Attentional Processes Gaia Scerif Room 426, Ext. 67926 [email protected] Office Hours: Thurs 12-2

Attentional ProcessesAttentional Processes

Gaia ScerifGaia ScerifRoom 426, Ext. 67926Room 426, Ext. 67926

[email protected]@psychology.nottingham.ac.uk.uk

Office Hours: Thurs 12-2Office Hours: Thurs 12-2

Learning ObjectivesLearning Objectives

1.1. Early development of attention: Early development of attention: Describe maturational accounts.Describe maturational accounts.

2.2. Early development of attention: Early development of attention: Evidence for and against maturation.Evidence for and against maturation.

3.3. Can attentional control be modified Can attentional control be modified by training? Is it under genetic by training? Is it under genetic influences?influences?

4.4. Later changes in attentional Later changes in attentional processing: Continued changes in processing: Continued changes in executive control and in attentional executive control and in attentional capacity.capacity.

OutlineOutline Why study attention?Why study attention? The early development of selective The early development of selective

attention. Thus far presented asattention. Thus far presented as Succession of stages Succession of stages (Innate) Maturation of neural pathways?(Innate) Maturation of neural pathways? LimitationsLimitations

Training and genetic influences on Training and genetic influences on attentional controlattentional control

Later development:Later development: Continued change in executive control and Continued change in executive control and

attentional capacityattentional capacity

Theoretical issuesTheoretical issues What is “attention”?What is “attention”? ““Every one knows what attention is. Every one knows what attention is.

It is the taking possession by the It is the taking possession by the mind, in clear and vivid form, of mind, in clear and vivid form, of one out of what seem several one out of what seem several simultaneously possible objects or simultaneously possible objects or trains of thought. […] It implies trains of thought. […] It implies withdrawal from some things in withdrawal from some things in order to deal effectively with order to deal effectively with others.” others.” (James, 1890/1950, pp. 404-5)(James, 1890/1950, pp. 404-5)

““Attention” is not well understood. So…Attention” is not well understood. So…

Theoretical issuesTheoretical issues

Intriguing issues:Intriguing issues: Multiple varietiesMultiple varieties of “attention” of “attention” (Parasuraman, (Parasuraman,

1998)1998)

Distinct attentional processes involve Distinct attentional processes involve different, potentially interacting circuits different, potentially interacting circuits (Posner & Petersen, 1990; Johnson, 2001)(Posner & Petersen, 1990; Johnson, 2001)

Useful to build computational models Useful to build computational models (Braun et al. 2001)(Braun et al. 2001)

Why study “attention”, then?Why study “attention”, then?


Key: Is attention a potential source of Key: Is attention a potential source of developmental change (e.g., think of developmental change (e.g., think of AKS and attentional biases)? If so, is it:AKS and attentional biases)? If so, is it:

Innately specified? Innately specified? Modifiable?Modifiable?

Why study Why study attentional attentional developmentdevelopment??


Why study Why study attentional development?attentional development?1. As a set of processes in and of 1. As a set of processes in and of

themselves, to address the following themselves, to address the following questions:questions:

Does attention develop through Does attention develop through stages?stages?

Are changes in attentional Are changes in attentional performance better accounted for by performance better accounted for by quantitative vs. qualitative changes?quantitative vs. qualitative changes?

Is it “innately” specified?Is it “innately” specified?


Why study Why study attentional attentional development?development?

2. As (one) source of developmental 2. As (one) source of developmental change change acrossacross domains: domains:

Attention influences experience of Attention influences experience of multiple types multiple types (e.g., vision, audition)(e.g., vision, audition)

Could changes in attention Could changes in attention account for some domain-specific account for some domain-specific developmental changes? developmental changes? (e.g., (e.g., number, physics)number, physics)

Early Visual Attention: Early Visual Attention: MethodsMethods

Changes in looking time or speed of Changes in looking time or speed of orienting as a measure of attentional orienting as a measure of attentional effects: Video demonstrationeffects: Video demonstration

Attention: Maturational Attention: Maturational AccountsAccounts

Successive maturation of attentional Successive maturation of attentional processes (and pathways):processes (and pathways):

Bronson (1974):Bronson (1974): Exogenous = driven by the environmentExogenous = driven by the environment vs. Endogenous processes = driven by vs. Endogenous processes = driven by

internal representationsinternal representations [Brain: Subcortical vs. cortical mechanisms][Brain: Subcortical vs. cortical mechanisms]

Atkinson (1984, 2000):Atkinson (1984, 2000): Exogenous vs. endogenous processesExogenous vs. endogenous processes [Brain: Subcortical and cortical mechanisms [Brain: Subcortical and cortical mechanisms

for 1. eye and head movement; 2. reaching for 1. eye and head movement; 2. reaching and grasping]and grasping]

Evidence for maturation: The Evidence for maturation: The newbornnewborn

Unlike later patterns of eye-movements (saccades), newborns produce:Unlike later patterns of eye-movements (saccades), newborns produce:

Saccadic pursuit tracking: step-like and lagging behind moving stimuli Saccadic pursuit tracking: step-like and lagging behind moving stimuli (Aslin, 1981)(Aslin, 1981)

Preferential orienting to the temporal field under monocular viewing conditions Preferential orienting to the temporal field under monocular viewing conditions (Braddick et al., 1992)(Braddick et al., 1992)

=> exogenously-driven processes [sub-cortical neural bases]=> exogenously-driven processes [sub-cortical neural bases]

Evidence for maturationEvidence for maturation: : 1 to 3-month-olds1 to 3-month-olds

In contrast, 1 to 3 month-olds exhibit:In contrast, 1 to 3 month-olds exhibit: Onset of smooth pursuit tracking Onset of smooth pursuit tracking (Aslin, 1981)(Aslin, 1981)

Increased sensitivity to nasally presented stimuliIncreased sensitivity to nasally presented stimuli Obligatory attention (“sticky” fixation): slower in disengaging from a central stimuli Obligatory attention (“sticky” fixation): slower in disengaging from a central stimuli

(Stechler & Latz, 1966; Hood & Atkinson, 1993)(Stechler & Latz, 1966; Hood & Atkinson, 1993)

Central

Stimulus

Peripheral

Stimulus+ =

1

Anticipatory saccades Anticipatory saccades (Haith et al., 1988; Wentworth & Haith, (Haith et al., 1988; Wentworth & Haith, 1998)1998)

Inhibition of automatic saccades Inhibition of automatic saccades (Johnson, 1995)(Johnson, 1995)

Time

OR2

Infants decrease looking towards the cue only Infants decrease looking towards the cue only in 1. in 1.

Evidence for maturation: Evidence for maturation: 3 to 4-month-olds3 to 4-month-olds

Gradual improvements:Gradual improvements: Faster facilitation towards peripherally-cued locations Faster facilitation towards peripherally-cued locations (Johnson & Tucker, 1996)(Johnson & Tucker, 1996)

Using central cues to direct attention Using central cues to direct attention (Johnson et al., 1991)(Johnson et al., 1991)

Ability to withhold orienting towards locations Ability to withhold orienting towards locations (Gilmore & Johnson, 1995)(Gilmore & Johnson, 1995)

=> Driven by internal (endogenous) representations [more cortically-guided]=> Driven by internal (endogenous) representations [more cortically-guided]

Evidence for maturation: Evidence for maturation: Through the 1st yearThrough the 1st year

Johnson (1990, 2000):Johnson (1990, 2000):

Precise sequence of behaviours Precise sequence of behaviours driven by the maturation of driven by the maturation of primary visual cortex (=> primary visual cortex (=> experience-driven?):experience-driven?):

1.1. Not mature at birth Not mature at birth

2.2. Inside-out pattern of maturationInside-out pattern of maturation

3.3. Lower layers project more strongly to MT Lower layers project more strongly to MT than to prefrontal cortexthan to prefrontal cortex

4.4. Frontal projections are slowest to matureFrontal projections are slowest to mature

Attention: “Maturational” Attention: “Maturational” Accounts?Accounts?

Johnson Johnson (1990, 2000)(1990, 2000)::Maturation of multiple Maturation of multiple

processes and processes and pathways:pathways:

1.1. Retina to superior colliculus Retina to superior colliculus (SC)(SC)

2.2. V1 and Middle Temporal area V1 and Middle Temporal area to SCto SC

3.3. Basal ganglia to SCBasal ganglia to SC4.4. Frontal eye-fieldsFrontal eye-fields5.5. Parietal cortex Parietal cortex 6.6. Dorsolateral prefrontal cortexDorsolateral prefrontal cortex

Driven by maturation Driven by maturation of layers of V1 of layers of V1 (experience-(experience-driven)?driven)?

Retina

DLPFC

FEF PC

V1

MTSC

BG

1122

33

44

5566

Attention: “Maturational” Attention: “Maturational” Accounts?Accounts?

Maturational accounts: Maturational accounts: LimitationsLimitations

Onset of functioning is not all-or-Onset of functioning is not all-or-none:none: E.g., evidence of endogenous processing in E.g., evidence of endogenous processing in

newborns (pattern recognition, orientation newborns (pattern recognition, orientation discrimination, discrimination, e.g. reviewed in Atkinson, 2000e.g. reviewed in Atkinson, 2000))

[Brain: Frontal cortices involved in [Brain: Frontal cortices involved in perceptual processing early in development perceptual processing early in development (electrophysiological markers, (electrophysiological markers, Csibra et al., 2000)]Csibra et al., 2000)]

Prediction of sequences, rather Prediction of sequences, rather than static ages of onsetthan static ages of onset

Dynamic interactions across Dynamic interactions across processes are poorly understoodprocesses are poorly understood

Accounts of Attentional Accounts of Attentional Development: SummaryDevelopment: Summary

Body of evidence seems to suggest Body of evidence seems to suggest successive maturation of successive maturation of attentional processes (although attentional processes (although some suggest partly-driven by some suggest partly-driven by visual experience)visual experience)

Mhmm… Mhmm…

Can attentional processes be Can attentional processes be modified by training / experience? modified by training / experience? Are they under genetic influences?Are they under genetic influences?

Beyond Infancy: What Beyond Infancy: What develops?develops?

Are there later changes in attentional Are there later changes in attentional processes?processes?

Executive controlExecutive control (Rueda et al., 2005) (Rueda et al., 2005)



Executive controlExecutive control (Rueda et al., 2005) (Rueda et al., 2005)



Executive control: genetic Executive control: genetic influences?influences?


Are there later changes in Are there later changes in attentional processes?attentional processes?

Attentional capacityAttentional capacity The task: Are “X” or “N” present in the The task: Are “X” or “N” present in the

centre (ignore peripheral irrelevant stim.)?centre (ignore peripheral irrelevant stim.)?Low load: high interference from distractor that conflicts with target

High load: lower interference!

X

N

Irrelevant distractor, conflicts with central target identity

XY

T

O

Z

RF

N


In adultsIn adults (e.g., Lavie & Cox, 1997)(e.g., Lavie & Cox, 1997)


In adults:In adults:

Perceptual load of a visual display Perceptual load of a visual display “uses up” available attentional “uses up” available attentional capacity capacity (Lavie, 1995, 2000)(Lavie, 1995, 2000):: Low perceptual load: irrelevant peripheral Low perceptual load: irrelevant peripheral

stimuli cannot be ignored very easilystimuli cannot be ignored very easily High perceptual load: irrelevant peripheral High perceptual load: irrelevant peripheral

stimuli are ignoredstimuli are ignored


Gradual changes in attentional capacity Gradual changes in attentional capacity over developmentover development

Childhood: Childhood: (Huang-Pollock et al. 2002)(Huang-Pollock et al. 2002)

At low loadAt low load, children’s performance was poorer than , children’s performance was poorer than adults (more affected by irrelevant distractors, due to adults (more affected by irrelevant distractors, due to poorer executive control) poorer executive control)

At high loadAt high load, children's performance was as efficient as , children's performance was as efficient as adults‘ (their attentional capacity was “taken up” by adults‘ (their attentional capacity was “taken up” by the central load), the central load),

=> Gradual changes in both executive control and => Gradual changes in both executive control and attentional capacity from childhood to adulthoodattentional capacity from childhood to adulthood

Training effects? Genetic influences?Training effects? Genetic influences?

Beyond Infancy: SummaryBeyond Infancy: Summary

Beyond infancy, there are gradual Beyond infancy, there are gradual changes in:changes in:

Executive controlExecutive control Attentional capacityAttentional capacity

Thoughts for considerationThoughts for consideration Can these be modified by Can these be modified by

training?training? Are they under genetic Are they under genetic

influences?influences? How would they impact How would they impact

development in other domains?development in other domains?

ReferencesReferences Aslin, R.N. (1981). Development of smooth pursuit in human infants. In Aslin, R.N. (1981). Development of smooth pursuit in human infants. In

D.F. Fischer, R.A. Monty, and J.W. Senders (Eds.), Eye movements: D.F. Fischer, R.A. Monty, and J.W. Senders (Eds.), Eye movements: Cognition and visual perception, pp. 31-51. Hillsdale: Erlbaum.Cognition and visual perception, pp. 31-51. Hillsdale: Erlbaum.

Atkinson (1984). Human visual development over the first 6 months of Atkinson (1984). Human visual development over the first 6 months of life. A review and a hypothesis. Human Neurobiology, 3, 61-74.life. A review and a hypothesis. Human Neurobiology, 3, 61-74.

Atkinson, J. (2000). The Developing Visual Brain, Oxford: OUP. Atkinson, J. (2000). The Developing Visual Brain, Oxford: OUP. Braddick, O.J., Atkinson, J., Hood, B., Harkness, W., Jackson, G., & Braddick, O.J., Atkinson, J., Hood, B., Harkness, W., Jackson, G., &

Vargha-Khadem, F. (1992). Possible blindsight in infants lacking one Vargha-Khadem, F. (1992). Possible blindsight in infants lacking one cerebral hemisphere. Nature, 360, 461-3.cerebral hemisphere. Nature, 360, 461-3.

Braun, J., Koch, C., & Davis, C.L. (2001). (Eds.) Visual attention and Braun, J., Koch, C., & Davis, C.L. (2001). (Eds.) Visual attention and cortical circuits, 49-68. Cambridge: MIT Press.cortical circuits, 49-68. Cambridge: MIT Press.

Brodeur, D. & Enns, J.T. (1997). Covert visual orienting across the Brodeur, D. & Enns, J.T. (1997). Covert visual orienting across the lifespan. Canadian Journal of Experimental Psychology, 51, 20-35. lifespan. Canadian Journal of Experimental Psychology, 51, 20-35.

Bronson, G.W. (1974). The postnatal growth of visual capacity. Child Bronson, G.W. (1974). The postnatal growth of visual capacity. Child Development, 45, 873-890.Development, 45, 873-890.

Csibra, G., Davis, G., Spratling, M.W., & Johnson, M.H. (2000). Gamma Csibra, G., Davis, G., Spratling, M.W., & Johnson, M.H. (2000). Gamma oscillations and object processing in the infant brain. Science, 290, oscillations and object processing in the infant brain. Science, 290, 1582-5.1582-5.

ReferencesReferences Diamond, A. (2001). A model system for studying the role of dopamine in the Diamond, A. (2001). A model system for studying the role of dopamine in the

prefrontal cortex during early development in humans: Early and continuously prefrontal cortex during early development in humans: Early and continuously treated phenylketonuria. In C.A. Nelson and M. Luciana (Eds), Handbook of treated phenylketonuria. In C.A. Nelson and M. Luciana (Eds), Handbook of Developmental Cognitive Neuroscience, pp. 433-472. Cambridge: MIT Press.Developmental Cognitive Neuroscience, pp. 433-472. Cambridge: MIT Press.

Enns, J.T. (1993). What can be learnt about attention from studying its Enns, J.T. (1993). What can be learnt about attention from studying its development? Canadian Psychology, 34, 271-281. development? Canadian Psychology, 34, 271-281.

Enns, J.T., Brodeur, D.A., & Trick, L.M. (1998). Selective attention over the life-Enns, J.T., Brodeur, D.A., & Trick, L.M. (1998). Selective attention over the life-span: behavioural measures. In J.E. Richards (Ed) Cognitive Neuroscience of span: behavioural measures. In J.E. Richards (Ed) Cognitive Neuroscience of Attention: A developmental perspective, pp.393-418. LEA: London.Attention: A developmental perspective, pp.393-418. LEA: London.

Farroni, T., Csibra, G., Simion, F., & Johnson, M.H. (2002). Eye contact detection Farroni, T., Csibra, G., Simion, F., & Johnson, M.H. (2002). Eye contact detection in humans from birth. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences U S A, in humans from birth. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences U S A, 99, 9602-5.99, 9602-5.

Gilmore, R.O., & Johnson, M.H.(1995). Working memory in infancy: six-month-Gilmore, R.O., & Johnson, M.H.(1995). Working memory in infancy: six-month-olds' performance on two versions of the oculomotor delayed response task. olds' performance on two versions of the oculomotor delayed response task. Journal of Experimental Child Psychology, 59, 397-418.Journal of Experimental Child Psychology, 59, 397-418.

Haith, M.M., Hazan, C., & Goodman, G.S. (1988). Expectation and anticipation of Haith, M.M., Hazan, C., & Goodman, G.S. (1988). Expectation and anticipation of dynamic visual events by 3.5-month-old babies. Child Development, 59, 467-79.dynamic visual events by 3.5-month-old babies. Child Development, 59, 467-79.

Halit H, de Haan M, Johnson MH. (2003). Cortical specialisation for face Halit H, de Haan M, Johnson MH. (2003). Cortical specialisation for face processing: face-sensitive event-related potential components in 3- and 12-processing: face-sensitive event-related potential components in 3- and 12-month-old infants. Neuroimage, 19, 1180-93.month-old infants. Neuroimage, 19, 1180-93.

ReferencesReferences Hood, B.M. (1993). Inhibition of return produced by covert shifts of visual Hood, B.M. (1993). Inhibition of return produced by covert shifts of visual

attention in 6-month-old infants. Infant Behavior & Development, 16, 245-254.attention in 6-month-old infants. Infant Behavior & Development, 16, 245-254. Hood, B.M., & Atkinson, J. (1993). Disengaging visual attention in the infant and Hood, B.M., & Atkinson, J. (1993). Disengaging visual attention in the infant and

adult. Infant Behaviour and Development, 16, 405-422.adult. Infant Behaviour and Development, 16, 405-422. Huang-Pollock, C.L., Carr, T.H., & Nigg, J.T. (2002). Development of selective Huang-Pollock, C.L., Carr, T.H., & Nigg, J.T. (2002). Development of selective

attention: perceptual load influences early versus late attentional selection in attention: perceptual load influences early versus late attentional selection in children and adults. Developmental Psychology, 38, 363-75.children and adults. Developmental Psychology, 38, 363-75.

James, W. (1890/1950). The Principles of Psychology. Volume I: Chapter XI: James, W. (1890/1950). The Principles of Psychology. Volume I: Chapter XI: Attention. Online resources, www. emory.edu. Attention. Online resources, www. emory.edu.

Johnson, M.H. (1990). Cortical maturation and the development of visual attention Johnson, M.H. (1990). Cortical maturation and the development of visual attention in early infancy. Journal of Cognitive Neuroscience, 2, 81-95.in early infancy. Journal of Cognitive Neuroscience, 2, 81-95.

Johnson, M.H. (1995). The inhibition of automatic saccades in early infancy. Johnson, M.H. (1995). The inhibition of automatic saccades in early infancy. Developmental Psychobiology, 28, 281-91. Developmental Psychobiology, 28, 281-91.

Johnson, M.H. (2001). Functional brain development in humans. Nature Reviews Johnson, M.H. (2001). Functional brain development in humans. Nature Reviews Neuroscience, 2, 475-483. Neuroscience, 2, 475-483.

Johnson, M.H., Posner, M.I., & Rothbart, M.K. (1991). Components of visual Johnson, M.H., Posner, M.I., & Rothbart, M.K. (1991). Components of visual orienting in early infancy: Contingency learning, anticipatory looking, and orienting in early infancy: Contingency learning, anticipatory looking, and disengaging. Journal of Cognitive Neuroscience, 3, 335-344.disengaging. Journal of Cognitive Neuroscience, 3, 335-344.

Johnson, M.H. & Tucker, L. A. (1996). The development and temporal dynamics of Johnson, M.H. & Tucker, L. A. (1996). The development and temporal dynamics of spatial orienting in infants. Journal of Experimental Child Psychology, 63, 171-88. spatial orienting in infants. Journal of Experimental Child Psychology, 63, 171-88.

ReferencesReferences Lavie, N. (1995). Perceptual load as a necessary condition for selective attention. Lavie, N. (1995). Perceptual load as a necessary condition for selective attention.

Journal of Experimental Psychology: Human Perception and Performance, 21, 451-Journal of Experimental Psychology: Human Perception and Performance, 21, 451-68.68.

Lavie, N. (2000). Selective attention and cognitive control: dissociating attentional Lavie, N. (2000). Selective attention and cognitive control: dissociating attentional functions through different types of load. In S. Monsell and J. Driver, (Eds.), Control functions through different types of load. In S. Monsell and J. Driver, (Eds.), Control of Cognitive Processes, Attention and Performance XVIII, pp. 175-194. MIT Press: of Cognitive Processes, Attention and Performance XVIII, pp. 175-194. MIT Press: Cambridge.Cambridge.

Maylor, E.A., & Lavie, N. (1998). The influence of perceptual load on age differences Maylor, E.A., & Lavie, N. (1998). The influence of perceptual load on age differences in selective attention. Psychology of Aging, 13, 563-73.in selective attention. Psychology of Aging, 13, 563-73.

Maurer, D. & Young, R.E. (1983). The scanning of compound figures by young Maurer, D. & Young, R.E. (1983). The scanning of compound figures by young infants. Journal of Experimental Child Psychology, 35, 437-448. infants. Journal of Experimental Child Psychology, 35, 437-448.

Parasuraman, R. (1998). The attentive brain. Cambridge: MIT Press.Parasuraman, R. (1998). The attentive brain. Cambridge: MIT Press. Stechler, G. & Latz, E. (1966). Some observations on attention and arousal in the Stechler, G. & Latz, E. (1966). Some observations on attention and arousal in the

human infant. Journal of the American Academy of Child Psychiatry, 5, 517-525.human infant. Journal of the American Academy of Child Psychiatry, 5, 517-525. Trick, L.T., & Enns, J.T. (1998).Lifespan changes in attention: Visual search. Trick, L.T., & Enns, J.T. (1998).Lifespan changes in attention: Visual search.

Cognitive Development, 13, 369-386.Cognitive Development, 13, 369-386. Trick, L.T., Enns, J.T., & Brodeur, D. (1996). Lifespan changes in visual Trick, L.T., Enns, J.T., & Brodeur, D. (1996). Lifespan changes in visual

enumeration: The number discrimination task. Developmental Psychology, 32, 925-enumeration: The number discrimination task. Developmental Psychology, 32, 925-932.932.

Valenza, E., Simion, F. & Umilta’, C. (1994). Inhibition of return in the newborn Valenza, E., Simion, F. & Umilta’, C. (1994). Inhibition of return in the newborn infant. Infant Behavior and Development, 17, 293-302.infant. Infant Behavior and Development, 17, 293-302.

Walsh, V. (2003). A theory of magnitude: common cortical metrics of time, space Walsh, V. (2003). A theory of magnitude: common cortical metrics of time, space and quantity. Trends in Cognitive Science, 7, 483-488.and quantity. Trends in Cognitive Science, 7, 483-488.

Wentworth, N., & Haith M.M. (1998). Infants' acquisition of spatiotemporal Wentworth, N., & Haith M.M. (1998). Infants' acquisition of spatiotemporal expectations. Developmental Psychology, 34, 247-57. expectations. Developmental Psychology, 34, 247-57.

Documents

Attentional Processes Gaia Scerif Room 426, Ext. 67926 [email protected] Office Hours: Thurs 12-2