Austin ISD Demographics - esc13.netWe see certain processes in Spanish and English as part of normal developmentEnglish as part of normal development • Examples: consonant cluster

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Ellen Kester, Ph.D., CCC-SLPScott Prath, M.A., CCC-SLPScott Prath, M.A., CCC SLPMarie Wirka, M.S., CCC-SLPKeith Lebel, M.A., CCC-SLP

Education Service Center Region XIIIOctober 11, 2010

Austin ISD Demographics

White

HispanicWhite

Black

Black

Asian/Pacific Islander

American Indian/Alaska Native

Hispanic

Austin ISD DemographicsHouston Elementary

White

Black

Hispanic

Black

Asian

IndianHispanic

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Austin ISD DemographicsWinn Elementary

Black White

Hispanic

Black

HispanicBlack

Georgetown ISD Demographics- Purl Elementary

White

HispanicWhite

Black

Black



Hispanic

Caldwell ISD DemographicsCaldwell Elementary

White

HispanicWhite

Black

Black



Hispanic

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Round Rock ISD DemographicsVoigt Elementary

White

Hispanic

WhiteBlack

Black



Hispanic

Hays CISD DemographicsFuentes Elementary

White

HispanicWhite

Black

p

Black



Hispanic

How do we qualify and work with a bilingual population when:

• The tests we use are not normed on this population• My gut feeling doesn’t match the test results

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Learner Objectives• Participants will:

• Understand typical speech and language development in bilinguals

• Identify examples of pre-linguistic speech and language behaviors (monolinguals and bilinguals)g gList similarities in typical monolingual and bilingual speech development

• Classify errors of bilinguals as typical, second-language influenced or atypical

• Apply clinical judgment to assessment tools• Develop assessment plans for bilingual students• Determine appropriate language of intervention,

targets, and goals

“For adults, the idea of an “uncontaminated” monolingual

is probably a fiction.” Ellen Bialystok

S Se Se SE Es Es E

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h

ED BEBS

HIGH

Spanish

Engl

ish

BS

SDHIGHLOW

Conceptualp

L1 Lexical L2 LexicalL2 Lexical

DifferenceDifference vs.vs. DisorderDisorder

SECONDSECOND-LANGUAGE

INFLUENCE

ATYPICAL ERRORS

TYPICAL DEVELOPMENTAL

ERRORS

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Speech and language development from:

• 0-36 months• 36 months forward• 36 months forward

With:• Spanish• English• Cross-linguistic Influence

Differences Similarities

Based on the Competition Model as applied to bilingual development (MacWhinney & Bates, 1989)

• A lot of Forward Transfer (L1 to L2) is expected for• A lot of Forward Transfer (L1 to L2) is expected for second language learners

+ = Positive transfer

+ = Negative transfer

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Gradually from naming an object we d t b t til hadvance step by step until we have

traversed the vast distance between our first stammered syllable and the sweep of

thought in a line of Shakespeare.

Hellen Keller

0-1 month – crying and vegetative sounds 1-6 months – cooing, laughter, squealing,

growling 4-6 months – marginal babbling 6 8 months reduplicated babbling 6-8 months – reduplicated babbling 8-10 months – variegated babbling 8-12 months – echolalia 9-12 months – phonetically

consistent forms 9-12 months – jargon

For parents: (Lynch, Brookshire & Fox, 1980)

• 18 months - ~25% intelligible• 2 year olds - 50-75% intelligible• 3 year olds - 75%-100% intelligible3 year olds 75% 100% intelligible

For unfamiliar: (Flipsen, 2006)

• 18 months - ~25% intelligible• 2 year olds - ~50% intelligible• 3 year olds - ~75% intelligible• 4 year olds - 100% intelligible

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/ɲ//ð/ /ʤ//h/ /ŋ/ /θ/

SPANISH ENGLISH

/b/ /d/ /ɡ/ /ɾ//r/

/ɣ/ /β/

/h/ /ŋ/ /θ//ɹ/ /ʃ//v/ /w//z/ /ʒ/

ɡ/p/ /t/ /k//m/ /n/ /s/ /tʃ/ /j/ /l/

/f/

Spanish & English Phonemes

From: Fabiano –Smith & Goldstein, 2010

Spanish DialectsSpanish Dialects Spanish has many dialects Most common in U.S. are: Southwestern (Mexican-

American) and Caribbean (Cuban, Puerto-Rican).

Phone Mexican Cuban Puerto Rican ContextPhone Mexican Cuban Puerto Rican Context

/b/ v -- -- Free variation

/s/ Ø or h Ø or h Ø or h Final position

/r/ R (rare) R or x Initial position

From: Contextual Probes of Articulation Competence – SpanishSuper Duper Publications 2006

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/æ/ /ɔ/ /ʊ//a//e/

SPANISH ENGLISH

/u/ /ʌ/ /Ɛ//ɪ/ /i/

/e//i//o//u/

Vowel Chart: Vowel Chart: English and SpanishEnglish and Spanish

Spanish EnglishCV Dominated

Few words ending in Cs

Few allowable

More clusters

Many words ending in CsFew allowable

phonemes as final Cs (only l, n, d, s, r)

Many allowable phonemes final Cs

C = Consonant

V = Vowel

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Spanish EnglishStress: usually penultimate

Stress: varies

h dpenultimate

Pitch: narrower range

Pitch: wider range

Phonological ProcessesPhonological Processes

Based on motor constraints not necessarily language-specific

We see certain processes in Spanish and English as part of normal developmentEnglish as part of normal development

• Examples: consonant cluster reduction, final consonant deletion

TYPICAL

ERRORS


ERRORS

Phonological ProcessesPhonological Processes-- EnglishEnglish

From: Bowen, C. (1998). Typical speech development: the gradual acquisition of the speech sound system. Retrieved from http://www.speech-language-therapy.com/acquisition.html on 06/21/2010.

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Phonological ProcessesPhonological Processes-- SpanishSpanish


Normal PhonologicalNormal PhonologicalProcesses in SpanishProcesses in Spanish

Let’s look at a male, age 1;9, native Spanish speakerp p

Typical Phonological Processes in SpanishJared: 21-month-old native

speaker of Spanish

Production Target etella estrella tatado cuadrado totatulalo triángulo atado cuadrado totatulalo triangulo tetella estrella wuz cruz aquí, aquí nuh yuh tuh tuz

aquí va la cruz (?)

popapó por favor name dame tetato pito se cayó al piso teso queso pesa fresa ten ten ayuda papapa Ayuda papá ayubame popapó Ayúdame por

favor

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Speech SummarySpeech Summary

So what do we know:• Building blocks are the same for both monolinguals and

bilinguals, and across languages• General guidelines for intelligibility are the same • Expect some cross-linguistic influence in speech

production where the two languages differ• Bilinguals develop at about the same rate as other children• Phonological processes are examples of typical

developmental errors in monolinguals and bilinguals

“No language is immune to the intrusion from the barrage of words and phrases

that rise out of one language…and deposit themselves in the lexicon of

another.” Ellen Bialystok

Fact or Myth?• Children code switch between languages because they g g y

don’t know either language well.• Raising children with two languages will confuse them.• Parents should not use more than one language with

their child.• Children with language impairment should not learn

more than one language at a time. See www.nethelp.no/cindy/myth.html and

www.spanglishbaby.com for responses to many myths about bilingualism.

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• 0-1 month – crying and vegetative sounds• 2-3 months eye gaze• 6-9 months-- joint attention• 9-12 months -- using gestures• 12-15 months--following simple commands• 18 months – symbolic play, pretend play• 24 months – sequencing of activities• 36 months – episodic play

Bilingual children develop early vocabulary at the same rate as monolingual children (Pearson, 1993).

Early language milestones are similar (single words lexical spurt 2-word phrases)(single words, lexical spurt, 2 word phrases) (Pearson and Fernandez, 2001).

Conceptual scores are similar (Pearson, 1998).

Vocabulary:• 12 months – first words (usually labeling familiar

objects, actions, and properties in child’s environment)

• 15 months - 4-6-word vocabulary• 18 months – 20-50-word vocabulary• 24 months – 200-300 word vocabulary• 36 months - roughly 1000 words

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Overextensions• “dog” for all four-legged animals• “it’s out of ink” to describe anything that doesn’t work

Underextensions• “blankee” is only one particular blanket• “Crayon” only refers to red crayons, the rest are colors


ERRORS

The effects of Spanish on English can result in errors in:

• Verb errors (especially unmarked present for past tense)• Content word errors (e.g., “bird” for “owl”)• Prepositions (e.g., “put it in the table”)• Pronouns (can be dropped in Spanish, but not in English)• Word order (“the flag red”, instead of “the red flag”)

SECOND-LANGUAGE

INFLUENCE

English-speaking parents use more nouns• First words of English speakers typically nouns

(Gentner, 1982; Nelson, 1973) M d i Chi ki t b Mandarin Chinese-speaking parents use more verbs

• First words of their children are nouns and verbs (Tardif, 1995)

Korean-speaking parents talk about activities more• First words of their children are nouns and verbs

(Choi, 2001)

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What do children talk about with their families at home?

What do children talk about with their peers and teachers at school?p

If they use different languages in these two settings, what should we expect?

High correlation between language exposure and vocabulary production1

For bilingual toddlers 30% of vocabulary are translation equivalents2

Young school-age bilinguals produce same # of Young school-age bilinguals produce same # of category items in Spanish and English BUT 70% are unique to one language3

1 Pearson, Fernandez, Lewedeg, & Oller, 1997 2 Pearson, Fernandez & Oller, 1995 3 Pena, Bedore & Zlatic, 2002

Used for emphasisUsed when specific vocabulary is only known

in one languageVery common in some contexts/geographicalVery common in some contexts/geographical

areas


ERRORS

SECOND-LANGUAGE

INFLUENCE

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Language SummaryLanguage Summary

So what do we know:• Building blocks are the same for both monolinguals and

bilinguals, and across languages• Rates of early vocabulary development are the same in

monolinguals and bilinguals• Expect some cross-linguistic influence in language

production where the two languages differ• Differences in the language of input will dictate differences

in terms of output• Code-switching reflects typical developmental errors as

well as second-language influence in bilinguals

“Bilingualism is random chaos for psychometrics”

Figueroa

Tools were not developedTools were not developedfor our populationfor our population

We need to use an assessment tool.

English tests were not normed for the English of ESL learners.

Clinical judgment regarding missed items and items correct is critical.

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What you CAN’T do: Guess Consult with your Magic 8 ball Use test norms from monolingual children Use test norms from monolingual children

on bilinguals (e.g. – GFTA) Assess a bilingual child in only one

language

What you CAN do:Determined the exact language history

and the dialect spokenAssess the child in both languages (whenAssess the child in both languages (when

indicated)Use appropriate tests and supplement with

informal informationGather & integrate information from

various sources

Determining SpeechDetermining Speech--Language Language Impairment in BilingualsImpairment in Bilinguals

English

LOWSpanish

OK Normal

English

OK

Spanish

LOWNormal

English

LOW

Spanish

LOW Impaired*

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It’s always critical to use information beyond the assessment tool to complete an assessment.

Let’s look now at some of the things that can help us differentiate bilinguals with typical development from those with delayed/disordered language skills.

Narrative Language Sample- Systematic Analysis of Language Transcripts (SALT)

Dynamic Assessment

( )( )

Spanish Articulation Spanish Articulation Assessment ToolsAssessment Tools

SAM CPAC SPAT

Primary Use

Production of Spanish consonants and phonological processes

Screener/comprehensive assessment to gauge articulatory and phonological performance

To examine the production of Spanish phonemes in single words.

Norm-based or Criterion Referenced

Criterion Referenced Normed- 1127 Spanish-speaking children from the U.S., Puerto Rico, & Mexico

Normed- small, homogenous sample

Age Ranges

3;0 + 3;0 – 8;11 2;6 to 5;5

Administration Time 15 minutes 15-20 minutes 5-10 minutes

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Formal TestingFormal Testing-- CPACCPAC--SS Organizes assessment data in terms of:

- phonemic inventory- whole word & segment accuracy- phonological patterns & their frequency- phonological patterns & their frequency

of occurrence

Speech Activity 1Speech Activity 1Consonant Differences Consonant Differences

BATH BAT


THREE TREE

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SHOE CHEW


VASE BASE

Speech Activity 2Speech Activity 2Vowel Differences Vowel Differences

HAT HOT

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GET GATE


HIT HEAT


FUN PHONE

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LOOK LUKE

Speech Activity 3Speech Activity 3Clinical judgment withClinical judgment with

the Goldman the Goldman FristoeFristoe

GFTA Activity: KeyGFTA Activity: Key

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Difficulty learning both languages, even with adult assistance

Family history of language/learning disabilitiesdisabilities

Slower development than siblingsDifficulty interacting with peers

ATYPICAL ERRORS

Inappropriate pragmatic/social language skills (i.e., turn-taking, topic maintenance, considering listener needs, non-verbal communication)communication)

Difficulty with language in many routines Idiosyncratic error patterns Language performance unlike

others with similar cultural/linguistic experiences

ATYPICAL ERRORS

Spanish Language Spanish Language Assessment ToolsAssessment Tools

PLS-4 CELF-4 SLAP

Primary Use

Identify monolingual or bilingual Spanish speaking children who have a language disorder or delay

1. determine eligibility for language services2. identify language strengths and weaknesses 3. provide performance-b d h

Assess structural and functional communication in Spanish-speaking children.

Primary Use based, authentic assessment with a strong relationship to educational objectives and the curriculum

Norm-based or Criterion Referenced

Norm-based Norm-based Criterion Referenced

Age Ranges Birth to 6 years 11 months of age

Overall: 5-21 years (varying age ranges for each subtest)

3:0 – 8:0

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ActivityActivity

.

Ana

Other Common Languages

HindiUrdu

Vietnamese

RomanianArabic

Other Common Languages

Arabic• 3 Vowels: 2 long, 2 short,

2 diphthongs• 28 Consonants

Vietnamese

Hindi• 11 Vowels • 23 Consonants• 40% of India

Romanian Vietnamese• 10 Vowels• 28 Consonants• 30 Diphthong and

Triphthong Variations• 6 tones• GREAT regional variation

Romanian• 7 Vowels: 30 diphthong and

triphthong combinations• 20 Consonants

Ana Language Sample Watch the video and try to identify speech errors produced in the transcript. There was a little boy with a frog and the dog said foo, foo, foo, foo.

The frog jump out when he asleep and the dog was asleep.

He was findin’ his frog.

And the dog said, I found, find my frog.

I’m mad.

Hello frog X.

Somebody hear, “Frog” XX.

I wanna X too, hoo.

I just bumpedy just bump the rock.

He said, Hello, who’s there?

He knock them off and he puppy flew in the water.

Hooray, I found my froggy Yee haw, he said.

The end.

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Case Study #1Case Study #1ARABIC/ADHDARABIC/ADHD

Receiving resource for Other Health Impairment ADHD and with pharmacological management Home Language Survey says Arabic/English Did not qualify as LD

E li h L T i English Language Testing: • CELF-4 Core Language = 77 Receptive Language = 76, Expressive Language = 78, Language Content = 78 Language Memory = 78

Case Study #1Case Study #1ARABIC/ADHD ARABIC/ADHD

Questions:

Is it possible that his language scores are "flat" due to being bilingual?

Should I have an Arabic assessment done? If so, how should Should I have an Arabic assessment done? If so, how should I go about it?

Or since he isn't LEP, should we go ahead and qualify him as SI?

Additional information you might want?

Case Study #1Case Study #1ARABIC/ADHD ARABIC/ADHD

Results• Assessment completed with Arabic interpreter• Language sample with much longer and more

complex utterances than demonstrated in Englishp g• Minimal vocabulary errors• Minimal syntax errors• Fully intelligible to interpreter

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Case Study #2Case Study #2BRITISH ENGLISH/HEARING IMPAIRMENTBRITISH ENGLISH/HEARING IMPAIRMENT

Mild to moderate hearing impairment 50% Intelligible1st Percentile with standardized speech testing69% intelligible during 100 word sampleFamily from England and has been living in

the United States for two years


Questions:

How do we figure out what is causing the low intelligibility? Is it a true speech impairment, resulting from the hearing impairment, or influence from British English?

Can the norms from the standardized test be used because he speaks “English?”

If he qualifies, how do we determine appropriate goals?

Additional information you might want?


Outcome• Parents more thoroughly interviewed. This was a

dialectical difference in the area they came from • SLP researched (googled) specific dialect to

identify attributesidentify attributes• Speech errors were put up against Typical errors with hearing impairment Age appropriate errors in SA English Dialect differences of “Brummie English”

• Results follow

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The following charts indicate errors in the production of phonemes and processes.Red = Brummie English Dialectical Differences.

PhonemesInitial Medial Final Initial Medial Final Initial Medial Final

p t k omit l n omit

b d g omit r w w omit

m k t glottal stop s st

n "ng" g omit z s

η omit f v

w v t

h θ deaspirated deaspirated deaspirated dz

j (y) n voiced "th"

v


PhonemesBlend: Error: Blend: Error: Blend: Error:bl bj (y) gr gw sl s

br b kl k sp

dr g kr kw st

fl f kw gw sw

Phonological Processesfr fw pl tr

Process ExampleFinal consonant deletion "ba" for "ball"

Medial consonant deletion "waon" for "wagon"

Fronting "take" for "cake"

Backing "kelephone" for "telephone"

Gliding "bawoons" for "balloons" and "wing" for "ring," "fwog" for "frog"

Cluster reduction "lasses" for "glasses"

Deaffrication "share" for "chair"


Outcome:

• Qualifies for speech services

• Evaluation provided detailed information for which sounds to address

• Goals are specific to non-dialectical sounds said in error

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Case Study #3Case Study #3SPANISHSPANISH--ENGLISH SPEAKERSENGLISH SPEAKERS

STUDENT 1 – 1st Grade, English classroom• Below grade level in Kindergarten• Wears glasses• Reading is below grade

Spn Eng

Composite Language

Stnd Score

%ile Rank

Stnd Score

%ile Rank

level• Difficulty answering

questions• Easily distracted• From Brownsville, TX

Language Scores

Score Rank Score Rank

Core Language

86 18 78 7

Receptive Language

78 7 73 4

Expressive Language

85 16 69 2

Language Content

77 6 73 4

Language Structure

84 14 78 7

Case Study #3SPANISH-ENGLISH SPEAKERS

• STUDENT 2 – 1st Grade, English classroom– Repeating 1st grade– Struggling academically (especially math and reading) – Does not talk often in class – Talks at recess– Bilingual home

Spanish English

Composite Language Scores

Stnd Score

Stnd Score

Core Language 68 Core Language 90

Receptive Language

83 Listening Comprehension

96

Expressive Language

57 Oral Expression 87

Language Structure

57


Questions:

What similarities exist?

How common do you think this scenario is?

What are the implications of not assessing in both languages?

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STUDENT 1 – 1st Grade, English classroomOutcome

• Student does not qualify for speech and language services• Language development is within normal limits in Spanish• Language development in English is typical for a second

l llanguage learner• Reading difficulties may be related to visual impairment

Incidentally,LD testing results matched speech and language results after the student was tested in both languages.


STUDENT 2 – 1st Grade, English classroom• Outcome

– Student does not qualify for speech and language services– Language development is within normal limits in English– Language testing results in Spanish are due to low proficiency– Academic difficulties may be related to a learning disability

LD testing recommended

Assessment SummaryAssessment Summary

• Not all bilinguals are the same • Children in recent second language environments may

display behaviors common in monolinguals with language impairmentimpairment

• Problems associated with all assessment tools• We need to go beyond the tool in assessment• Ongoing assessment across many daily routines is critical• Exploring both/all languages is essential.

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• Thorough language history and health (especially hearing) history are needed.

• Testing in all languages is the only way to get a complete picture of the student.

• Understanding the features of the non English language as

Assessment SummaryAssessment Summary

• Understanding the features of the non-English language as well as how those compare to English will help identify what errors may be due to cross-linguistic influence.

TreatmentTreatment

Language of intervention- Case Study 1 6 year old female, diagnosis of Autism Spectrum Disorder,

exposure has been primarily Spanish, bilingual parents, currently nonverbal communicator with language skills consistent with 9 month level, long history of prior services with limited progress

• What information do you need to consider in determining the language(s) of intervention?

• Based on that information, what do you recommend, and WHY?

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TreatmentTreatment

Language of intervention- Case Study 2 Male, age 3;6 , Speech Impairment Father speaks primarily Spanish, child is placed in a bilingual

PPCD Classroom in which 100% of instruction is provided in pSpanish, and afternoons are spent in an English-only day care setting. 90% of child’s spontaneous language output is in English, and he is most successful imitating English targets. He understands simple instructions in Spanish.

• Based on this information, what language do you recommend for intervention, and WHY?

TreatmentTreatment

Language of intervention:• With bilinguals, treatment is inevitably bilingual• Transfer of skills from one language to the other• Cross-linguistic effects and dialect features should

not be targeted

TreatmentTreatment

• GOOD therapy is GOOD therapy in any language! Literacy based Academically relevant FunctionalFunctional Multisensory (e.g.- incorporating music & movement) Opportunities for repetition Plays into child’s interest & experiences, sense of

humor Techniques: expansions, scaffolding, binary choice, etc.

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TreatmentTreatment

Treatment of underlying cognitive linguistic skills = transfer Evidence from literature on bilingual readings skills Theoretical models regarding language independence of Theoretical models regarding language independence of

some cognitive-linguistic processing skills Social-cognitive skills “Peripheral” or “supporting” skills that are acquired in

therapy- following structure & routine Focus on shared features (bang for your buck!) and

underlying concepts/skills (e.g. – concept of past tense)

TreatmentTreatment

Speech Production Targets• Consider types & rates of errors (“BANG for your

buck”)h l l h• Phonological patterns approach

• Shared vs. unshared• Nondevelopmental approach (e.g. – maximal

opposition)

Intervention Is:Intervention Is:Focused on LanguageFocused on Language

Select based on what is appropriate in each language and what is appropriate for child’s and family’s situation.

e.g.-

Spanish•Gender•Verbs•Article+nouns•Household items•Food•Clothing

Both•People•Functions•Categorization•Part-Whole

English•Pronouns•Prepositions•Nouns•Colors•Numbers•Shapes

Peña & Kester, 2004

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Helpful Resources on typical phonological processerrors in English-speaking, Spanish-speakingand Bilingual Children.

Davis B L Gildersleeve-Neumann C E Kester E S Peña E DDavis, B. L., Gildersleeve-Neumann, C. E., Kester, E. S., Peña, E. D.(2008). English speech sound development in pre-school agedchildren from bilingual English-Spanish environments. Lang SpeechHear Serv Sch 2008 39: 314-328.

Gildersleeve-Neumann, C. E., Peña E. D, Davis, B. L., Kester, E.S.,.(2009). Effects of L1 during early acquisition of L2: Speech changesin Spanish at first English contact. Bilingualism: Language andCognition, 12, 2, 259-272.

Gildersleeve-Neumann, C. E., Kester, E.S., Davis, B. L., & Peña, E. D.(2007). Speech development in 3- to 4-year-old children from bilingualSpanish/English and monolingual Spanish and English environments.Language, Speech, and Hearing Services in the Schools.

Goldstein, B. (2007a). Spanish speech acquisition. In S. McLeod (Ed.), Theinternational guide to speech acquisition (pp. 539-553). Clifton Park, NY:Thomson Delmar Learning.

Goldstein, B. (2007b). Speech acquisition across the world: SpanishInfluenced English. In S. McLeod (Ed.), The international guide to speechacquisition (pp. 345-356). Clifton Park, NY: Thomson Delmar Learning.

Goldstein, B. (2004). Phonological Development and Disorders. In B.Goldstein (Ed.), Bilingual Language Development & Disorders in Spanish-English Speakers (pp. 259-285). Baltimore, MD: Paul H. Brookes

Goldstein, B. (2007). Phonological skills in Puerto Rican- and Mexican-Spanish speaking children with phonological disorders. ClinicalLinguistics and Phonetics, 21, 93-109.

Goldstein, B., Fabiano, L., & Washington, P. (2005). Phonological skillsinpredominantly English, predominantly Spanish, and Spanish-Englishbilingual children. Language, Speech, and Hearing Services in Schools,36, 201-218.

Goldstein, B. (2005). Substitutions in the phonology of Spanish-speakingchildren. Journal of Multilingual Communication Disorders, 3,56-63.

Fabiano, L., & Goldstein, B. (2005). Phonological cross-linguisticinfluencein sequential Spanish-English bilingual children. Journal ofMultilingual Communication Disorders, 3, 56-63.

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Fabiano-Smith, L., Goldstein, B.A. (2010). Phonological Acquisition inBilingual Spanish–English Speaking Children. Journal of Speech,Language, and Hearing Research. 53: 160-178.

Fabiano-Smith, L., Barlow, J.A., (2009) . Interaction in bilingualphonological acquisition: evidence from phonetic inventories.International Journal of Bilingual Education and Bilingualism. 12, 1, 81-97.

Thank you!

Documents

Austin ISD Demographics - esc13.netWe see certain processes in Spanish and English as part of normal developmentEnglish as part of normal development • Examples: consonant cluster