrowingfast

•

Fuelstorage

Figure3–

Methanefuelmodulesincludingemergencypetroltank

25

LIQUEFIEDPETROLEUMGAS–LPG

Thecommonlyusednameforautomotiveliquefiedpetroleum

gas(LPG)isautogas.LPGisamixtureofhydrocarbongases

usedasatransportfuel.Itiscomposedmainlyofpropaneand

butane,withminoramountsofpropyleneandbutylene.The

exactcompositiondependsonclimateconditionsaswellas

enginemodifications.Generallymorebutaneisusedinsummer,

andinwintermorepropane.Themostcommonblendis60%

propaneand40%butanegas.AsLPGisacolourlessand

nonodorousgas,anodorantsuchasethanethiolisaddedin

ordertodetectleakseasily.TheinternationalstandardforLPG

fuelisEN589.

LPGisformedontheonehandduringrefiningofcrudeoil,and

ontheotherhandoccursnaturallyingasandoilfields.

AtambienttemperatureandpressureLPGisingaseousstate.

LPGissuppliedinpressurisedsteelbottles.LPGchangesfrom

thegaseousphasetoliquidphaseatamoderatepressureof

about8bar,dependingonthegascompositionand

temperature;e.g.approximately2.2barforpurebutaneat20°C,

andapproximately22barforpurepropaneat55°C.The

followingtableliststhemostimportantpropertiesofLPG.

ThedensityofLPGishigherthanair,andthegastherefore

tendstosettleinlowspots,suchasbasements.This

circumstancehastobetakenintoaccountwhenplanningfilling

stationsandparkinggarages.

Thesamefuelisalsousedinstationaryapplicationsinsimilar

gasenginesforpowergeneration.Lowerexhaustemissionsis

oneofthereasonswhyLPGisusedasatransportfuel.In

particular,itreducesCO2 emissionsbyaround10%(measured

inrealbusfleetoperationonLPGcitybusesinViennarunby

“WienerLinien”)comparedtodieselbuses,becauseofthe

betterH:Cratio.ThereductioninNOx emissionsby30%,with

almostnoparticulateemissionsaswellasnounburned

hydrocarbonemissions,makeLPGattractiveasafuelindensely

populatedareaswithbadairquality.

Properties Propane ButaneMolecularWeight 44.09 58.12

IgnitionPoint 460°C–580°C 410°C–550°C

BoilingPoint 42.1°C 0.5°C

FreezingPoint 187.7°C 138.3°C

GrossEnergyMJ/L(MJ/kg)

perunitvolume 25.5(50.39) 28.7(49.57)

Density@15°Ckg/L 0.510 0.580

Litrespertonne 1960 1720

Motoroctanenumber

(MON)–EN589 95.4 89

Researchoctanenumber

(RON)–ASTM 111 94.2

Table1Propertiesofpropaneandbutane(source:www.lpgaustralia.com)

26 Austrian Technological Expertise in Transport

LPGisthemostwidelyusedalternativetransportfuel,powering

morethan9millionvehiclesworldwideinover38countries.Its

environmentalbenefits,practicaladvantagesandoverall

effectivenesshavealreadybeenwidelydemonstrated.InAustria

thesituationisslightlydifferent.ThelargestAustriancitybus

fleetinViennaisrunningover500LPGbuses.LPGasa

transportfueloffersbenefitsintermsofcostsandemissionsfor

thefleetoperator,andoffersenvironmentalbenefitsfor

residents.Incontrasttothat,onlyafurther165busesanda

singleselfpropelledunitusingLPGastransportfuelare

licensedintherestofAustria,accordingtofiguresproducedby

StatisticsAustria(2006).Instrongcontrasttoothercountries

suchasItalyorAustralia,therearenoLPGpassengercars

licensedinAustria.

ThisexplainsthesmallnumberofLPGfillingstationsinAustria

andclosetotheAustrianborder(12in2007).

Thefollowinglistgivesagoodoverviewoftheadvantagesand

disadvantagesofLPG,asseenfromtheviewpointofAustria’s

largestLPGfleetoperator(source:“DerBetriebmitFlüssiggas

alsAlternativezumDieselantrieb–©WienerLinien”)

OPPORTUNITIES AND CHALLENGES:

Pros:

•

Lowoperatingcostsduetolowpurchasecostandexemption

frompetroleumtax

•

Loweremissionsthandieselbuses

•

Noneedforadditives,duetothehighoctanenumber,awell

definedmixturepreparation,andacombustionprocesswith

almostnoresidues

•

Lowernoiseemissionsduetoasmoothcombustionprocess,

andthereforelongerenginelifetimes

•

Lowerstressonthemotoroil,giventheabsenceof

particulateemissionsandlackofdilutionwiththefuelthat

wouldresultinlowerviscosity

Cons:

•

Highercostforthegasengineincomparisonwithadiesel

engine,andhighermaintenancecosts

•

Increasedweightofthevehicle,andhigherspacedemandfor

thestoragetanks

•

Additionalinspectionsofpressurisedstoragetanksonthe

vehicleandinthefuellingstations

•

Costsforadaptingthegarages

Takingeverythingintoaccount,onecansaythatthelowfuel

costsandsignificantloweremissionsarethemainadvantages

ofLPGfuel.ThelimitednumberoffuellingstationsinAustriais

ahurdletobeovercomeforsuccessfulmarketintroductionof

LPGpassengercars.LPGisthereforefacinga“chickenandegg

problem”similartoCNGandhydrogenfuel,wherethefuel

industryiswaitingforalargernumberofvehiclesonthemarket

andOEMsarewaitingforthefuellinginfrastructure.

Vehiclesconsumemorethan16milliontonnesofLPG

worldwideperyear,theequivalentofaround8%ofglobalLPG

consumption.LPGisnotanewalternativefuelbutoffers

advantagesintermsofsignificantlyloweremissionsandan

attractivecoststructure,especiallyforuseinfleetoperations.

27

HYDROGEN–CARBONFREEFUEL

Asacarbonfreeenergycarrier,hydrogenhasgainedattentionin

researchactivitiesworldwide.Inprinciple,hydrogencanbe

producedfromrenewableenergysources.Combustionin

enginesresultsinverylowemissionsandtheconversioninfuel

cellstakesplacewithoutanyemissions.Thefirstresearch

centreforhydrogeninAustriahasbeeninoperationonthe

premisesofGrazUniversityofTechnologysince2005(Figure1)

Figure1:HyCentAfacility(HydrogenCenterAustria)

PRODUCTION

Theamountofhydrogenproducedgloballyis600billionNm3 per

year.40%ofproductioncomesfromindustrialprocesses

wherehydrogenisabyproduct.Reformationoffossil

hydrocarbonsiswidelyusedforthelargescaleproductionofthe

remaining60%.Themostcosteffectiveprocessissteamreformingofshortchainhydrocarbonssuchasmethane.

Efficiencyofupto80%canbeachieved.Naturalgas,water,

andenergyareused,theenergycomingfromthenaturalgas.

However,asthesteamreformingprocessisbasedonfossil

hydrocarbons,itproducesCO2.

Theproductionofhydrogenfromwaterusingelectrolysisis

emissionfreeiftheelectricityrequiredisproducedfrom

renewableenergysourcessuchaswind,waterorsolarenergy.

Inelectrolysis,efficienciesofupto75%canbeachieved.

Furthermorethebyproductsoxygenandheatcanbeused.

PHYSICAL AND CHEMICAL PROPERTIES

Hydrogenisanodourlessandcolourlessgaswithadensity

approx.14timeslowerthanair.Thefollowingtablelistssome

propertiesofhydrogen.

Property Liquidphase: Gasphase: Compressedgas:(1bar,250°C) (1bar,0°C) (350bar,0°C)

Density 70.8kg/m3 0.09kg/m3 23.5kg/m3

Gravimetriccalorificvalue 120MJ/kg,33.33kWh/kg

Volumetriccalorificvalue 8.5MJ/dm3 0.01MJ/dm3 2.82MJ/dm3

2.36kWh/dm3 0.003kWh/dm3 0.78kWh/dm3

Mixtureswithair:Lowerexplosionlimit 4Vol%H2 (λ =10.1)

Upperexplosionlimit 75.6Vol%H2 (λ =0.13)

Ignitiontemperature 585°C

Min.ignitionenergy 0.017mJ(λ =1)

Max.laminarflamevelocity upto3m/s

Adiabatecombustiontemperature ca.2100°C

WobbeIndex 48.7MJ/Nm3

28 Austrian Technological Expertise in Transport

MARKET PENETRATION AND MARKET POTENTIAL

Forecologicalreasonsandforreasonsofsecurityofenergy

supply,midtermtolongtermhydrogenhasahighmarket

potentialinthefieldsofenergyandvehicleengineering.For

commercialreasons,however,highmarketpenetrationcannot

beexpectedinthenearfuture.

Giventhelackoflocalemissions,aprimarytargetforthe

introductionofhydrogentechnologiesisthepublictransport

companies.Vehicleandfillingstationinfrastructuresare

currentlybecomingestablishedacrossEurope,andare

supportedbyavarietyofEUprojects(e.g.HyWays,

HyFLEET:CUTE,Roads2Hy,etc.).

Inenergyengineeringtoo,hydrogenapplicationscanbefound

innicheareasatthemoment.Toguaranteefuturesupplyof

energy,itisnecessarytopromotealternativeenergysources

worldwide.Inthiscontext,hydrogencanbeusedasenergy

storagefortheexcessenergyproducedbyrenewableenergy

sourcesduringpeakproduction.Thestoredhydrogencanbe

convertedbackintoelectricityorcombustedininternal

combustionenginesorfuelcells.

Besidesusinghydrogeninfuelcellsandinternalcombustion

engines,itscombustioninturbinesisofinterest.

STORAGE

Hydrogenisstoredascompressedgas,asliquidatverylow

temperaturesorinphysicalorchemicalcompounds.Forstorage

anddistributionoflargequantities,theliquidformisfavoured

becauseofthehigherenergydensity.Forautomotive

applications,storageascompressedgaswithpressures

between350barand750barisalsowidelyused.Formobile

applications,storageincompoundssuchasmethaneisafurther

possibility.

OPPORTUNITIES AND CHALLENGES:

Pros:

•

Carbonfreeenergycarrierwhichcanbeproducedfroma

varietyofenergysources

•

Renewableenergycycleandenvironmentallyfriendlyif

electrolysisandgreenenergyisused(e.g.wind,wateror

solarenergy)

•

Verylowemissionsincombustionenginesandnoemissions

infuelcells

Cons:

•

Currentlyeconomicallynotcompetitivewithfossilfuels

•

Hightechnicalstandardsforinfrastructureandapplications

•

Lowacceptanceofgaseousenergycarriers

Atpresentanumberoftechnicalandeconomicalchallengesstill

havetobemetconcerningproduction,distributionand

applicationofhydrogen.Neverthelessitisexpectedthatmidtermtolongtermhydrogenwillplayanimportantroleasenergy

carrier.

Anuptodatesurveycoveringallaspectsofhydrogencanbe

foundinthereferencebook“Wasserstoffinder

Fahrzeugtechnik”byH.EichlsederandM.Klellpublished2008

byVieweg+Teubner.

29

ELECTRICALENERGYASFUTUREVEHICLEFUEL

Duetotheconstantlyincreasingmarketofhybridvehicles

electricalenergygainsanewsignificanceasafuel,especially

withregardtoitspotentialforrealisingenergyefficientvehicles

withreducedCO2 emissions.Thekeytosustainableelectric

mobilityareappropriateenergystorages,includinga

correspondingcharginginfrastructureandtheprovisionof

electricalenergyfromrenewablesources.

VEHICLE CONCEPTS (EV, HEV, PLUG-IN)

Giventhediverselegal,social,ecologicalandeconomic

requirementsplacedonthevehiclesoftomorrow,hybridelectric

vehicles(HEV)arewidelyseenasapromisingvehicleconcept

andbythatinvestigatedintensively.Thecombinationofa

traditionalinternalcombustionenginewithanelectricaldrive

opensupabroadrangeofvehicleconcepts,whichvaryinterms

ofthedegreeofhybridisationorelectrification(Figure1).The

degreeofelectrificationcanbasicallybedefinedbythesizeof

theenergystorage,whichthereforeconstitutesakey

componentofthevehicle.

ENERGY STORAGE SYSTEMS AS THE MOST IMPORTANT COMPONENT

Increasingelectrificationisonlypossibleduetoimprovedenergy

storages.Inthelastyears,nickelmetalhydrideandespecially

newlithiumioncellshaveenabledthedevelopmentofnew

batterieswiththenecessaryenergydensityforHEVandEV

applications(Figure2).

Whilstfromtheengineeringpointofviewthecellsarealready

largelysuitableforseriesapplications,thereisstillimprovement

potentialonthesystemlevelespeciallyintermsofcost

reductionsandimprovedimplementationsofsafetyconcepts

(e.g.relays,fuses,etc.).Forrealizationofefficientandwellperformingvehiclesapplicationspecificselectionoftheenergy

storageisessential.Comprehensivesimulationsarerequiredto

selecttheoptimalbatterytechnologyanddesignefficient

energystoragesystems(energyandpowerdensity,energy

management,thermalmanagement,etc.).

Figure2:

Estimatedperformanceincreasefordifferentbatterytechnologies(energydensity)

MildHEV

Startstop

Noelectricdrive

FullHEV

Lowelectric

range

(fewkm)

Plug-inHEV

Increasederange

duetoexternal

batterycharging

EV

Pure

electricdrive

EVwithRangeExtender

Edrivedueto

internalbattery

ChargingbasedonICE,

fuelcell,etc.

Figure1:DevelopmentpathHybridvehicle(HEV)–Electricvehicle(EV)

30 Austrian Technological Expertise in Transport

ADVANTAGES AND DISADVANTAGES OF ELECTRICAL ENERGY AS A FUEL

Inthepublicmind,usingelectricalenergyforfuelisalways

associatedwiththedisadvantageoflimitedrange,which

howeverisaninherentsystemcharacteristicofanyvehicle.

Bycontrast,therealdisadvantagescurrentlyarestillrelatedto

thecosts.Therapidadvancesinbatteries,bothintermsofthe

specificenergycontentandcosts,showthatelectricalenergy

isbecomingincreasinglymorecompetitiveasanalternativefuel.

Thisisalsoreinforcedbythefactthattheenergyforthese

vehiclescanbesuppliedCO2 freeorCO2 neutrally(usingPV,

hydroelectric,orwindpower).

(CHARGING) INFRASTRUCTURE

Thepossibilityofprovidingasuitableinfrastructurefor

alternativevehiclesconstitutesakeypreconditionforbroad

marketintroductionofthesetechnologies.Thecostsof

developingaviableinfrastructure,andifrequiredthesupply

logistics,arecriticalastowhetheranewtechnologycanbe

established.Akeyadvantageforthedevelopmentofanelectric

charginginfrastructureisthefactthatinAustriapracticallyevery

homehasanelectricitysupply.Butindevelopingan

infrastructureofthiskind,certainframeworkconditionsneedto

beconsidered,suchastheconnectedpowerrequiredtocharge

anelectricvehicleinanacceptabletime.Electricvehicleswith

anenergystorageof2030kWhrequireaconnectedpowerof

2030kWtochargethevehicleinonehour.Connectedpowerat

thislevelisnotavailableeverywhere.Inadditiontheloadonthe

electricitynetworkshastobetakenintoaccount.Thisindicates

thatdifferentconceptsneedtobepursuedindevelopinga

suitablecharginginfrastructure.Atthesametime,giventhe

easeoftechnicalimplementation,adensenetworkcanbe

establishedrelativelycostefficiently.

PROVIDING THE ELECTRICAL ENERGY

Animportantfactorintheintroductionofanynewfuel,

alongsidetherequisiteinfrastructure,isits“production“or

supply.PostulatingaCO2freeelectricalenergysupplyrequires

theusageofrenewable,likephotovoltaic(PV),hydroelectric

andwindpower.TheenergydemandforaSMARTclasselectric

vehiclecanbeprovidedbyaPVunitwithabout14m2(basis

forthecalculation:approx.10kWh/100kmandabout15,000

km/year).FortheentireAustrianvehiclefleet(excludingtrucks),

currentlytotallingaround4millionvehicles,thiswould

correspondtoarequiredareaofabout5.6km2.

Atthesametime,theinstalledpowerofPVplantsisrising

continuously.InGermany,thetotalenergyproducedusing

photovoltaicisalreadyaround3000GWh(=energyequivalent

ofabout2millionvehicles).In2007,anadditional1100

MWPEAKofPVunitswasinstalledinGermany(=600,000

vehicles).Thisshowsthatthepotentialtopowerelectric

vehiclesusingPVisrelativelyhigh.Atthesametime,however,

thegridcapacityandmanagementhastobetakenintoaccount

tocopewiththeloadsfromrenewableenergysourcessuchas

PVorwindenergy.Asystemicanalysis,fromtheenergysupply

tothevehicle,isrequiredinordertoevaluatevariousscenarios.

MARKET PENETRATION AND MARKET POTENTIAL

Theassertivenessofnewtechnologiesisdeterminedbyawide

rangeofinfluencingfactors.Theseincludelegalframework

conditions(CO2 emissionslimitsetc.),alongsidefactorssuchas

operatingcostsorprocurementcosts.Particularlyintermsof

operatingcosts,electricvehiclesofferamajorcostadvantage.

Acomparisonshowsthatwithoperatingcostsofabout€ 225

peryearforanelectricvehicle,aconventionalvehiclewould

needtoachieveafuelconsumptionofaround1.25litresper

100kmtomatchthis.

Nevertheless,customeracceptanceplaysthemostimportant

partinassessinganyvehicle.Thisissignificantlyinfluencedby

factorssuchasdesign,safetyandperformance.Newconcepts,

suchastheTeslaRoadster,haveimportantimpactinthis

contextandarecontributingsignificantlytostrengtheningthe

marketpositioningofelectricvehicles.

31

TRENDSINENGINEDEVELOPMENT

OTTO ENGINE

TheOttoenginehasthelowestemissionstoday.The

disadvantageisitsunfavourablepartloadefficiencyleveland

thustheassociatedhighconsumption.Approachestooptimise

theenginearewideranging:downsizingwithsupercharging,

tieredengineoperationunderpartload,loaddilution,variable

valvecontrolandcylindercontrol.

Developmenteffortsareprimarilybeingdirectedtowardsthe

followingefficientsolutions:

•

Directinjectionwithhomogeneousoperationand

supercharging

•

Directinjectionwithvariablemixandthuspossiblelean

operation:theadvantageofappealingreductionsinfuel

consumptionandCO2 ofaround20%iscounterbalancedby

theelaborateNOx exhaustgasaftertreatment.

Newignitionsystemsarealsoindevelopment:

•

Laserignition:thisallowsforreliableignitionwithafree

choiceofignitionpoint–appliedonhighleanconceptsor

highEGRrateconcepts

•

Homogeneouscombustionprocesses(knownasHCCIorCAI)

pointstillfurtherintothefuture:Theymakeeffective

reductionsinconsumptionandNOx achievablethroughultraleanrunning.However,useisonlysuitableforlowload

conditions;andafurtheraspectisanincreaseinhydrocarbons

andCOemissionsandthecomplexityinvolvedinapplications

withnonstationaryoperation.

GAS-OTTO ENGINE

Fundamentally,thegasOttoengineisverysimilartothe

conventionalpetrolengine.However,thehighknockrating

exhibitedbythegasallowsforhighercompressionratiosand

thusimprovedthermodynamicefficiencylevels.The

disadvantageisthegreaterdifficultyinconvertingthenoncombustedmethane,duetoitshighchemicalstability.Witha

viewtoCO2 reduction,thisenginetypeisofparticularinterest,

sincethehighproportionofhydrogeninthefuelmeansthat

around25%lessCO2/kmisemittedthanwithpetrol

combustion.

Aparticularadvantageisthattheseenginescansimilarlybe

realisedas:

•

Directinjectionwithhomogeneousoperationand

supercharging

•

Directinjectionwithvariablemixandthuspossiblelean

operation.Tobeabletoutilisetheadvantagesofhighknock

ratinginachievingsuperchargingandhighcompression

ratios,however,itwillbenecessarytoequipthiskindof

petrolenginetocopewithpeakpressuresofupto150bar.

32 Austrian Technological Expertise in Transport

DIESEL ENGINE

Highefficiencyandthusthelowestconsumptionathightorque

(usingsupercharging)justifythecurrenttriumphantmarchand

increasingmarketshareforthedieselengine.Addressingits

disadvantages,suchasthelackofNOx aftertreatmentandhigh

costs,areprimarydevelopmentgoalsforthefuture.Themain

areasoffocusbreakdownasfollows,andallarelikelyto

increaseacceptancelevelsforthemoderndieselengine:

•

Optimisingthecombustionprocesswithintheengine

(variableswirletc.),

•

Injection:greater,andmoreprecise,injectionusing

piezotechnology,higherpressuresetc.

•

Extendingexhaustgasaftertreatment:comprehensiveuseof

particulatefiltersanduseofefficientDeNOx systems,such

astheSCRprocess,

•

Homogeneouschargecompressionignition(HCCI),asalready

beenmentionedfortheOttoengine,isofparticularinterest

inthedieselengineintermsofNOx reductionandpreventing

particulatedischarge.

However,thethreathangingoverthisistheassociatedrisein

costs,whichcouldrestricttheuseofdieselengineswith

efficientexhaustgaspurificationtothetopendpricesegment.

33

ENGINEREQUIREMENTSIMPOSEDBYALTERNATIVEFUELS

Substitutefuelswiththebiggestmarketpossibilitiesare

currentlyasfollows:

•

Petrol:ethanol,biogasandnaturalgas

•

Diesel:vegetableoil,biodiesel,BtL(syntheticbiodiesel)and

GtL(syntheticdiesel)

ETHANOL

Ifethanolistobeadmixedathigherpercentageratios,thenthe

correspondingengineadaptationwhichisneededisdependent

onthemixingratio,conditionalonthehighoctanerating,

calorificvalueandhighevaporationheat.

•

Uptoaround20%runningonethanol,adaptedpipesand

materialsaresufficient

•

Uptoaround85%runningonethanol,adaptedengine

controlsareneeded(injectionvolume,ignitiontimingetc.)or

theflexfuelvehicle(FFV)conceptneedstobeimplemented.

Purerunningonethanoloffersthebiggestpotentialfor

optimisedengineeringfor:

•

Newlydevelopeddirectinjectioncombustionprocesses

• Supercharging/Downsizing

Thechemicalcompositionofethanoloffersthefundamental

potentialforareductioninemissionsofpollutants–an

argumentbackednotjustbytheratioofcarbonatomsto

hydrogenatoms,butalsotheoxygenbindingwhichisbeneficial

forcombustion.

Theparticularlybeneficialcombustionpatternachievesan

extremelygoodlevelofefficiency,capableofreachingthelevel

formoderndieselenginesatfullload.

BIOGAS AND CNG

Givenasufficientlywidespreadnetworkoffillingstations,

monovalentversionsofthecombustionenginemakesensein

ordertofullyexploittheadvantagesofthisfuel.Biogasand

CNGhavetheadvantageofahighknockratingandignition

temperature,meaningthattheenginecompressionratiocanbe

significantlyincreased,withpositiveeffectsonconsumptionand

inreducingCO2.

Akeyareaoffocusforfutureresearchprojectswillbe

estimatingpotentialintermsofbiogasqualityandmonovalent

engineoutfitting,lookingatthecompressionratioand

parametersettingsonadaptedgasengines.Asthecombustion

ofbiogas–similarlytonaturalgas–requiressignificant

changes,particularlywithregardtoexhaustgastemperaturebut

alsointhecompositionoftheexhaustgas,speciallyadapted

exhaustgasaftertreatmentdesignsneedtobedevelopedto

realiseextremelylowexhaustgasemissions,inordertocome

veryclosetothepollutionfreeengine.

34 Austrian Technological Expertise in Transport

VEGETABLE OIL

Natural,nonesterifiedvegetableoilswereoriginallyenvisaged

onlyforlargedieselenginesusingawhirlchambercombustion

process,particularlyinagriculture.

Morerecently,carsarealsobeingrunonthisfuel,something

whichhasonlybeenmadepossiblethroughk