Australian agriculture: reducing emissions and …...Effect of a changing climate on cropping and wine production 16 Relocating and developing cropping enterprises in northern Australia

Australian agriculture: reducing emissions and adapting to a changing climate Key findings of the Climate Change Research Program

December 2013

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Department of Agriculture 2013, Australian agriculture: reducing emissions and adapting to a changing climate. Key findings of the Climate Change Research Program, Department of Agriculture, Canberra.

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ContentsThe Climate Change Research Program 1

Background 2

Highlights of the research findings 2

Livestock 2

Cropping 3

Agricultural soils 3

Fisheries 4

Livestock 5

Key findings 6

Understanding and measuring emissions from livestock 6

How farmers can reduce methane emissions from livestock 6

Impacts of climate change on northern beef producers 8

Impacts of climate change on southern livestock producers 9

What this means for farmers and land managers 10

Where to next? 13

Want more information? 13

Contents

iv Department of AgricultureAustralian agriculture: reducing emissions and adapting to a changing climate

Cropping 14

Key findings 15

Reducing emissions from cropping 15

Effect of a changing climate on cropping and wine production 16

Relocating and developing cropping enterprises in northern Australia 17

What this means for farmers and the cropping and viticulture industries 20

Where to next? 21


Agricultural soils 22

Key findings 23

Understanding and measuring nitrous oxide emissions from soil 23

Understanding and measuring soil carbon 24

Investigating how farm management practices can influence soil carbon 24

Biochar’s ability to provide long-term carbon storage 25

Biochar’s ability to reduce nitrous oxide emissions 25

Potential risks of using biochar 25

What this means for farmers managing Australia’s agricultural soils 26

Where to next? 27


Fisheries 30

Key findings 30

Risks associated with a changing climate 30

Adaptation strategies 32

What this means for fishers and the fishing industry 32


Acknowledgements 35

1Department of AgricultureAustralian agriculture: reducing emissions and adapting to a changing climate

The Climate Change Research Program

The Australian Government’s Climate Change Research Program (CCRP) was designed to respond to the many challenges climate change poses to agricultural productivity. As part of the Australia’s Farming Future initiative the CCRP ran from 1 July 2008 to 30 June 2012. The CCRP brought together world-class researchers from around the country to help prepare Australia’s agricultural and fisheries industries for climate change. Through the CCRP, the Australian Government invested $46.2 million to support more than 50 major research and demonstration projects. These projects focused on technologies and farm practices to help reduce greenhouse gas emissions, improve soil management and assist the agricultural and fisheries sectors with options to adapt to a changing climate. The projects were nationally coordinated and delivered in partnership with research providers, industry groups, universities and state governments.

The total investment under the CCRP, including partner contributions, exceeded $130 million. Government funding was allocated as follows:• Reducing Emissions from Livestock Research Program—$11.3 million• Nitrous Oxide Research Program—$4.7 million• Soil Carbon Research Program—$9.6 million• National Biochar Initiative—$1.4 million• Adaptation Research Program—$11.5 million• Demonstration on-farm or by food processors—$7.7 million.

Outcomes from the CCRP are providing real benefits to farmers and fishers. The CCRP has delivered foundation research that has increased our understanding of the sources of greenhouse gas emissions and the potential for emissions reduction and carbon sequestration. This information will lead to new ways for Australian farmers and food processors to reduce their emissions while keeping their businesses productive and sustainable.


2 Department of AgricultureAustralian agriculture: reducing emissions and adapting to a changing climate

New technologies developed by the CCRP will enable agricultural businesses to reduce emissions, enhance the use of farm inputs, and develop a better understanding of farm processes and how those processes contribute to emissions. They will also help agricultural businesses to plan for the future under a changing climate.

Greater collaboration among researchers and research organisations has enabled important climate-related research questions to be addressed at a national level and information to be shared among institutions.

The research has already underpinned development of some of the first carbon offset methodologies to be approved under the Carbon Farming Initiative and has contributed valuable data for a number of related offset methodologies.

BackgroundThis report presents key findings from the CCRP under the themes of livestock, cropping, agricultural soils and fisheries. It describes innovations, on-farm strategies, new technologies, adaptations and areas for future research. Although the CCRP has closed, research is continuing under the Filling the Research Gap program, a component of the Carbon Farming Futures program. This research will increase our understanding of the likely effects of projected climate change on specific agricultural industries.

Highlights of the research findings

Livestock• The CCRP has made important advances in the ability to measure greenhouse

gas emissions from livestock. This will make it easier and more cost-effective for farmers and land managers to participate in the Carbon Farming Initiative.

• Researchers have trialled a number of methane measurement tools for effectiveness. These include open path laser technology, which uses beams of light to measure emissions from livestock in small paddocks, and an intra-ruminal device, which can be placed inside the rumen to directly measure the methane produced.

Collar device used to monitor methane emissions from a dairy cow.

http://www.daff.gov.au/climatechange/carbonfarmingfutures/ftrg

http://www.daff.gov.au/climatechange/carbonfarmingfutures



Cropping• World-class research has provided data to help farmers understand nitrous oxide

emissions from different soils under different management practices, farming systems and climates.

• Enhanced-efficiency fertilisers, which are a combination of fertiliser and nitrification inhibitors, have been found to reduce nitrous oxide emissions across a range of soils.

• Trials showed that farmers can reduce nitrous oxide emissions and achieve productivity gains by increasing the efficiency of nitrogen use, through the use of better fertiliser technology and management in cropping systems.

Agricultural soils• Results of this research were instrumental in Australia being able to more

accurately represent nitrous oxide emissions from agricultural soils in our National Greenhouse Gas Inventory. In particular, nitrous oxide emission factors were found to be much lower in Australian low-rainfall cropping and pasture regions than the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change defaults.

• An intensive measurement program demonstrated that nitrous oxide emissions from Australian agricultural soils are highly variable. Higher emissions arise from farming systems that combine the three main influences on nitrous oxide emissions: high soil carbon, high soil moisture and high nitrogen inputs.

• Research has established one of the most detailed national benchmarks of soil carbon levels in the world.

• Researchers found that, in a given region, soil carbon levels are generally higher in pasture systems than in cropping systems, and soil carbon levels are greater in areas with higher rainfall and/or lower temperatures.

• Rainfall and soil type appear to be the most significant determinants of soil carbon levels.

Tractor pulling plough. Technologies that allow farmers to use fertilisers more efficiently have the dual benefit of reducing input costs as well as nitrous oxide emissions.



• Research has indicated that biochar could play a role in reducing nitrous oxide emissions from soils under certain conditions. Research activities have laid the groundwork for the development of biochar-based methodologies under the Carbon Farming Initiative.

Fisheries• A comprehensive risk assessment was undertaken to identify which fish species are

most vulnerable to climate change impacts.• Research showed that ocean warming is likely to affect key fisheries species—such

as abalone, snapper and blue grenadier—by affecting growth and recruitment (breeding) and by increasing the risks of stress and disease.

• The Redmap website (www.redmap.org.au) has been expanded; the website encourages fishers across all sectors to document any changes in marine ecosystems, to provide researchers and fisheries managers with access to the most current information.

Soil with crop stubble. The potential for soil to store carbon depends heavily on rainfall and soil type.

Fresh catch. Predicting and understanding the changes to marine environments will help maximise the opportunities for development of new fisheries and markets.

Fisherman repairing nets.

http://www.redmap.org.au/


Livestock

Emissions from livestock account for around 10.2 per cent of Australia’s greenhouse gas emissions. Methane and nitrous oxide, the two main greenhouse gases emitted from the livestock industry, have much greater global warming potential than carbon dioxide. Reducing methane and nitrous oxide emissions from livestock will help reduce Australia’s overall greenhouse gas emissions and help mitigate future climate change.

The economic and environmental benefits of adopting practices that reduce emissions may include improving the conversion of feed to energy, reducing nitrogen losses from intensive production systems and potentially creating offsets under the Carbon Farming Initiative.

The CCRP investigated ways to measure and understand methane and nitrous oxide emissions from livestock. Researchers worked on developing novel strategies to reduce these emissions.

The CCRP has also funded projects to equip farmers with the knowledge, tools and strategies to adapt to the challenges of a changing climate.

The Australian Government’s previous and current investment in climate change research will provide producers with the tools to develop practical on-farm options to reduce emissions from livestock while maintaining, and potentially increasing, productivity.

For the livestock sector, CCRP research looked at:• understanding and measuring emissions from livestock using

ሲ devices that directly measure methane emissions from individual animals while they are feeding

ሲ open path laser techniques that measure emissions from livestock grazing in the paddock

ሲ technologies for measuring methane production in the rumen

Livestock


• how farmers can reduce nitrous oxide and methane emissions from livestock through

ሲ selective breeding of low-emission animals

ሲ inhibiting methane production in the rumen

ሲmanaging manure and urine

ሲ capturing and using methane

• the impacts of a changing climate on

ሲ northern beef producers

ሲ southern livestock producers.

Key findings

Understanding and measuring emissions from livestock• Research into gas production in the rumen (the part of a ruminant’s digestive

system where most methane is produced) has provided important information about metabolic function and can indicate the level of methane emissions from an individual animal. (See also box 1: ‘Innovation and technology’.)

How farmers can reduce methane emissions from livestock• For both cattle and sheep, researchers found that there is natural variation in

the level of methane produced by individual animals. Factors responsible for differences in methane production by these ruminants include rumen size and rumen microbe population, digestive functions, feed intake and feed-use efficiency.

• An individual animal’s methane production level was found to be a heritable trait.• Researchers screened pedigree herds for methane production traits and found that

the progeny of some sires in the herd produced 11–24 per cent less methane, on average, than the progeny of other sires. Breeding cattle and sheep that have a low emissions footprint may provide farmers with a commercial point of differentiation for their livestock.

Prime lambs graze on plantain (Plantango lanceolata) a high quality fodder which can grow on a wide variety of soil types and reduce enteric methane emissions.

Livestock


• By screening more than 3000 individual animals, researchers determined that sheep emitting higher levels of methane had larger rumens. Rumen size may therefore be a useful proxy for methane production when selecting sheep for breeding.

• Results showed that a range of tropical legumes, novel forages (e.g. turnip, plantain and chicory) and plant extracts have the potential to reduce methane production in the rumen. Eremophila glabra was found to be one of the most effective feeds, with up to a 50 per cent reduction in methane production under laboratory conditions.

• Researchers found that some grape marc (a by-product of winemaking) is a useful supplement that can reduce emissions from dairy cows while maintaining or increasing productivity.

• Researchers evaluated the effects of a range of feed supplements on methane emissions and productivity of ruminants. Supplements tested include lipids, tannins and various plant products. Of the feed supplements tested, most were found to reduce methane production by various amounts, in either field or laboratory experiments.

• Nitrate supplementation was tested on sheep using commercial lick-blocks and was found to reduce methane production by 22 per cent in penned sheep and by 8 per cent in sheep grazing in paddocks. Dietary nitrate should only be considered for use in areas where forage quality is low. Nitrate supplementation can introduce the risk of nitrate poisoning, particularly where forage quality is good, because the poisoning risk increases with forage nitrogen levels.

• One CCRP demonstration activity showed that the capture of methane from covered manure ponds in intensive livestock operations can significantly reduce emissions and provide a source of fuel for electricity generation (see box 1: ‘Innovation and technology’).

Sheep grazing in paddock. Reductions in livestock methane emissions may be achieved through selective breeding.

Livestock


Impacts of climate change on northern beef producers• By modelling pasture responses to future climate scenarios, researchers showed

that rainfall will remain the key driver of pasture growth in northern Australia, although changes in evaporation and carbon dioxide concentrations will also play an important role.

• Throughout the northern beef regions of Queensland and the Northern Territory, the Fitzroy Basin and Maranoa–Balonne catchments are predicted to be the most vulnerable to climate change. Rainfall is expected to decrease in these areas, even under best-case future climate change scenarios.

• Climate change researchers have developed adaptation strategies that help improve pasture cover and quality—this could increase the resilience of the industry to a changing and variable climate. Effective climate change adaptation strategies for northern beef producers include:

ሲmatching stocking rates to suit future climatic conditions

ሲ introducing innovative pasture-spelling regimes—this involves grazing pastures down to the first node of the plant, then spelling during the wet season (retaining the first node increases pasture recovery and allows carrying capacity to increase by up to 40 per cent)

ሲ using prescribed burning at certain times to control growth of woody weeds.

• Social research found that developing producer networks, improving business planning and flexibility, and building knowledge of key areas such as pasture and soil condition would also improve overall adaptation outcomes.

Brahman cattle, Alpha Queensland. Climate change may bring both risks and opportunities for beef production in northern Australia.

Livestock


Impacts of climate change on southern livestock producers• Biophysical models (models of the way living and non-living components of an

environment influence the survival of an organism and/or population) indicated that warmer and drier future climates projected for much of southern Australia will lead to:

ሲ higher pasture growth rates in winter and early spring

ሲ a shortened growing season

ሲ earlier onset of the dry summer period.

• Research showed that any changes beyond a 1 °C increase in temperature and 10 per cent lower rainfall in southern pasture systems would likely reduce pasture growth.

• Changes in seasonal patterns of pasture growth are likely to cause lower livestock productivity across most of southern Australia. In some cases, production could be reduced by 15–20 per cent.

• The lower rainfall areas of the sheep–wheat zone of inland Australia are likely to experience the most severe impacts.

• Heat stress is a major concern for livestock production systems as the incidence of hot days and heatwaves increases. Researchers investigated a number of options that farmers may be able to use to manage heat stress (see box 1: ‘Innovation and technology’).

• Climate change may lead to positive outcomes for some cooler, higher rainfall areas where increased pasture production has been projected.

• Research results showed that no single adaptation strategy could provide a complete solution and that a combination of strategies will be needed to manage climate change for southern livestock regions. Examples that were shown to have adaptive benefits (in order of their effectiveness) include:

ሲ increasing soil fertility

ሲ using summer active perennial pastures (e.g. lucerne)

ሲ protecting groundcover through confinement feeding

ሲ improving livestock production potential through breeding

ሲ increasing livestock conception rates.

Did you know?

• In 2010, more than two-thirds of Australia’s agricultural greenhouse gas emissions were from livestock industries, accounting for around 10.2 per cent of total Australian emissions. Most of these emissions (94 per cent) were from methane produced by livestock during digestion. The remaining 6 per cent resulted from the production of nitrous oxide and methane from manure management.

• Methane emissions from ruminant livestock are predominantly caused by the activity of microorganisms that live in the rumen.

Livestock


What this means for farmers and land managers• The CCRP has provided farmers with additional tools to improve their resilience

in a changing climate. Information generated by the CCRP can now provide producers in medium-rainfall zones with a choice of native perennial forage shrubs that reduce emissions from livestock. Research has shown that these native forage species can make up the base of conventional pastures. When coupled with a complementary pasture understorey, they can produce weight gain in autumn when feed quality and quantity typically limit livestock performance in southern Australia.

• Researchers have investigated supplementary feeds that have been shown to reduce methane emissions while also increasing production in livestock.

• The CCRP has provided evidence that it is possible to breed cattle and sheep that produce less methane. This vital first step may lead to an important strategy for extensive grazing systems, where other emission-reduction interventions may be impractical.

• Studies have demonstrated that intensive livestock and meat processing industries can install methane capture and combustion technologies to animal waste ponds, allowing substantial reductions in methane emissions as well as electricity generation. Demonstrations of methane capture, flaring and energy conversion have been important in the development of some of the first methodologies to be approved under the Carbon Farming Initiative.

• New devices to measure animal emissions that have been tested by the CCRP have allowed researchers to understand differences in emission levels between individual animals. Remote measurement technologies and techniques allow emissions from livestock to be measured in a real-world situation, without influencing or stressing the animals involved.

Box 1 Innovation and technology

Technological advances in measuring emissions from livestock• Open path laser technique—a novel system for using infra-red laser light to

measure emissions from herds in the paddock. Under favourable wind and weather conditions, this technique accurately measures methane and nitrous oxide emissions from animals under normal production conditions.

• Measurement devices—researchers have tested a new device that measures livestock emissions that replace larger, more cumbersome animal enclosures. The newer design tested by CCRP researchers uses a smaller, hood-shaped enclosure that surrounds only the head of the animal. Food is used to attract the animals to the enclosure in the field and the device measures greenhouse gas emissions while the animal is feeding. Radio frequency tags are attached to each animal to enable separate data to be collected for each individual in the paddock. This allows researchers to understand variation in emission levels between individual animals. This new technology allows researchers to more practically and accurately measure in-field livestock emissions. The technology has the added potential of aiding feed efficiency research.

continued...

Livestock


Box 1 Innovation and technology continued

• The intra-ruminal device—researchers have patented a battery-powered sensing device that can be placed inside the animal’s rumen to directly measure the methane produced. The device has been integrated with CSIRO’s wireless sensor network platform and uses a radio transceiver to transmit data to a computer within range of the paddock. The intra-ruminal device shows real promise as a tool to measure methane emissions from individual animals. This will allow researchers to identify low methane–producing animals. Work is ongoing to make the device available to industry.

Researcher using open path laser technology to measure livestock emissions at the paddock/herd scale.

Prototype of an intra-ruminal device. Device is placed in the rumen of livestock to directly measure the animal’s methane production.

Cow exiting large enclosure designed to measure emissions.

continued...

Livestock



Innovative adaptation strategies for southern dairy producers• ‘Cool Cows’ is a web-based dairy risk assessment program that provides information

to farmers to help cows cope with hot weather (www.coolcows.com.au). To help dairy farmers consider management improvements, they can now enter farm information (location, herd and management strategies) into the program to identify risks associated with heat stress and predict when heat stress may affect their herd. Heat stress affects milk production, fertility, health and welfare, and has an impact on income.

• Researchers also explored the use of feed additives to reduce heat stress. The amino acid betaine, elemental chromium, vitamin E and elemental selenium could all improve productivity and resistance to heat stress. However, the results from these studies varied, and more work is required to deliver a safe industry practice.

Capturing and using methane from intensive livestock operations• A study at a piggery in Grantham, Queensland, demonstrated the use of a floating

cover over the animal waste pond. The cover captured more than half of the site’s methane emissions, with a more than 50 per cent reduction in waste pond emissions following flaring. The study also demonstrated that the captured methane could be used as an energy source for heating in the piggery. This study was used as the basis for one of the first Carbon Farming Initiative methodologies. Five Carbon Farming Initiative methodologies have been approved under the Methodology Determinations for agriculture. Four producers are now using these methodologies to generate carbon credits1. The potential to generate heat or electricity from waste methane offers the meat processing and intensive livestock sectors further incentives to adopt methane capture and combustion technologies.

Dairy cattle, Victoria. Reducing heat stress associated with climate change using new technologies and farm practices offers dairy farmers the potential to increase productivity.

1 cFI methodology Determination figures provided by the clean energy regulator, register of Offsets Projects 24 October 2013.

continued...

http://www.coolcows.com.au

Livestock



Where to next?Climate change research has been critical in advancing our understanding of potential strategies and technologies for reducing methane emissions from livestock. Work is continuing to unlock further potential for reducing emissions.

The Australian Government is continuing to support research projects to:• improve methods for measuring livestock emissions—this research includes

further testing and development of devices that more accurately and practically measure individual animal emissions in the paddock

• further assess how producers can reduce livestock emissions through selectively breeding low-emitting livestock

• further assess the effects of diet on emissions, including fodder manipulation and use of methane-reducing feed supplements and additives

• investigate manure composting as a practice for minimising greenhouse gas emissions from intensive livestock industries and the manure supply chain

• study the costs and benefits that farm enterprises may encounter when moving towards a low-emissions-producing herd

• combine biophysical and economic modelling, social research and farmer engagement to identify farm management responses and/or innovations that build farm business resilience under a more variable and challenging climate

• further investigate the impacts of a changing climate on Australia’s intensive livestock enterprises

• bring together international scientific expertise to coordinate livestock systems research that focuses on reducing greenhouse gas emissions

• support the development of methodologies for the Carbon Farming Initiative.

Want more information?• Information on ongoing projects—www.daff.gov.au/ftrg. • Information on managing heat stress in Australian dairy herds—

www.coolcows.com.au.

Flare used to burn excess methane at a piggery in Grantham, Queensland.

http://www.daff.gov.au/ftrg

http://www.coolcows.com.au/


Cropping

The CCRP has examined the likely effects of climate change on cropping and wine grape enterprises.

One of the main greenhouse gases emitted from Australian cropping systems is nitrous oxide. Results from the CCRP have shown that nitrous oxide emissions from Australian cropping soils vary across the country and are closely related to the water, carbon and nitrogen content of topsoils.

The CCRP investigated a range of strategies for reducing nitrous oxide emissions from cropping systems. Because nitrous oxide emissions represent a loss of nitrogen from the soil, practices to reduce emissions have dual benefits: mitigating climate change and increasing productivity. Reducing emissions could create opportunities for farmers to earn additional income through participation in the Carbon Farming Initiative and also benefit from productivity gains through research-driven advances in fertiliser management practices.

In the cropping and wine grape sectors, CCRP research looked at:• how farmers can reduce emissions from cropping through

ሲmore efficient irrigation management practices ሲmore efficient fertiliser management practices ሲ the use of enhanced-efficiency fertilisers (fertilisers that contain chemical compounds that limit the production of nitrous oxide) ሲ changing crop rotations

ሲ applying lime to reduce nitrous oxide emissions

• how a changing climate will affect the production of ሲwheat ሲ sorghum

ሲwine grapes

• the development or relocation of selected cropping enterprises to northern Australia.

Cropping


Key findings

Reducing emissions from cropping• Understanding how nitrous oxide emissions can occur from farming systems raises

the possibility of reducing these emissions through more efficient management of nitrogen-based fertiliser applications.

• Trials on irrigated cotton–grain farming systems in southern Queensland found that managing the timing and amount of irrigation can avoid significant increases in nitrous oxide emissions.

• Irrigation management can reduce the intensity of nitrous oxide emissions from irrigated cropping systems, while reducing plant water stress. Nitrous oxide emissions can be minimised if large irrigation volumes are avoided where soil nitrate content is high or after application of nitrogen fertilisers.

• Nitrous oxide emissions from soils can increase significantly after the application of nitrogen fertiliser. The amount and timing of fertiliser applications has a clear impact on the magnitude of emissions.

• Applying nitrogen fertiliser before planting can increase nitrous oxide emissions. One explanation for this phenomenon is that crop demand for nitrogen is low during germination and early growth stages, leaving more nitrogen available for soil microorganisms to convert to nitrous oxide.

• Enhanced-efficiency fertilisers, which are a combination of fertiliser and nitrogen breakdown inhibitors, reduced nitrous oxide emissions by up to 90 per cent in laboratory experiments, and by up to 64 per cent in field experiments.

• A range of studies carried out by the CCRP for sites across Australia showed that the ability of enhanced-efficiency fertilisers to reduce nitrous oxide emissions depends on the soil type, the climatic conditions and the land management practices implemented.

• Results from a study on rain-fed wheat crops in the central grain belt of Western Australia showed that farmers can cut down the use of synthetic fertilisers by using a grain–legume (lupin) rotation. By limiting the use of synthetic fertilisers, farmers can

Automated monitoring system used to continuously measure greenhouse gas emissions from agricultural soils.

Cropping


reduce the greenhouse gas emissions associated with the production of one tonne of harvested wheat by up to 35 per cent (or up to 55 per cent per hectare planted).

• Research conducted in northern Queensland demonstrated that growing soybeans during the usual sugarcane fallow period was an effective means of reducing the application rate of nitrogen fertiliser. However, nitrous oxide emissions increased substantially following incorporation of the soybean residue into the soil.

• Research showed that liming acidic cropping soils in Western Australia, to which fertiliser had been applied annually, can reduce nitrous oxide emissions by up to 30 per cent following summer and/or autumn rainfall. Liming also increased uptake of methane by up to 79 per cent throughout the year.

• For liming to be considered a viable method for reducing total greenhouse gas emissions, it is essential that the emissions associated with the production, transport and dissolution of lime do not outweigh the gains from on-farm emissions reductions.

Effect of a changing climate on cropping and wine production• CCRP research compared present climatic conditions and a range of potential

future climate scenarios to determine what stresses wheat and sorghum crops might face from climate change in 2030 and 2050. The comparisons showed that climate change is likely to reduce wheat and sorghum yields through increases in the frequency and intensity of both droughts and high temperatures. However, decreases in frost risk could enable producers to sow wheat earlier and avoid heat risks around flowering time.

• Under research trial conditions, high carbon dioxide was found to increase wheat yields by an average of 20 per cent. However, any potential future increases in wheat yields from higher carbon dioxide levels could be offset by potential losses from higher temperatures and lower rainfall.

Did you know?

Enhanced-efficiency fertilisers use chemical compounds that are designed to slow the conversion of nitrogen to nitrous oxide, maintain nutrient availability to plants and reduce the loss of nitrogen to the environment.

Farmer inspecting soil. Enhanced-efficiency fertiliser (white granules) and traditional commercial fertiliser.

Cropping


• Sorghum would suffer significant yield reductions under high carbon dioxide levels and dry conditions. Producers will need to time planting to avoid heat stress around flowering time.

• Research found variation in current varieties of wheat and sorghum that could be harnessed by plant breeders to improve adaptation to higher temperatures and carbon dioxide levels. However, use of varieties and crop breeding programs will need to shift regionally to capitalise on the opportunities presented by this trait variability.

• Researchers assessed around 500 wine grape varieties, clones and selected breeding lines for suitability in potential future climates. Glasshouse and field trials showed that rootstocks can have a significant effect on the growth and development of grapevines under a changing climate. The Australian wine industry already has access to a wide range of wine grape varieties and rootstocks that can:

ሲ reduce the chance of fruit being damaged by heat from ripening early or late

ሲ reduce water loss through leaves by producing less foliage

ሲ produce high-quality wine grapes at high temperatures.

• Although it is a longer term investment, rootstock selection can offer Australian wine grape growers an important climate change adaptation strategy.

• Additional experiments showed that grapevines are relatively resilient to heatwaves.

Relocating and developing cropping enterprises in northern Australia• Average annual rainfall in the Northern Territory is increasing, this potentially

presents an opportunity for expansion or relocation of peanut production. However a changing climate will demand changes to peanut production methods. Researchers have cautioned that the total production of traditional peanut–maize crop rotations in the Northern Territory could be significantly reduced under future climate change projections (see box 2: ‘Moving with climate change’).

Vineyard. Higher temperatures can affect important wine grape characteristics such as acidity, flavours and aromas.

Cropping


• Climate change simulations indicated that nutrient and water losses would need to be managed carefully to avoid declines in crop yields.

• Research findings suggest that rice production in the Burdekin region of Queensland could be viable if introduced into a sugarcane-based rotation, but this is highly dependent on land and water values.

Box 2 Moving with climate change

Research into the potential for industries to relocate (regionally) in response to climate change was a focus of the CCRP. Relocation of agricultural industries (to northern regions) can have unforeseeable outcomes, and a successful transition will require long-term planning based on the best available climate information.

The suitability of regional locations for different primary industries depends on factors such as climate, soil type and proximity to markets. Two CCRP projects examined the potential to produce tomatoes, cotton, rice and peanuts in northern Australia.

Growing rice, cotton and tomatoes in northern QueenslandRegional-scale economic modelling showed potential opportunities to grow rice and cotton as complementary or fallow crops to sugarcane in the Burdekin region of northern Queensland. Tomato, rice and cotton production has the potential to increase the economic viability of agriculture in the region. Researchers cautioned that, although modelling indicated that tomato production (in Burdekin) under climate change may increase due to elevated carbon dioxide levels, there is a risk of decreased season length as a result of higher temperatures. Modelling and previous field trials also indicated that production of tomatoes, rice and cotton in northern Australia will not be able to match the productivity of existing growing regions.

Peanut expansion in the Northern TerritoryReduced summer rainfall in parts of Queensland has led to a decline in peanut production in recent decades. Conversely, the Northern Territory is becoming wetter.

By examining climate projections, social and economic factors, pest and disease risks, and conducting trial plantings, CCRP researchers analysed the potential of relocating peanut production to Katherine in the Northern Territory. They found that future increases in temperature in the Katherine region under climate change may present unfavourable growing conditions for traditional peanut–maize crop rotations. However, use of a millet cover crop to reduce summer soil temperatures for maize can minimise the impacts of higher temperatures. Use of a millet cover crop or mulch was found to improve both accumulation and yield of maize biomass.

Cotton plant.

continued...

Cropping


Box 2 Moving with climate change continued

Economic modelling of maize–peanut rotations in Katherine showed that greatest productivity can be generated when peanuts are sown in the wet season and maize is sown in the dry season.

Success of the Katherine expansion would depend on a number of factors, including:

• the ability of producers to adapt their farming knowledge

• the level of producer attachment to their current place and occupation

• area-specific knowledge (how to farm in Katherine) and engagement within the community

• establishment of suitable rotation crops

• the availability of labour

• water security

• the level of support for infrastructure and research development.

Barriers to relocation may include:

• the need to develop processing infrastructure

• the need for new plant varieties that are more suited to tropical conditions

• changing pest and disease risks

• transport availability and costs

• resistance to land-use change.

Lessons for relocating agricultural productionBased on the lessons learned from the peanut case study, a ‘blueprint’ for successful agricultural transformation was developed to outline social conditions, barriers to be considered and types of information needed to aid the transformation process.

Peanut crop, northern Australia. Australia’s changing climate will provide new opportunities for growing crops outside of traditional regions, including northern Australia.

Cropping


What this means for farmers and the cropping and viticulture industries• Research trials showed that farmers can reduce nitrous oxide emissions, and

achieve productivity gains, by increasing the efficiency of nitrogen use in cropping systems. Fertiliser management strategies that have shown to reduce nitrous oxide emissions include:

ሲ avoiding high application rates of nitrogen fertiliser before planting

ሲ avoiding application of nitrogen fertiliser before irrigation or high rainfall

ሲ improving fertiliser management to better match soil nitrogen supply to crop nitrogen needs.

• Research showed that enhanced-efficiency fertilisers can reduce loss of nitrogen, without adverse effects on plant growth. This has the potential to provide economic and environmental benefits.

• Results from the CCRP have indicated that wheat farmers can achieve significant reductions in fertiliser input by integrating legumes into cropping operations. Legume–grain crop rotation is a practical way for farmers to reduce emissions associated with commercial nitrogen fertilisers.

• By using genetic traits to modify the timing of crop development, breeding programs could supply earlier or later maturing wheat varieties and provide farmers with tactical options to match the seasonal outlook.

• It is expected that researchers, producers and policy makers will be able to use the work conducted under the CCRP to determine the impacts of proposals to relocate selected cropping enterprises in northern Australia (see box 2: ‘Moving with climate change’).

Fields inundated with water following heavy rainfall. The combination of high soil moisture levels and fertiliser application can result in nitrous oxide emissions.

Cropping


Where to next?The Australian Government is continuing to support research to:• examine effects of fertilisers and organic matter on the processes that produce

nitrous oxide emissions • investigate opportunities to reduce nitrous oxide emissions from horticulture and

cropping by testing management techniques, including timing and rates of fertiliser application, use of nitrous oxide production inhibitors and use of enhanced-efficiency fertilisers

• investigate adaptation options for horticultural and cropping enterprises facing challenging future climates

• build on results from the CCRP to produce a toolbox of management options for viticultural adaptation to a hotter and drier vineyard environment, as well as innovative viticultural strategies to mitigate the effects of climate change.

Want more information?• Information on ongoing projects—www.daff.gov.au/ftrg. • Information on the Carbon Farming Initiative—www.climatechange.gov.au/cfi.

Fruit orchard. Researchers are investigating opportunities to reduce nitrous oxide emissions from horticulture.


http://www.climatechange.gov.au/cfi


Agricultural soils

By managing agricultural soils, farmers have an opportunity to play a role in reducing Australia’s greenhouse gas emissions. The CCRP focused on two key areas of research: emissions from agricultural soils, and measuring and understanding soil carbon levels.

Three greenhouse gases are commonly emitted from soils: carbon dioxide, methane and nitrous oxide. The most significant of these in terms of amount emitted from soils are carbon dioxide (during extended periods of drought) and nitrous oxide. Emissions from soils are influenced by factors such as soil temperature and moisture content, through their effects on the activity of soil microorganisms.

Increased soil carbon can benefit soil health and productivity. Understanding of current soil carbon levels has increased, as has knowledge of management practices and environmental factors that influence soil carbon. The information generated from the CCRP will help Australian farmers understand how to manage soil carbon and potentially participate in the Carbon Farming Initiative.

Over three years, the CCRP analysed samples from more than 4500 sites (some with a long history of sampling) across diverse farming locations, climates and soil types and investigated links between farm management practices and soil carbon levels.

The CCRP investigated a number of soil amendment and management practices that are capable of reducing emissions while maintaining soil productivity. Researchers have found that biochar—a carbon-rich, stable form of charcoal— has potential for agricultural and environmental benefits, and could be an important tool for the management of soils. The National Biochar Initiative, funded under the CCRP, was established to provide preliminary information on how biochar could potentially reduce greenhouse gas emissions while maintaining and even increasing agricultural productivity. Research showed that most biochar has potential for creating offsets under the Carbon Farming Initiative.

Agricultural soils


For agricultural soils, CCRP research looked at:• understanding and measuring nitrous oxide emissions from soil• understanding and measuring soil carbon• investigating how farm management practices can influence soil carbon• biochar’s ability to provide long-term carbon storage• biochar’s ability to reduce nitrous oxide emissions• the potential risks of using biochar.

Key findings

Understanding and measuring nitrous oxide emissions from soil• Results of this research were instrumental in Australia being able to more

accurately represent nitrous oxide emissions from agricultural soils in our National Greenhouse Gas Inventory. In particular, nitrous oxide emission factors were found to be much lower in Australian low-rainfall cropping and pasture regions than the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change defaults.

• Through an intensive measurement program across eastern, southern and south-western Australia, the CCRP has demonstrated that nitrous oxide emissions from Australian agricultural soils are highly variable.

• Research found that soils with water saturation levels less than 40 per cent or greater than 90 per cent have very low nitrous oxide emissions.

• Research demonstrated that nitrous oxide emissions can increase after high rainfall or irrigation—often with a high initial spike in emissions within the first 24 hours following the event.

• Fertiliser inputs can lead to increased nitrous oxide emissions if the amount of nitrogen that plants can absorb is exceeded.

Tilled field. Soil carbon content, soil moisture content and nitrogen inputs are the three main influences on nitrous oxide emission levels.

Agricultural soils


• Higher emissions arise from farming systems that combine the three main influences on nitrous oxide emissions: high nitrogen inputs, high soil moisture and high soil carbon.

Understanding and measuring soil carbon• Rainfall and soil type appear to be the most significant determinants of soil

carbon levels. • Research found that soil carbon levels were greater in areas with higher rainfall

and/or lower temperatures. High temperatures combined with high soil moisture can lead to high rates of decay and loss of soil organic carbon.

• Sampling revealed that, in a given region, soil carbon levels are generally higher in pasture systems than in cropping systems. This suggests that soil carbon levels in mixed farming systems can be increased, or the loss of soil carbon can at least be slowed, by replacing crops with pastures.

• Plant shoot and root residues are the source of organic carbon in soils, and rates of decay can be influenced by land management practices.

Investigating how farm management practices can influence soil carbon• Pasture type—there is evidence that soil carbon levels in some regions are higher

under perennial pastures than under annual pastures.• Rangelands—results from a long-term rangelands grazing trial in Queensland

showed that increasing vegetation cover appears to be the most effective means to increase soil carbon in rangeland soils.

• Minimum tillage— Soil carbon levels are generally decreasing over time in cropping systems. Results from trials in grain and sugarcane crops showed that minimum tillage did not reverse declining soil carbon levels. However, soil carbon measurements from longer term field trials in Queensland grain crops suggest that minimum tillage can help slow loss of soil carbon. Minimum tillage is not likely to increase soil carbon levels.

Gathering soil samples. There have been major advances in measuring soil carbon through the development of nationally applied soil sampling and analysis procedures.

Agricultural soils


• Organic material—amendments such as composts and manures were found to have no significant effect on soil carbon levels.

• CCRP research has shown some opportunities for farmers to influence storage of soil carbon. However, since the main drivers of soil carbon levels appear to be rainfall and soil type, longer term sampling of sites is needed to determine whether management practices can also significantly influence soil carbon levels over time.

Biochar’s ability to provide long-term carbon storage• Research showed that most biochars are composed of high levels of stable carbon,

and this stability is influenced by factors involved in their production. (See also the text box: ‘Did you know’.)

• Biochars produced at higher temperatures tend to have higher levels of stable carbon than biochars produced at lower temperatures.

• Wood-derived biochars are richer in carbon and may therefore offer better options for carbon storage.

• Biochars produced from manures have higher nitrogen and phosphorus levels, and may be more suitable for agricultural uses.

Biochar’s ability to reduce nitrous oxide emissions• Research showed that the application of biochar to soils can potentially reduce nitrous

oxide emissions when soil conditions favour conversion of nitrate to nitrous oxide. The reduction in nitrous oxide emissions is affected by the type of soil and biochar.

• The processes by which biochars reduce nitrous oxide emissions are not yet fully understood. Soil properties such as aeration, moisture, pH, microbial processes, structure, nutrients and soil carbon content are known to interact with biochar, but it is not clear how such interactions affect emissions of nitrous oxide.

• Biochar did not reduce nitrous oxide emissions under dryland agricultural conditions (typical of large parts of Western Australia). However, the same biochar source did decrease nitrous oxide emissions under moist soil conditions (e.g. northern New South Wales). These results show that the same biochar source can have markedly different results, depending on soil type and climatic conditions.

Potential risks of using biochar• Researchers tested a subset of biochars for toxic compounds and heavy metals, and

found low levels (similar to typical levels in most soils). This suggests that biochar is unlikely to pose a significant risk.

• Biochars bind herbicides; this reduces the efficacy of the herbicides and their breakdown in soil. Herbicide applications at up to four times the registered rate were not sufficient to achieve complete weed control in soils with 0.5–1.0 per cent added biochar by mass. These results highlight the need for further research to develop appropriate advice on biochar application.

• Results also indicated interactions between different soil types and biochars, which suggests that certain biochars may be better suited to specific soils. Further research will be needed to determine appropriate biochar application rates for different soils, biochars and agricultural situations.

• Research showed that biochar can have a strong positive effect on plant germination and growth. Laboratory and glasshouse experiments showed that the optimal biochar application rate for wheat germination and growth was around 5–10 tonnes per hectare for most soils and biochars.

Agricultural soils


• Use of contaminated, unknown feedstocks and non-standard methods for biochar production may compromise the broader environmental safety of biochar application.

What this means for farmers managing Australia’s agricultural soils• The CCRP has built a large database of soil carbon levels for sites around Australia.

This information will allow future sampling to reveal changes in carbon stocks over time, and will help identify which practices have potential to increase soil carbon levels.

• Research has delivered major advances in measuring soil carbon. Advances include the application of standard sampling methods, as well as more rapid and cost-effective methods for measuring soil density and organic carbon levels. These new techniques will significantly reduce the cost to farmers of measuring and evaluating soil carbon levels, and allow better comparison of relative soil carbon levels across different soils and farming systems.

• The CCRP has developed and refined a range of technologies and techniques for more accurately measuring nitrous oxide emissions from soil. Improved measurement is critical to better understanding the causes of nitrous oxide emissions and how these can be reduced through changed farm practices that also improve fertiliser efficiency and reduce the cost of inputs.

• Research results have established an internationally recognised benchmark for the measurement of nitrous oxide emissions. This has increased the accuracy with which nitrous oxide emissions from agricultural soils are represented in Australia’s National Greenhouse Accounts.

• The production of biochar (see also the text box: ‘Did you know?’) enables carbon sequestration by converting biomass that would normally decompose (releasing carbon dioxide to the atmosphere) into a highly stable form of charcoal.

Fragments of biochar. The application of biochar to soil has the potential to both improve agricultural productivity and reduce greenhouse gas emissions from agriculture. Image courtesy of CSIRO.

Agricultural soils


• Because the carbon in biochar is quite stable, there is interest in using it as a long-term carbon store and a means to offset greenhouse gas emissions. Researchers were also able to show that biochars are highly resistant to decay when applied to soils.

• Overall results indicated that biochar could play an important role in reducing nitrous oxide emissions from soils under certain conditions, but further research is needed to understand these processes.

• Funded research activities have laid the groundwork for the development of biochar-based methodologies under the Carbon Farming Initiative.

Where to next?The Australian Government is continuing to support research to better understand and model the combined influences of soil carbon, moisture and nitrogen content on nitrous oxide emissions across Australian agricultural systems. Much work is still needed to improve the understanding of long-term effects of different management practices on soil carbon levels. Projects funded continue to:• assess how farm management practices can increase soil carbon levels at depth in

different farming systems and soils• investigate the potential of native forest and grass planting on marginal farmland

for storing soil carbon• develop fast, accurate and cost-effective methods for measuring soil carbon• investigate the potential of low-emission nitrogen fertilisers made from clay-

modified activated charcoal.

Did you know?

Greenhouse gases commonly emitted from soils

• Carbon dioxide is taken up from the atmosphere by plants and converted to organic carbon. When this plant material decays, carbon dioxide is released back to the atmosphere. Extended periods of drought can significantly increase the rate at which carbon dioxide is emitted from agricultural soils.

• Nitrogen in soils (from organic inputs or added as fertiliser) is converted into nitrous oxide emissions through the activity of microorganisms that carry out the chemical processes of nitrification and denitrification.

What is the difference between organic and inorganic carbon?

• Organic carbon includes decaying plant matter, soil organisms and microbes, and can be influenced by land management practices. Organic carbon is lost from the soil through decomposition by soil organisms and microbes, erosion and leaching of dissolved organic carbon. The amount of organic carbon in the top 30 cm of Australian soils varies considerably, from more than 10 per cent by weight under rainforests to less than 1 per cent in poorer soils.

• Inorganic carbon is mineral based and is relatively stable. Except where lime is applied to soils, inorganic carbon generally cannot be increased by land management practices.

What is biochar?

• Biochar is produced by pyrolysis—a process in which biomass sources such as woodchips, crop waste or manure are heated to high temperatures (400–700 °C) with little or no oxygen.

Agricultural soils


Further research on biochar is continuing to:• further investigate how biochar reduces net greenhouse gas emissions• demonstrate the use of biochar systems on farms• assist development of biochar offset methodologies under the Carbon Farming

Initiative.

Box 3 Innovations, on-farm strategies and new technologies

Setting up a national standard for sampling and measuring soil carbon• To ensure that soil carbon content is measured consistently across Australia, the

CCRP developed standardised sampling and laboratory analysis methods. These procedures can be found in the CSIRO report, National Soil Carbon Research Program: field and laboratory methodologies (www.clw.csiro.au/publications/science/2011/SAF-ScarP-methods.pdf).

• The CCRP has developed the most detailed benchmark of soil carbon levels to date in Australia through the analysis of more than 20 000 soil samples from more than 4500 locations.

Measuring soil carbon faster, more cheaply and more accurately• The CCRP has tested and developed the following new and rapid approaches to

measure soil bulk density and organic carbon:

– neutron density meters—used to accurately measure bulk density of soil in the top 30 cm without the need to collect soil cores; this technology was originally designed to measure road-base density

Inspecting soil core. The CCRP has tested and developed a number of new and rapid approaches to measure soil characteristics and has established a national standard for sampling and measuring soil carbon.

continued...

http://www.clw.csiro.au/publications/science/2011/SAF-SCaRP-methods.pdf



Agricultural soils


Want more information?• For more information on reducing nitrous oxide emissions, visit the Australian

Government Department of Agriculture website—daff.gov.au/climatechange.• Information on ongoing projects—www.daff.gov.au/ftrg and

www.daff.gov.au/biochar.• Information on research conducted under the CCRP’s National Biochar Initiative—

www.csiro.au/science/Biochar-Overview.

Box 3 Innovations, on-farm strategies and new technologies continued

– near infra-red spectroscopy—used to accurately and quickly estimate the water in soil core samples, improving the accuracy of soil density measurements

– mid infra-red spectroscopy of soil samples—used in the laboratory to statistically calibrate soil carbon measurements to provide accurate estimates of total carbon, inorganic carbon and different fractions of organic carbon in soils.

Research collaborations: building our knowledge base of nitrous oxide emissions from soils• CCRP researchers have developed an online data management system to assist

collaborations and data synthesis. Available at www.n2o.net.au, the system includes more information about the results of the CCRP research on nitrous oxide emissions.

http://www.daff.gov.au/climatechange


http://www.daff.gov.au/biochar

http://www.csiro.au/science/Biochar-Overview


Fisheries

Fisheries in south-eastern Australia could be strongly affected by climate change. Significant temperature increases have already been recorded in south-eastern Australian waters, and this is projected to continue in the future. Because the region is recognised as a global climate change hotspot, the CCRP investigated some of the major climate change risks and adaptation options for key fisheries in south-eastern Australia.

For key fisheries in south-eastern Australia, CCRP research looked at:• risks associated with a changing climate, including:

ሲ increasing ocean temperature

ሲ changing ocean current and wind patterns

ሲ ocean acidification

ሲ changes to rainfall and river flows

• adaptation strategies, including:

ሲmanaging environmental flows

ሲ building resilience through sound management practices

ሲ seizing new opportunities.

Key findings

Risks associated with a changing climate• A comprehensive biophysical risk assessment was undertaken to identify

which aquatic species are most vulnerable to climate change impacts. This risk assessment, covering 43 key species (35 wild fisheries species and 8 aquaculture species) found that the region’s three highest value fisheries—southern rock lobster, greenlip abalone and blacklip abalone—are at greatest risk from potential climate change.

Fisheries


• Research showed that ocean warming is likely to affect key fisheries species—such as abalone, snapper and blue grenadier—by affecting growth and recruitment (breeding) and by increasing the risks of stress and disease. Ecosystem modelling of key Australian fish species suggested that pelagic (surface-dwelling) species are likely to be more successful than demersal (bottom-dwelling) species under climate change. Climate change may favour some species in certain regions in the short term. For example, growth rate and potential catchability of southern rock lobster are expected to increase in south-west Tasmania, but may decrease in the warmer waters of eastern Tasmania and Victoria.

• Changes in wind patterns and ocean currents are likely to affect the early stages of many marine species that rely on winds and currents for timing lifecycle events or for transport to appropriate habitats. Evidence suggests that changing currents have already been associated with a 30 per cent reduction in the number of southern rock lobster reaching harvestable size.

Trawler moored at Lakes Entrance Victoria. The CCRP identified a range of options that may help south-eastern Australian fisheries adapt to climate change.

Aquaculture in southern Australia. Research found that climate change is likely to adversely impact Atlantic salmon, blue mussel, and Pacific oyster aquaculture.

Fisheries


• Ocean acidification increases disease in marine animals. A combination of acidification and associated declining carbonate levels affects the ability of some organisms to build hard body parts (such as coral and shell). Loss of coral and shellfish in some areas is likely to have a major effect on animals that rely on these species for shelter and food.

• Changes to rainfall and river flows will influence nutrient availability and the chemistry (e.g. salinity) of key marine nursery areas, such as estuaries and seagrasses. Changes to marine nurseries can have a major impact on the survival and growth of fisheries species.

Adaptation strategies• The future viability of fisheries (such as snapper) may be improved through

management of environmental flows of fresh water into essential nurseries, to optimise conditions for fish survival and recruitment. Two possible management approaches include moderating floodwater flows and maintaining flows during droughts.

• Management practices that could be used to help fisheries adapt to climate change include adjusting catch and size limits or re-assessing fishing zones to reflect stock movements.

• As ocean temperatures increase, the distribution of tropical and subtropical species—including blue marlin, mahi mahi, yellowfin tuna, cobia, spanish mackerel and wahoo—are likely to continue extending southwards. This may present opportunities for the development of new fisheries and markets.

What this means for fishers and the fishing industry• An important outcome from the CCRP was the national expansion of the Redmap

(Range Extension Database and Mapping project) website (www.redmap.org.au). Redmap encourages fishers across all sectors to document any changes in marine ecosystems, to provide researchers and fisheries managers with access to the most current information (see box 4: ‘Redmap’).

• The CCRP identified a range of options that may help south-eastern Australian fisheries adapt to climate change. Adaptation strategies involve fisheries management, rebuilding stocks, selective breeding, new husbandry techniques, genetics, catch limits, innovative infrastructure designs, and coordination and cooperation of industry stakeholders across all sectors.

Did you know?

• Ocean temperature has a strong influence on the distribution of many marine organisms and provides cues for important events such as spawning.

• Fish species of traditionally cooler waters are also likely to be affected by predators and competitors that may expand their range as waters warm. This is already occurring with the southern expansion of the long-spined sea urchin to Tasmanian reefs, where the urchin is altering reef habitats by removing large quantities of kelp.


Fisheries


Box 4 Redmap

• The Redmap website (www.redmap.org.au) uses information provided by the public to track when and where marine species are encountered. By collating and presenting this information, Redmap shows how species distributions may be changing.

• The website is an effective tool for monitoring and promoting awareness of climate change issues in Australian oceans. It also provides a useful connection between researchers, industry and the general public.

Worker with fresh haul. Effects of climate change on the distribution and production of key fish species must be understood before strategies to adapt to future climate conditions can be developed.

Recreational fishers on pier. Recreational fishers are able to assist researchers by providing information about when, where and which marine species they encounter.


Fisheries


Want more information?• Fact sheets produced by CCRP project partner, the Fisheries Research and

Development Corporation—www.frdc.com.au/environment/climate_change/Pages/elnemo_frdc_approach.aspx.

• To get involved in monitoring changes in marine ecosystems, visit the Redmap website—www.redmap.org.au.

http://www.frdc.com.au/environment/climate_change/Pages/elnemo_frdc_approach.aspx

http://www.frdc.com.au/environment/climate_change/Pages/elnemo_frdc_approach.aspx



Acknowledgements

AcknowledgementsResearch presented in this document was carried out by the organisations listed below:Agricultural Research Western AustraliaAgri-Science QueenslandAustralian Chicken Meat FederationAustralian Fisheries Management AuthorityAustralian Lot Feeders’ AssociationAustralian Meat Processor CorporationAustralian Pork LimitedAustralian Wool InnovationBirchip Cropping GroupBSES LimitedBunny Bite FoodsCooperative Research Centre for Sheep Industry InnovationCommonwealth Scientific and Industrial Research Organisationd’Arenberg WinesDairy AustraliaDepartment of Agriculture and Food, Western AustraliaDepartment of Agriculture, Fisheries and Forestry, QueenslandDepartment of Environment, Water and Natural Resources, South AustraliaDepartment of Primary Industries and Resources, South AustraliaDepartment of Primary Industries, New South WalesDepartment of Primary Industries, Parks, Water and Environment, TasmaniaDepartment of Science, Information Technology, Innovation and the Arts, QueenslandDepartment of Trade and Investment, New South Wales(Former) Department of Employment, Economic Development and Innovation, Queensland(Former) Department of Environment and Resource Management, Queensland(Former) Department of Industry and Innovation, New South Wales(Former) Department of Primary Industries and Fisheries, Queensland(Former) Department of Primary Industries, Victoria(Former) Department of Regional Development, Primary Industry, Fisheries and Resources, Northern Territory(Former) Department of Resources, Northern TerritoryFisheries Research and Development CorporationFlinders UniversityFuture Farm Industries Cooperative Research CentreGelita AustraliaGrains Research and Development CorporationGrape and Wine Research and Development CorporationGrowcomGrower Group Alliance


Acknowledgements

Horticulture AustraliaHouston’s FarmIncitec Pivot FertilisersJBS Swift AustraliaMAF Composting SystemsMeat & Livestock AustraliaMonash UniversityMurray Catchment Management AuthorityNARO Institute of Livestock and Grassland Science, JapanNew South Wales Sugar Milling Co-operativeNorthern Territory Agriculture AssociationOffice of Environment and Heritage, New South WalesPacific PyrolysisPeanut Company of Australia LimitedPeats Soil & Garden SuppliesQueensland Alliance for Agriculture and Food Innovation, University of QueenslandQueensland Natural Pork Holdings (Marketing Pty Ltd)Queensland University of TechnologyRegional Dairy ProgramsRural Industries Research and Development CorporationSITA Environmental SolutionsSouth Australian No-Till Farmers AssociationSouth Australian Research and Development InstituteSugar Research and Development CorporationTasmanian Aquaculture and Fisheries InstituteTasmanian Institute of AgricultureThe Organic ForceThe University of AdelaideThe University of ArizonaThe University of MelbourneThe University of New South WalesThe University of QueenslandThe University of SydneyThe University of Western AustraliaUniversity of New EnglandUniversity of Southern Queensland.

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The ‘Biosphere’ Graphic ElementThe biosphere is a key part of the department’s visual identity. Individual biospheres are used to visually describe the diverse nature of the work we do as a department, in Australia and internationally.

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