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ATOLL RISEARCH BTJLLETIN
6. The Agriculture of Arno k-toll, Marshall Is lands
Issued by
PACIFIC SCIENCE BOARD
Na5onal Iiesearch Council
Nashingt,on, D. C.
November 15, 1951
C O N T E N T S -------- The Onneral. Agricultural Scene
Physical Sett ing Agriculture
Plants and t h e i r Fbilization Cucowt, l W i f l
Culture Copra Production Uses as Food Other Tses Yactors Affecting Production
'Fjeadfruit, ~ijd.1~ Culture Uses a s Food %her TJses Factors Affecting Production
Pandanus, f l~i jp" Culture Uses a s Food Other Uses Fac50rs P.f f ecting Production
Taro and Other Araceous Flants Colocasia Cyrtosperma: Culture Uses as Food Cyrtosperma: Factors Affecting Growth 'liocasia Polynesia? Arrowroot, "i:akr;lZkn
Banana Culture Use Factors Affecting Production
Papa2.a and Lfxe Okher Introduced Food. Plants Other Introduced Tlants Intligenous P la t s of Value
Livestock Poultry Sisine
Wood Supplies and Requirements Forest Situations Species ad Uses Constrwtlon Requirements Future Neasures
Food Supplies and Nctrftion
S m a r y of the Agricul twal Situation
To the ecologically ini.nded t h e low islands appear a s a -unique habi ta t
f o r man, ail enviroment not harsh but marked by lack of d ivers i ty and, i n
inany respects, by monotony. Here i s a climate so equable t h a t t h e average
temperature f o r any month departs not aore than a degree from the yearly
mean, a l a ~ d r e s t r i c t ed i n s i ze and r e l i e f , domj.fiated by t i e sea, and made
up alxost en t i r e ly of or~e rraterizl -- calcium carbonate. U2on t h i s are
s o i l s uniforinly calcareous and d i f fe r ing chiefly i n texture and degree o f . -
maturity. Distailce, s o i l s and the sea s a l t have sharply r e s t r i c t s d the
number of land dweiiing plants arLd aniiaals, and so liaitsd =ants choice
of foods and inaterials.
n m IH$ GGEiUZRAL BGRICULTUR.2L SCENE
Physical SeSFng
The climate, hydrology and s o i l s of Arno Atoll a r e described i n
other reports but may be summarized a s background thus: The mean annual
temperature presmably i s alnost i den t i ca l with t h a t of J e l u i t , t h a t is
80" F., with monthly means devidting about + lo. rZainfall i? some - lzO imhes , 2ossibl:r higher, ra ther well distributed. out with a tendency
f o r a dry ~ e r i o d betwesn Jamary and Xarch. High humidity and high degree
of cloud coverage a q p e n t s t ne e f f e c t s of r a i n f a l l , whereas the more or
l e s s constant winds, coarse textwed s ~ i l s and shoiit tern (e.g. one week)
periods of dryweather sornethes lead t o a moistwe s t r e s s i n plants.
Since the gromcl rrater scm:only occurs three t o six f e e t below the s o i l
surface i t s s a l i n i t y i s a major f ac to r controlling the d i s t r ibu t ion of
deep rooted vegetation. shallow rooted plants, however, draw upon the
rainwater held i n the s o i l .
Agriculture . .
Like other aspects of th- Atoll , t h e agr icul ture is marked by . . . . , . . . ...
simplicity. There i s no sharp separation between agr icul ture and non- . ..
agricul tural plants and, t o b!estern eyes, cul ture i s a somewhat casual . . . ~ . ' . . . .
a f f a i r a t best . A t f i r s t glance the coconut dominates the agriculture as
it does t he landscape but there a r e other components t o both. A shrub
be l t l i n e s tne seaward shores and takes possessionof lands too s a l t y o r
too new for other vegetation. i n the i n t e r i o r s of the wider is lands a r e
breadfruit , sometimes i n groves o r often scattered, with a var ie ty of other
plants beneath. I n t h i s zone, too, a r e t he old excavations made t o provide
sui table growing conditions f o r t a ro f o r here t he groundwater i s la rge ly
f ree of s a l t . Nixed with the breadfruit a r e tall coconut palms and these
form extensive groves around the zone and along the narrow lands . adjoining. .
Various wri ters have described t h e agr icul ture of t h e a t o l l s a s
consisting of t r e e and root crops -- coconuts, breadfruit , pandanus and
bananas, together with t a ro and Polynesian arrowroot. In a general sense
t h i s is t rue but on Brno the taro has l o s t most of i t s former importance.'
Sweet potatoes are a r a r i t y and other t rop ica l root crops absent. Further,
poultry and, t o a i imited extent, pigs a r e par t of the casual husbandry.
Fish and seafoods provide the protein t he land does not. Over t he years
copra t raders , missionaries and former German and Japanese res idents have
introduced a la rge numberof p l a n t s . b ~ t , of these the weeds and ornamentals
have been most pers is tent .
Although the introduced plants have not great ly influenced the basic
agriculture, t he prolonged emphasis on copra production has. lniell before
t he beginning of "German times," t raders made copra a cqmmodity of value;.
under German and, l a t e r , Japanese administrations ~ e o p l e were "encouraged"
t o continually increzse the area of coconuts. Ultimately t h i s extension
eliminated the native fores t t h a t once covered the unused lands and
reduced the number of breadfruit and pandanus.
Other changes occurred during the ear ly period of niissionary ac t iv i ty
and G e m contact: Old men now l i v i n g say t h a t t he population diminished
great ly then, although t h i s i s unsupported by other evidence. Certainly a
population s h i f t occurred, with people moving t o lagoon shore and abandoning
the l e s s desirable house s i t e s on the seaside and is land center. The c u l t w e
of t a r o , once a s taple , diminished, very probably because the introducedhogs
bedam& very abundant and devastated the t a ro p i t s . The .coprabrought' goods
from the outside world and these gradually became essent ia ls . Under t he
influence of t rade, outside authority, and re l igion the established cul ture ,
changed, and the t rans i t ion from old ways t o new i s s t i l l in progress. ., . . ,. , . , .
PLANTS AND THEIR UTILIZATION
Coconut, " N i "
Although waving palms are almost synonymous w i t h a t o l l s , t he extensive
coconut groves a r e a s a r t i f i c i a l a s orchards and w i l l not pers i s t without . .
man's care. Under the influence of t he copra t rade, %ativel ' vegetation gave
way t o palm plantations wherever growth conditions were sui table; much of
t h i s occurred within t h e memory of men s t i l l l iv ing .
Culture
There has been l i t t l e varietal. se lect ion and most of t h e palms bear
nuts of mediocre s ize , although the people recognize differences such a s
nut color and e d i b i l i t y of the mature meat. Under Japanese inst ruct ion
l'diseased" t r e e s -.- presumbly sca le infested -- were cut, possibly reducing
the number of susceptibles. A l a rge f ru i ted coconut has been introduced
and i s found it? small numbers but t he re seems t o be no concerted attempt t o
increase t h i s variety.
The culture of the coconut i s simple but continuous. Hant ing
consis ts of removing a square of sod o r the loose rocks i f necessary
and placing the sprouting nut. The large amount of stored material i n the
nut gives r i s e t o a large seedling and even i n deep rubble the roots reach
down t o es tabl ish contact with s o i l moisture. Competing vegetation i s kept
down and t r e e s a r e said t o reach bearing age i n about f i ve years. Present
planting i s l a rge ly a matter of f i l l i n g i n occasional openings but i n
several areas the"palm$are o-rer-mature and replacements should be considered.
The coconut, of course, t o l e r a t e s considerable s a l t , possibly even benefit ing
Prom it, and palms have been planted over t he e n t i r e s a l i n i t y range, from
the-wide is land i n t e r i o r s t o areas too s a l t y f o r normal growth.
. . ! .~ . The groves require continual weeding f o r a l a rge var ie ty of woody
species soon spring up beneath t h e palms and i f unchecked coapete w i t h them,
as well a s making nut gathering almsst impossible. Hear the coasts and on
narrow lands Scae-cola, Hesserschmidia, Guettarda, Ochrosia and "wild"
pandanus are aggressive invaders whereas inland Allophyllus, Morinda,
Pipturus, Pandanus, a s well as some of the above f i l l i n beneath the palms. . .
I n plantations l e f t unharvested, par t icu la r ly those of t he i n t e r io r s ,
sprouting nuts soon make a sol id Kass of undergrowth. Periodic cut t ing i s
the o d y means of cor t ro l i ing t h i s vegetation. Once well cleared an area
can readily be maintained but when abandoned f o r a long period, a s many
plantations were i n t he l a t e r stages of t he war, strenuous e f fo r t s a r e
required. Often the coarse herbaceous vegetation, such a s Wedelia, is a l so
cleared. Usually t he brush i s burned, together with t he f a l l e n fronds.
Sometimes the p i l e s fo r burning a re placed over stumps or against undesirable
t r e e s so f i r e supplements t he machete. Quite f r e q ~ e n t l y , however, pa lm and
other useful t r e e s are scarred by careless burning. Whenthe emptied husks
and f a l l en fronds a r e heaped together burning i s of ten incomplete and the
l i g h t l y charred heaps decay naturally. Except f o r these, the signs of f i r e
disappear rapidlfr; woody and herbaceous sprouts soon mantle t he s o i l and the
profound ef fec t s of t he clearing may go la rge ly unappreciated by the casual ...
observer. . . ..
. . 'copra ~roducti '&
The major export product, of course, i s copra. According t o Lajiblok,
who has la rge ly transported the crop, t he monthly production f o r the a t o l l
i s about 53 tons but sometimes drops t o only 30-40 tons. These figures should
be r e l i i b i e but hate not been dtherwise verified. So f a r a s could be learned . . .
t h e v a r i a t i o n i n 'production i s not seasonal. A t the current price of $80 per . . .
ton t h e a t o l l income from ou&.d& 'sources i s much grea te r than might a t , .
f i r s t appear. . .
Sup~osing the average i h o a t ~ porluction t o b e 50 tons and estimating .. , . .
t ha t t h i s i s prbduced from 2,600 &re; (&ughly 5/8 of the t o t a l a t o l l area)
of coconuts worked f o r copra, t he average y i e ld would then be 0.3 tons per
acre per year, not a high figure. Further, i f we assume t h a t 2,500 acres i s . .
t he m a k i m h average"available f o r palm groves and 0.5 tons per acre per year ,. . . .
is t'he &aximwi a+era.ge yield i i k & t o be obtained, we f ind t h a t an annual . .
proiiu&ion of 1,200-1,300 to& of copra i s about t he m k x i m u m expected output
of the en t i re a t o l l under foreseeable cu l tura l practices. , . .. . ,
Copra production i s s l b w and tedious 'business but l e s s so when made . .. . .
a group a c t i v i t y as it often is. The f a l l en nuts a r e thrown in to heaps, . .
often using a sharp tipped "pickup s t i ck , " and husked on a f l a t pointed
husking stake. This is of any hard wood, sometimes shod with a Japanese-
made hollow s t e e l t i p , -and s e t firmly i n the ground. Later the nut i s
c rxked i s t o pieces and the meat pried from the she l l . A l l the copra %anu-
facture observed involved a r t i f i c i a l drying, a t l e a s t i n t he i n i t i a l stages.
The she l l s are excellent charcoal source and t h i s is somewhat i ne f f i c i en t ly
made by burning off t he vo la t i l e matter, often i n an o i l drum. The charcoal
i s then burned beneath the rack containing the th in ly spread coconut meat,
t h e e n t i r e rack being more o r l e s s closed t o conserve heat and regulate t he
d ra f t t9 the f i r e . With s k i l l , l i t t l e scorcning of t he copra occurs.. Further . .. .
drying i s generally by exposures t o t h e sun, e i ther i n racks o r on mats, e tc .
spread on the ground. The sacked copra i s transported t o concentration points
f o r l a t e r shipment.
There i s a wide var ia t ion j.n t he efficiency with which d i f fe ren t
individuals produce copra but t he average i s l o w . Some of the measures f o r
improvenent are obvious: (1 ) As a rough estimate, perhaps one-fourth of the
area now i n bearing age palms i s too th ick ly vegetated f o r effect ive nut
collection. Zxainples of th i s . may be seen on L'angar, a i k a r e i j and the western
portion of Ine Island a s well a s o n %-en1 and N a m w i Islands where reclearing
is now going on. On an addi t ional area the vegetation i s dense enough t o
i n t e r f e re t o some degree. The p o p l a t i o n s h i f t s and disturbances caused by the
war a r e a t l e a s t i n part responsible f o r t h i s but reciamation has been slow.
The pat tern of land I1ownershiptt a l so leads t o neglect of the areas remote from
t h e major Bringing a l l sui table a reas i n to normal production could
eas i ly increase the a t o i l l s copra output by one--third. (2 ) Although the
b e t t e r producers are aware tha t s p o u t e d nuts yie ld l e s s copra, t h e majority
seem untroubled by a high percentage of sprouting. The succulent t issue. f i l l -
ing the cavity of the sprouting nut, " i ~ , ~ ' is esten but it i s an expensive food
i n terms of copra. The mass and respirat ion of t he external sprout i t s e l f
represent sheer waste of copra without any reduction i n the amount of labor
necessary .to:.ext;ract the remainder. Periodic gathering of t he nuts and
storage. on sheltered racks t o allow absorption of t h e milk and prevent
sprouting is a practice Long recommendedeXsewhere. By t h i s means alone ari
increase of perhaps 1% i n copra wy&d be obtained without proportionate
increase i n labor. (3) A few producers have drying sheds, i .e. , roofed
buildings housing the dry racks, but t he majority get along with cruder and
of ten impromptu arrangements. It is undoubtedly e f fec t ive t o spread copra
on the mat i n t he sun f o r curing o r re-drying but chickens, pigs and sudden
showers a r e attendant hazards. Widespread adoption of t he best drying
pract ice already i n use i n t h e a t o l l would not increase t h e production great ly
but would reduce the laoor involved ai-~d contribute t o a higher qua l i ty product.
The above comments on increasing production concern only practices
already known t o the Arnoese and accep ted , in l a rge par t , by some of them.
Uses as-
. . The mature meat and dr ied copra are l e s s used f o r food than might be
thought. , S i n c e t n e frui . t ing occurs throughout the year t he o i l y nut is an
excellent emergency food and apparently has i t s greates t use i n between the
pandanus and breadfruit season. I n many cases copra f o r eat ing i s made of nuts
f rompar t icu la r t rees , apparently selected f o r tenderness and sweetness of the.
f l e sh . . The "iull from. t he sprouting nut cavity is eaten out of t h e hand and
also baked;; i t i s , e a t e n i n quant i ty when copra is being made. Coconut flcream"
squeezed from .the grated mature nut i s widely used i n cooking, 'pa r t icu la r ly of
the more elaborate dishes, but i s of only minor importance i n t e r n s of average
consumption per person. Although methods of extracting o i l from copra are knowr+
they a re tedious and it appears t h a t very l i t t l e i s made, despi te t he general
demand f o r cooking f a t s and h a i r pomade.
The immature nuts a r e used i n quant i ty f o r drinking, and the sof t sweet
f lesh i s comonly eaten as well. It would be d i f f i c u l t t o fa i - ly estimate
airerage consumptS.on over t h e a t o i l , f o r drinking nuts are usually ~ r o f f e r o d
the v i s i t o r a s routine courtesy; furthermore,,the w e ayay from t h e vi l lages ,
par t icu la r ly by men working i n t h e groves, i s greater than withi.n t h e
popdated arees . Nevertheless, t h e t o t a l i s great and perhaps is l imited
c l ~ i e f l y by t h e necessity of climbing the t r e e and of husking the nuts i f . .
the:r are t o be carr ied. , .
Another wide2.y inown beverage f roa the coconut i s t h e palm sap,
obtained from the "flower stalk." Before the fl.owers emerge from t h e l a rge
elongate bud the t i p i s cut off and the juice flow observed. I f sa t i s fac tory
the l ea fy covering (spathe) i s wrapped with twine t o preveat opening except
near t he t i p luhkre it i s cut away, exposing the spadix within. Thi-s i s a lso
wrapped and hen$ dowma.rd in to a container; the sap flows from the cut surface,
xhich i s renewed by cut t ing each time the sap i s collected. To facil- i tate. . ..,
collection, palns r e g ~ l L a ~ l y l%ap~ed ' t are notched w i t f l snal lowsteps the length
of the trunk. On hrna t he f resh sugary l i qu id , ":ekara," i s drunk f resh o r
occasionally boiled down t o a s p u p hhving a character is t ic f iauor. I n t h e
l a t t e r form j.t . , can b e . kept f o r long periods,, by occasionally reheating;. and .
' serves a s a . sweetening. . According t o Spoehr, on Kajuro, j e1cara . i~ consumed i n . .
quantity but casual observations on Arno suggest t h a t t ne average cocsumption
here i s qu i t e low. The sap ferments veiy rapidly and, of course, provides
one of the pr incipal alcoholic drinks throughout t he range of t he palm. The . . . .
Arnoese, although they ,nay jes t about this product lljemanin,ll a r e re luctant t o
concede t h a t it might be produced by anyone on the a t o l l . Tnis i s understand-
able, i f not al together credibie, f o r both the missionary influence and the
Nandate t e rxs have worked against demon rim.
Other Uses ---- The meat from both co2ra and drinking nuts i s often fed t o chickens and
pigs, e i ther as scr& b r a s s~~b~! . emen ta r~ feeds. Surplus "iun from copra
making i s '&so f e d t o pigs.
30th the husks and t h e la rge leaves of t h e coconut r a t e a s ca jor
products. 'The d.ried husks: convenient i n s ize and i n abundance, a r e the major
fue l par t icular ly i n t he well s e t t l e d places o r where t he groves a r e kept f r e e
of other vegetation. The husks are a lso the source of twine (sennet) and rope.
The long vascular f i be r s a r e freed by r e t t i ng the husks f o r a t l e a s t one o r two
months. I f l e t stand for only the lllinimwi time the husks must be pounded t o
f r e e t he f i be r s whereas with longer r e t t i ng the f i b e r s can be rubbed f r ee of
the decompsed husks i n seawater. The r e t t i ng apparently takes place sat isfac-
t o r i l y i n s a l t , bratkish, o r f resh water for all three are used. Husks may be
buried neu the high t i d e l eve l on s t ab l e beaches usually along the lagoon s i d ~
Inland are r e t t i ng p i t s , "tou," dug below the groundwater l eve l , e i t he r f resh
o r brackish. Cften the tou i s located i n a naturai depression and it may be
only a muddy spot i n an old t a r o p<t o r brackish swamp although, according t o ..
legend, a tou on Ul-en' Island was 'conveniently excavated bj a s t a r .
The washed and dried f ibe r o r co i r i s made i n t o a two strand twine,
s i n n e t . Each s t rand i s firmed endlessly by repeatedly adding groups (15 t o 25)
of t he long '&ra l le l f i be r s t o i t s untwisted end, each addition and i t s juncture
be& twisted by ro l l i ng between pdlm and thigh. The addit ions a r e made
a l te rna te ly t o t he two strands and between addit ions t he strands i n tu rn are
ro l led together t o form the twine. The prodwt is a tough cord t h a t may be . .
used f b r l e s h i n g , a s on canoes and houses, o r braided in to a strong and durable . . . .
rope. . .
The p e h leaves l ikek ise provide a f i be r although of m ~ c h l e s s importance
than sennet. The epidermal laj-ers of t he f l a t u&er surface of t he frond midrib
a r e str ipped f ree of t he coarse t i s s u e s below t o give a strong, somewhat
b r i t t l e , s t r a p several f ee t long. T h i s is chief ly used on the spot, ra ther than
a s a permanent rope, but f inds consicierable use. Epidermis peeled from the
individual l e a f l e t s twis ts i n t o long f lex ib le f i be r s used ch ie f ly f o r Sine
weaving.
The ?la: leaf!.ets of the frond a r e read2lg woven and from a &.m l ea f an
Arno resident of any age can usually produce a basket of &most any proportions.
The l e a f l e t s are l e f t attached t o t he portion of the midrib which serves a s a
r i m o f t h e basket. !Although considered ~ u c h infer ior t o the pandanus, coconut
fronds arid stripped 1 e a f l e . t ~ can be quicW2r woven in to matting o r panels f o r
temporary house construction. The d7y:fiatured midribs a r e s t i f f and a re some-
t i n e s used as r a f t e r s i n house construction. The trcnk i s only occasionally
used i n house construction. It was once common t o chop a cavity i n the palm
base t o catch water flowing dokn the stem. This "enunak" was fur ther enlarged by . .
decay and ultimately contributed t o the destruction of t h e t r e e . Although these
cav i t ies a r e s t i l l found on older palms they have long sirice been supphnted by
c i s t e r m and o i l d r u m . The juice squeezed from t h s green husks i s considered
of varue i n reducing the i r r i t a t i n g properties (presumably caused by calcium
oxalate c r y s t d s ) i n t he prepared roots of klocasia. If the juice i s indeed
effect ive. t h i s cannot be due t o i t s ac id i ty , fo r samples .tested were above p~5uS.
F a c t o r s A f f e c t i n ~ Production
A s mentioned, t he red coconut sca le i s present a s well a s a l ea f spot but
we saw no severe infestatioris of e i ther . Hore serious pests, such a s the
rhinoceros beetle, are absent. Zffective quarantines would minimize the l i k e l i -
hood of introducing major pests found elsewhere in ttie Pacif ic , bc t it i s
doubtful t h a t native shipping can ever be well ins2ected. . . . .
Areas of Npoorl' coconuts &e found on the islands of N m n , U1-enf,
L'angar and Arno. On &-en' a portion of the affected area i s adjacent t o an
inland s a l t y pool, ar,d is said t o be flooded by t h e highest t ides . Excessive
s a l i n i t y a lso probably accoWts f o r similar symptoms observed on the younger
portions of N a m w i . On L'angar a malady l o c a l l y a t t r ibu ted t o the presence of
demons causes yeilowing, poor f ru i t i ng and ea r ly mortal i ty on a t r a c t of perhaps
f i v e acres i n t h e i n t e r io r . The presence of excessive s a l i n i t y i s perhaps as
l i k e l y a s t ha t of demons out t he s o i l samples have not yet been analyzed for . .
e i the r . I n t ravel ing, small areas of yel;ow palm fo l iage have been noticed on . .
. . . . . other islands but, on t h e whole, s a l i n i t y i s only a minor problem i n t he coconut
, .
groves and cer ta in ly one not read i ly remedied.
A t r a c t of several acres i n t he i n t e r i o r of Arno Island i s characterized
by ear ly bsrrenness and gradual death of t he palms. According t o t he Headman
of the vi l lage t h i s condition has always existed i n the same area, t he coconuts
being maintained only by continuous planting. There are no v i s ib l e evidences
of insects o r pathogens and the character is t ic l e a f symptoms d i f f e r fromthose .. .
observed i n sa l ine areas. Breadfruit t r e e s growing anong the dying p a l m appear .. . . . .
t o be unaffected. The appearance and depth of sandy s o i l s do not d i f f e r from .. .
adjacent areas where palms a re normal but the long persistence of t he malady
within def in i te boundaries suggests some s o i l relationship. These s o i l s a r e
re la t ive ly removed from the shore and seem t o be among the oldest on the a t o l l ; . . .
nutr ient deficiency i s a t l e a s t a poss ib i l i ty and forthcoming analyses of so i l ... . . . . . .
samples may help c l a r i f y t h i s problem. The exact acreage affected cannot be
well estimated because of interspersions of breadfrui t groves and secondary . . . ..., . - . . : .. . . .
fores t ; these, however, a r e said t o be so abundant because of f a i l u r e of the
palms. The l o s s i n coconut production i s t o some degree compensated for by
growth of such other Sp6cies and t h e s i p p l e s t i b l u t ~ o n i s t o give up t ry ing
t o grow cosonuts within t h i s area. Attempts t o discover t he cause of the
malady would be worthwhile, however, fo r i t may &;l be found on other a t o l l s , . ..
and i t s ameliorafion may not prove ciiff icult . Some comments on cdhra production' have d&dy been made. A fu r ther
need i s a replacement program t o eliminate older t r e e s past t he peak of
bearing. I f va r i e t i e s .su$erior t o ihose now i n use c& be found, t h e i r
es$?blishment. %uld Iogicdl ly be- coupled with such a replaceme& program.
The introduction of l a rge f r e t e d s t r a in s might help reduce the labor in-
vo.lved i n m p r a manufacture even though no yield increase resulted. The
poss ib i l i t y of finding higher yielding var ie t ies i s worth exploring f u l l y
but t he l imita t ions of t h e a t o l l s o i l s and t h e i r d i ss imi la r i ty from those of
most commercial planting areas should be borne in mind.
Breadfruit , "I@! ' ' --"- . .
Wherever i t s origin, the bpeadfruit, l i k e t h e cocorkt, i s well adapted
t o , t he a t o l l habitat . The breadfi-uit i s ch&acterist ic 'of t he i n t e r i o r s of
t he wider lands although i tmay'grow almost t o the beach when conditions are . .
sui table . It. i s t he comdn tr'e6:along walks and se t t l ed areas. Its dis t r ibu-
t i g n i s almost cer ta inly r e l a t ed t o ' the s a l i r ' i i l ; y ' f t h e (see report . .
of Hyd~ologis t ) and it i s .no t found i n t h e narrowlands o r obviously s a l t y areas.
A t l e a s t s i x well-recognized var ie t ies are grown on t h i s a to l l . Fru i t
charac te r i s t ics Seem'to be most dependable c r i t e r i a f o r iden t i f ica t ion although . . .
l e a f form i s indicativg except f o r 'bkcas5onkl inconsistindies. No differences i n . ,. :
t r e e form a re associated .wits Variety, according' to t he ~ r n o e s e , and there are
only minor differences i n season!.& fT&ting. 'T& o r three va r i e t i e s have seeds;
t he remainder. are seedless. ' Examples o f var ie t ies with seeds a r e t he G t t a t a ,
which has leaves cut almost t o t he mnidpibs, and the Gjwan (Ni jwan) with large,
3-5 lob?d leaves, the lobes l imited t o t he d i s t a l ' half of t he leaves. Another
type of t h e Gjwan has en t i r e leaves. Tne BXtalctak i s the preferred seedless
var ie ty with a large, so l id f ru i t . It has la rge 5-lobed leaves, t he lower
lobes extending ' for perhaps two-thirds the length of t he l ea f . By contrast ,
t he m i n o n o i s named f o r the resemblance of the 7-9 narrowly lobed leaves t o
those of the kin6 ' f ir i i . Its f r u i t i s globose and regular, turning l i g h t ye!.low
when ready.
Around t h e older t r e e s young breadfruit a r i s e from seeds and root
suckers so replacement planting i s often unnecessary. Trees blown over usually
sprout vigorously from the root crown arid stem. The idea of vegetative repro-
duction i s understood and suckers from desirable va r i e t i e s a r e taken t o estab-
l i s h new t r ee s . Despite t h i s , va r i e t i e s said t o be l e s s desirable are s t i l l
abundant.
The culture of the breadfrui t is even more simple than t h a t of the , , . . . . . . . . . , . . .
coconut. Vegetation d i r ec t ly competing with t he young t r e e s is cut although . .
the plant to le ra tes a f a i r amount of sj.de shade from t a l l e r t r e e s and i s often
s ta r ted i n small openings. The t r e e grows rapidly, par t icu la r ly i f a sprout
from an exis t ing root system, and i t s own dense shade soon eliminates much of '.
the vegetation below. Thereafter no care i s given except as t he expanding
crown comes in to competition with l e s s desirable t r e e s which may, i n the course
of time, be removed.
. . Tree form i s great ly influenced by density. In the open o r with con- . .
tinuous removal of sid6 competit ionbreadfruit tends t o branch low and form a . .
massive crown. When crowded i n ' ybkh the lower branches shade of f ' and the t r e e . . ,
has a smaller, often ragged c r o h ' a n d t a l l columnar trunk. Such differences ..- . .
i n older t r e e s have interpret ive value i n revealing growth conditions a t an
e a r l i e r period.
S,I, . .ril peak of the bre;cifruj.t season i s fron; May t o 2uJ.j- b u t t he t r e e s . . .
continue t o bear i n decreasing amomts until December. Individual t r e e s vary in
duration of yie ld but there is L i t t l e v a r i e t a l difference. As might be e~pect~ed,
t he large crowned t r e e s tend t o be n~ore f r u i t f u l but a r e not necessari.ly nore
ea s i ly 'harvested. To "pick" the f r u i t a man climbs the t ree , often using a rope
t o reach the f i r s t branch. Most of t he f r u i t i s reached with a picking pole , .
some 20 f t . long, having a Y-shaped end t o th rus t against the f r u i t . With it,
o r by hand, t he f r u i t i s detached and f a l l s t o the ground.. In narrow crowned . . . ,, . .
t r e e s most of the f r u i t i s readi ly seer. and can be reached :6 th t he pole from
the central. trunk, whereas i n large spreading t r e e s nuch of t he f r u i t can be
reached only from more hazardous positions midway out on the l a rge r limbs. The
f r u i t s suffer much l e s s than might be expected from the 30 t o 60 foot fal.1 but
some are marred by exudation of the gummy l a t e x in to bruised areas. Needless
t o say, when the t r e e s overhanging walks are being picked the loca l t r a f f i c
e i t he r ha l t s or detours.
Used as Food
Durinp, the season of f r u i t i n g breadfruit i s the s ingle nost inportant
food on the a t o l l . For most purposes the green f r u i t is preferred and the most
comwn means of preparation, par t icu la r ly f g r the preferred BZtaktak variety, i s
baking over charcoal. After cooking che pineap~le--sized f r u i t i s scraped clean
and i s then ready t o be eaten or carried. The f r u i t may be cooked in a la rge
number of other ways, suggesting the use of both potatoes and bread. Ripe b r e a b
f r u i t i s sonewhat sweeter and has a de f in i t e f r u i t y t a s t e ; it i s prepared some-
what as a delicacy. The r&ther large (3 /4 - 1 " ) seeds of t he seeded forms a re
eaten with the cooked f r u i t but are not usually gathered f o r t h a t purFose when
freed by natural decay of the f r u i t .
Although the breadfruit i s perishable it i s preserved by methods
analogous t o ensil ing. The green latex--contaking epidermis i s scraped away,
t he f r u i t s l i c e d and soaked i n seawat'e. ',' llpon removal t h S m a t e r i d i s packed
t i g h t l y i n to leaf-lined p i t s and covered . l a th leaves which a re changed
regularly. Before use t he starchy paste i s thoroughly washed h: seawater t o
remove the fermented t a s t e , conbidered undesirable by the Narshallese.
Althoughthe method produces an acceptable foodstuff and is recognized a s a
means f o r preparing f o r t he lean months before t he next breadfruit season, it
does not seem t h a t very l a rge quant i t i es a r e stored i n this!way.
Other Uses' ---.-
Near the houses the f reshly f a l l en breadfruit leaves a r e of ten gathered
f o r wrapping f i s h , breadfruit paste, etc. , p r i o r t o baking. The milky l a t e x
t h a t . flows abundantly from bark wounds. was' once used, a f t e r hal'deffing, as
calking f o r cahoes; it i s now used only When prepared materials a r e not avail-.
able. The l a t e x can a l so serve as a bird iinte althougn mtnis i s of l i t t l e
consequence t o present-day people-. The wood of the breadfruit i s moderately
so f t , durable and withstands a l t e rna t e Wetting and drying. Further, it occurs
in long pieces of re la t ive ly la rge d i a ~ e t e r and so i s the universal choice f o r
canoe construction. Smaller diameter pieces and, occasionally, hand worked
timbers a r e used f o r house consti-uction.
Factors Affecting Productkn ------ So f a r a s observed the t r e e i t s e l f i s f r ee of major pests. Only
occasional instances of heart r o t were observed and t h e few dead t r e e s seen
were all past maturity. A malady a f fec t ing t h e f r u i t , resul t ing i n a p a r t i a l
decay and premature drop, was reported on Arno, Ine, and L'angar Islands, but
. , . . not on 61-en'. According t o Kotiel o f Arno and ~ o b a n of L'angar, t he malady
was first observed about 1948 and'affected a ia rge number of f r u i t s during t h e
f o l : L o ~ ~ ~ g two yea%; becoming l e s s severe ih.1950. Examination of fall.en f r u i t
shows a portion of tLe surface blackened with r o t extending inward. idhen the
. . stem o r t he ' cen t r a l ax% i s weakened t h e f r u i t f a l l s premsturely. The nature
of. t h f s :malady and it,s seriousness require a thorough investigation (see report
.of the Entomologist):
A s mentioned, t he d i s t r ibu t ion of breadfrui t i s cer ta in ly re la ted t o
ground water s a l i n i t y dtnough l i t t l e is ac tua l ly kno-m concerning depth of
rooting. ' Generally t he t r e e reach@s '&ax&um development i n the sheltered
in t e r io r o f wider isl.ands but large open-grown t r e e s are found i n s e t t l ed areas
and occasior,al:.y very close t o the beaches. It i s evident t ha t s a l i n i t y i n t h e
'
rooting zone w i l l be affected by permeabiiity of the underlying materidls,
depth of s o i l above the grbmd vjater and conditions controll ing the outward
flow of ground water, a s well aa by mere distance from the beach. I n some areas
(e tg . t he southern par t of ~ i k i r e i j v i l l age) t he t r e e s reach f a i r diameters but
appear stunted i n height and show dead wood i n t h e tops. Their appearance and
locat ion suggest s a l i n i t y a s a cause, serhaps act ing through recurring in jury
o r root r e s t r i c t i on awing dry periods ra ther than by continuous exposure. I n
t h i s connection breadfrGit on t h e lbwer r a i n f a l l i s l a x i s of the northern
Marshalls is said t o be d c h s h o k e r than i n t h e south. Sa l in i ty problems a r e
generally beyond man's control and affk'cted areas can only be avoided.
The quanti ty of breadfruit i n t he a t o l l appears to be more than adequate
for average needs during the seasonal peak, although addit ional vigorous t r e e s
would increase t h e l a t e season supply. I n addit ion t o establishing more t r ee s ,
replacement of l e s s desirable var ie t ies with be t t e r , and judicious thinning i n
crowded groves, a s on Arno Island, would augment production. Young t r e e s not
required for food production, however, might well be kept i n somewhat crowded
stands t o improve stem form f o r l a t e r u t i l i za t ion .
. ;, . , . , . . . . ,. .:. . . i n any comprehensive work ' i i t i . ~ breadfruik: s&ecti.on f o r f r u i t character-
. . i s t i c s and season of f ru i t i ng wou1.d be a s important a s f o r t o t a l productivity.
Introduction of other var ie t ies o i &?tocarpus altiiis, a s well a s other species
of the genus i s cer ta in ly worth t rying. The -present method of harvesting the
f r u i t appears sa t i s fac tory t o ali concerned but small experiments i n pruning
young t r ee s t o a low spreading shape would not be altogether out of place.
A r t i f i c i a l f e r t i l i z a t i o n wi l l probably be out of the question f o r a Tong time
. . except with l o c a l l y avail.able phosphate..
A s i s t rue a l so f o r other crop plakrtts, the na t ive culture of the bread-
f r u i t inclucies no ' f e r t i l i z a t i o n p r a c t i c e . ' ' Among Che ' s t o re of l oca l medicine
a r e a t l e a s t three procedures' f o r increasing the yield of breadfruit but, what-
ever t h e i r effectiveness, t he materials used are i n much too s m a l l quant i t ies
t o a f fec t s o i l f e r t i l i t y . The course of c iv i l i za t ion has apparently eliminated
:one.. th rea t t o t h e . breedfruit . fdr black magic is no longer considei-ed an effec-
tive'.means of dSstroying the t r ee , although our informant believed it was
. . . .. . ! :
successful i n t he past. :K:: .. ... .
anda am is,
Culture. : . . ! ' . . . .
Anderionconsidered . a l l of the@ndanus on t h e a t o l l t o be v a r i e t a l
selections of P'tectorius and l i s t e d 16 var ie t ies . Of these one, &p &
. :Kabi ls , with white margined leaves was-reputedly introduced from the Carolines
(Kabiliz) and i s found only':-as an ornaniental. kndther,"Edrwan, apparently
i nc ludes the st~aight~stenimed,::small-fruited "wildrr t y ~ e s r a t h e r t h a n being a.
defiri i te 'var ie ty . . The remainder arB::recognized a s . 'established varieties' ,
distinguished pr incipal ly by : f ru i t character is t ics Which the w r i t e r never
mastered. Frui t shape and, pa&icu~iaily.j the shack of t he nu t l e t s and' t h e i r
aggregates seem t o be tXe&significant; features,: Frui t s ize , other than ~drwan
is not ; the la rges t f r u i t i s borne. on young t rees . LTkewise l e a f cha-actexistics
change withage. Certain var ie t ies , suck1 as Anberia and Joibeb, a r e recognized
a s outstanding fo r eat ing out of hand but our informants seened unceAain about
other specif ic choices among the .var ie t ies . . . .
The pandanus season begins i n October, a t t a i n s i t s peak in November and
December, and falls off a f t e r Januarybut a few f r u i t s mature throughou't the
year . , There seem t o be no cer ta in var ie ta l differences i n t i m e of ma tu~ i ty .
The var ie t ies are reproduced vege ta t ive ly .u s ing the long prop.roots a s stock.
Seedling clusters from f a l l e n o r d i s c a ~ d e d nuts are common weeds i n coconut
groves. These volunteer pandanus arehacked down i n c lesr ing groves although
l a rge r straight-stemned t r e e s a r e often l e f t . Plantings of t he pandanus a r e
scat tered a s isolated t r e e s and s m a l l groups along paths and near houses as
w e l l a s on the lagoon shore o r a w e , as i n the i n t e r io r .
The pandanus seem t o have a considerable tolerance f o r s a l i n i t y and the
wild form i s often found i n abundance on the beach rampart of t h e windward
coasts between the S c a e v o l a - M e s s e r s c ~ 1 a scrub and t h e coconuts. The wild
forms are a l so common on dunes and back of sandy shores bordering the lagoon
but here as elsewinere t'ney are often replaced with cu l t iva ted va r i e t i e s ,
Culture of the l a t t e r consis ts ofremoving competing vegetation.
Uses as-
Among the more colorful s igh t s of t h e . a t o l l are brown-faced youngsters
chewing on chrome-yellow pandanus segments. In the.uncooked form these serve a s
does sugar cane elsexhere in t h e t rop ics , albeit.more flavorful . Upon baking
the f lavor tends t o change but t he non-fibrous portion i s more readi ly
extracted. This sonewhat mucilaginous material i s also scraped f r e e a n d dried;
i n t h i s form it can be stored-~dthout,'$poilage as..an emergency food. The small
nuts can be extracted and cracked f o r - t h e ctsnten%s although-this i s not a very
rewarding task. The pandanus sesson follows upan Shat of t h e breadfruit and
during its seasonal peak it i s the major food but its over--all importance is
considerably l e s s than tha t of the breadfruit .
Other Uses -.--
The leaves of t he pandanus :rere once perhaps f u l l y a s important i n t he
nat ive economy a s the f r u i t . Tne p la in rnats used a s bedding, f loor covering,
e tc . , a s well as decorative msts and i t e m almost forgotten by the present
generation are woven pr incipal ly from pandanus leaves. The long leaves are
str ipped o r are gathered from tile ground, trimmed, rol.led so the recurved cross
section w i l l be f l a t and stored indoors. Later the spiny midrib i s removed and
the blade s p l i t in to segments of desired width. Solor contras ts are obtained
by using leaves t h a t have cured t o various degrees, by dying, and by introducing kr
other f i be r s t h a t are colored or read i ly dyed. ., . . . , . ... . . . &
Pandanus leaved'also provide the thatch& material f o r roofs a n d s i d e s
of t h e t r ad i t i ona l house, although t o an extent t h i s has been superceded bjr . .
i n t r o d m t i o n of corrugated i rbn roofing under the Japanese and, temporarily, by
discarded American construction materials brought fromMajuro. For use t he
pandanus leaves are assembled in to p n e l s made by folding the leaves over a . .
long s;ender support, usually a s p l i t $ancianus prbp root, and s t i t ch ing them in . , ' . . .
place. These uni ts , of ten 5 o r 6 f e e t i n width, a r e otikrlapped. as shingles and ,
t i e d t o the house framework. Such thatching makes a sa t i s fac tory roof f o r hu% . .
three years or so but l a s t s ' much iong& a s walls. Bccord i~k t o .a kgend- t h i s
method o f using pndanis Gas brought t o . the Makhal l s long agd by wandering
Gilbertese; before t h i s , the'kai-shallese had used the f l i t leaves of t he fern,
Asplenium m. .., . . . . .. . , . .. . ' . .. , . .
The wild '@indanus,-Edrvian, i s alsd-valiied f o r i t s t a l l s t r a igh t trunks, . . . .
sometimes used ' i s &&i-ts 'b house co&r&tion.
Factors Affecting P~oduc't,ion -- -- --.
No major pests were observed. A great many var ie t ies of t h i s f r u i t are
found throughout the P x i f i c and it i s possible t ha t var ie t ies superior i n some .: '
res?ect t o those now present on t h e a t o l l may be found. Production can eas i ly
be increased simply by planting more t r ee s , however, so the objectives of any
introduction should be longer bearing period and addit ional f r u i t characteris-
t i cs . Taro and Other Araceous PLants -.-.--.----.---- 3--
The native t a ro of the Xarshallese i s C:~rtosr.ern?a *anissonis, I a r a j .
The nore widely known Colocasia esculenta was apparently introduced by the ,
missionaries and i t s native name, Kotak, came from Kusaie, probably with t he
plant; it i s also called Eawaiian t a ro . Both green-stexned 2nd purple-stemmed
colocasias a r e present and there probably a r e other va r i e t i e s not observed by . . .. .
t he w k t e r . Two other araceoGs plants are here considered 15 th t h e ta ros
although de f in i t e ly not included under t ha t name: W i i t i n ~ab i l i : i s a s ~ e c i e s
of Xanthosoma recently introduced and i s of l i t t , l e significance t o t he present
agr icul ture . T3e native %t is Alocasia and, according t o Anderson's check
l i s t , another species may be included with A. macrorhiza under t h i s nane,
Colocasia ---- . .
The introduced Hawaiian t a r o i s valued only f o r i t s starchy llroot" ,which
by some i s considered superior, t o t h e native cyrtosperxa. In keeping with t he , .
Marshallese d i s in t e r e s t i n l ea fy foods the edible leaves and st,ems a re not
u t i l i zed a t a l l . i n general t h e culture and use of colocasia a r e similar t o
those of t he native ta ro discussed below but a few plants, . . possibly an upland
lrarietg, were observed growing on t h e well-drained s o i l s of tne is land inteejcrsY
Cyr tos~erna
KO va r i e t a l differences a r e known. The en t i re plant increases i n s i ze
with age, however, and the huge leaves, 8-10 f t . t a l l of old plants may not be
inmediately iden t i f ied with those of t he nore common smaller plants.
A t one time, I a r e j ( I a r a j ranked uitii , o r perhaps exceeded breadfrui t
and $ndanlis'..': .Today the evidence of i+is dedliriing importance i s c lear f o r
perhaps l e s s than one-tenth of ' the p i t s prepared for 5 t s cul ture are growing
s i ini f icar i t miounts of taro. Them p i t s were excavated t o theground watep
leve lu& the sandy is land i n t e r i o r s where t h e water is f ree of Salt . The-p i t s
vary i n 6ize and shape but are commonly oval o r oblong with f l a t bottoms 20-40
f t . lone and 20-20 f t . wide. Freswiably t h e builders made use of such natural
depressions as existed but it i s apparent t h a t t he p i t s were la rge ly man-made.
Although wea.thering has softened t n e out l ines , t h e outer r i m s of t h e p i t s a r e
comedy raised somewhat above the suq~,ounding land, marking where t h e excavaw
material was duped . S o i l prof2les on these rims are snallower a ~ d y o u n g e r t b
those adjacent. Cn kl-enr Is. t a r o i s grown in the mucky margin of a l a rge
natural depression but cannot be e-xtended over the somewhat brackish peat t h a t
occupies most of t h e basin? Xlsewhere t i e p i t s are ' concentrated i:~ t h e
in t e r io r s of t h e wider lands such a s p r t s of Arno, L'angar and Ine I s . where
constant f resh water was assured. Within these areas some p i t s a r e immeeiately
adjacent so t h e spoi l forrm B high wall between; others a r e well separated.
'The s e p a r a t e p i t s a n d s u o h r a r i ~ o ~ occurrence Suggest no orderly cor.structi0n.
Cer ta in lyeach pi t 'was an undertaking of considerable magnitude, involving t h e
excavation of one- t o severai hundred tons of sand with crude tools .and baskets.
Labon, a very old man of Arno I s . , r e c a l l s t ha t a pit&+.asdug i n t h e . earlyWG1s
but it seemsprobable tha t t h i s was t h e l a s t o r mong the l a s t constructed on
the a t o l l . No one e l s e has any recol lect ion o f . excavation and the condition of
a l l obser~red suggests very considerable age. Accardlng t o .ZijBmmar t h e p i t s on
h i s land a t Ine vi l lage were there a t t he time of his'grandparents. A legend
s t a t e s t ha t the p i t s on Arno Is. a re the footpr ints of a man who walked across .*
u ~ a t e r analysis (Par t I, %ble 11) shows the U1-en' Island peat t o be f r e e of salt.
t h e land.
Usewhere i n t h e Pacif ic newly exc~vated , t a r o p i t s are p r e p r e d f o r use
byplac ing quant i t i es of organic matter i n t he bottom, Presumably t h i s was
a l so . t rue on Arno and organic debris i s ~ ~ i i l . added t o t he p i t s i n use. I n
consequence thebot tom soils a r e calcareous nucks .with t he water l e v e l l y i n g
close t o t h e surface. After heavy rains t h e water may stand t o t he depth of
several inches i n t he p i t f o r at. l e a s t a few days. Other than planting and
: harvesting t h e principle cul ture of t a ro isweeding. Such plants a s t h e
..vigorous +fedel.ia . -.- extend outward from t h e p i t margins and woody species spring
there' a lso. There a r e rel-ativeiy few plants, such - a s _Cm, the fine-like
Clerodendrum and gibiscus f t i l i a ceus t h a t grow d i r e c t i y i n the wet muck. The
principle reason given f o r not groh5ng taro. now i s t h a t i t s . cul-ture involves
too muchwor!c,although the prepzed food i s preferred t o r i c e by some.
Use as Food - ijuring the breadfrui t season t a r o i s ra re ly eaten but i s saved f o r t he
months a f t e r t he anda anus peak. The la rge r corms a re harvested a s needed. and
. boiled. or baked.. Other prepara%ions (Jukjuk) a r e made by baking mixtures of
the cooked root w i t h sugar and coconut cream o r banana. A t the present l e v e l
o f , cu l t i va t ion the Cyrtosperma andcolocasia together r a t e a s a ra ther minor
component o f t h e d i e t , although important t o a Eeu.Emilies and a s a general
reserve; . . .
Factors Affectina Growth . .
No major pests were noted. . The typhoons-of l$05 and.1918 were sa id t o
h a v e k i l l e d . t a r o by flooding t h e p i t s with s a l t water but such storms a re ra re .
Young t a r o (Cyrkosperma) i n p i t s on Arno Is. i s r e ~ o r t e d t o have beewkil led by
immersion, probably complete, i n f resh water following heavy rains .
. . . .
Wit'no!rt observation elsewhere on the Flarshalls it i s soxewhat hazardous
t o speculate on tke reasons f o r t he decline of t a r o fimm its f o n e r posit ion
as a major food crop. D r . Nason has pointed out t ha t with a decrease i n the
.,. a b s o l ~ t e powers of t he I r o i j , brought about by missionary and t+r ! . . in f luences , . .. . . . . ., ., . . . . . .
went a gradual lessening of t he landholders' responsibi l i ty t o h i s ru le rs .
This may well h w e l e d t o t h e neglect of t he more d i f f i c u l t o r l e s s rewarding
tasks . It was during the same p r i o d , however, t h a t extension of the coconut
groves took place; under t he stimulus of the copra t rade land clearing, care
of coconuts and copra manufacture requjred much more labor than previously.
Yet another factor bras involved, perhaps the decisive one: t he pigs introduced
by the missionaries thrived and multiplied u n t i l on Arno Is., according t o
Labon, t a ro and arrowroot were &most eliminated and new coconut plantings were
damaged. Probably urged by the Germans the res idents i n lfaoout 19CO" declared
an open season on a l l pigs a t large, an act ion t h a t reduced the depredations.
Nevertheless, t he ta ro crop had been wiped ottt f o r a period. A similar s to ry
i s to ld by ~ i j b a r ; pigs r u i r e d t h e t a ro near:$.he and the p i t s were abandoried . . ... . .. , . . .. . . .
and remain la rge ly so t o t h i s day. The destruction of t a ro by pigs a t a time
when the native agr icul ture was already changing may wel l a c c o a t f o r t h e
conditions noted, apart from other fac tors .
Elsewhere i n t h e Marshalls t a ro continues t o oe an important food and
i t s culture might well be encouraged on Arno, p a r t i c d a r l y since it i s already
well. accepted. and t h e p i t s are present. . .
Alocasia -- Although sometimes found with the I a r e j t h i s plant i s more comqon on
protected a n d f e r t i l e well-drained so i l s . Cultivation i s largely negative,
consisting of not destroying it when other plants a r e cut. The Ktt is an
emergency food, used when others are not available, a s following the pandanus . .
season. The corm i s peel-ed and baked a few hours bnt even then may be too
i r r i t a t i n g t o eat because of t h e minkte calcium oxalate cr.yst,als. Juice of
t he green husks of t he drinking nuts i s believed t o lessen the i r r i t a t i n g
pr inciple but even a f t e r treatment the root may s t i l l be inedibLe. There i s a
bel ief t h a t some. people know what par t of t he root i s responsible f o r t he
i r r i t a t i o n and hence have more success i n i t s preparation, but there i s no
botanical reason t o suppose t h i s i s t rue . Since W i i t provides an acceptable
food when' f ree of the i r r i t a t i n g principle, some a t ten t ion might be given t o
taxonomic and va r i e t a l differences and t o met,hods of preparation f o r elsewhere
i n t he worldsome highly i r r i t a t i n g p!.ants of t h i s groug a re recdered edible
by suf f ic ien t treatment. Subst i tut ion of introduced Xanthosoma may be m c h
simpler.
Tie large leaves of h%t.and probably of I a r e j a s well are .used f o r
wrapping f i s h and other foods f o r baking. Tine flowers of Wrt nave been used.
f o r prfumring o i l .
P o a e s i a n Arm-moot "i.IaI~if6k~~ - -.-.---.
Taeca I . eontepe tz lo i$~ , t he tlarrowrootn of t he region, ex is t s as a semi- - --.,- domesticated plant, f lourishing with l i t t l e care wherever the soil. i s salt f r ee
and only noderateljj shaded. I% i s spared when other vegetation i s slashed i n
t he groves andbenef i t s from t n i s weeding. In densely shaded areas, such a s
t he i n t e r i o r of krno arid t he wartime abandoned groves on L1angar, tacca i s
soon eliminated a s a c r o p t h i s was well recognized by t h e people of L,'angar
i n explaining the small amount of tacca now found there .
Propagation scarcely o f f e r s any problems. The small rootstocks a r e
l e f t "then the la rger o.nes a r e harvested; moreover, t he plant f r u i t s abundantly.
The ~ o t a t o - l i k e rootstocks are sometimes stored f o r a short time i n t he p i t s
along the beach but soon sprou%. .U though i t i s possible t o ez t them baked,
usually the starch i s extracted. For t h i s the clean roots a r e grated &w and
placed i n a coarse c loth bag. >rater i s :.poured through as the mixture i s
s t i r r e d , thus washing out t h e c s t a r c h a n d leaving the f i b e r i n th& bag.' 'The . .
s tarch i s collected and dr ied , yielding a white high qua l i ty product t h a t can
be stored. . . . . . . . . . , . ~. . . . , . . .
Although not present i n quanti ty on al3. i s lands the mak.n'dk is
suf f ic ien t ly abundant on the a t o l l t o 'constitute an imFo?tiirt. emergency food
source i n addition t o i t s normal use. Observations suggest t ha t the 1at.ter use
i s l imited more by the labor involved i n harvesting and preparation ra ther than
by available supply. Inasmuch a s t h i s plant i s adapted, and can be
successfully grown beneath thecoconuts , at l e a s t i n the b e t t e r so i l s , some
at tent ion might be given t o devising simple equipment t ha t xould f a c i l i t a t e
s tarch extraction.
Bananas
On L'angar t h e r e is a l egend of how once during a period of starvation
a man i n chase OF, a r a t carryinf, away a pandanus nut discovered a grove of
bananas. This . i s reputedly the or ig in of a variety, ' Jorukwor, regarded as
indigenous, and the exact spot i s marked by thes l eep ing man'-- a massive piece
.of protruding beachrock. :.There a r e other versibks of t he s to ry but discoveryof
t h i s banana i s common t o a U . T h e deep moist s o i l of t h i s spot i s regarded a s
t he best f o r bananas, and probably is, but very few grow there now. Nowhere on
t h e a t o l l does the banana grow wild a,nd it i s probable t ha t even the Jorukwor
was an ancient introduction. MoSL. of the present'.ban&s a re known t o have been . .
introduced and often t h e circumstahces attached t o t he introduction a re
remembered, a s on Anno.1~; where two weeds were reputedly brought i n with t h e
s o i l attached t o bananas introduced by German Cathdlic missionaries ear ly i n t he
. . , . . . . century.
Culture --- The var ie t ies of barlanas now p ~ e s e n t on the a t o l l were not catal.ouged
but they seem t o be few. One o r two cookir.g bananas are g r o - . a s well a s one
o r more edible so;-ts; p~esumablly a l l of t3ese can be classed es va r i e t i e s o r
sub-species of Nusa paradisiaca. The Chinese banana, X. nana, i s recognized
a s desirable because the dwarf plants a r e much 1esBsubject t o .wind in jury and
it would be more .uiidel.y planted i f seedstocks were more abundant.
The banana 5.s propagated by means of the la rge offshoots. Since the
number of these i s usually not great under Arno conditions and 0r.e o r two are
of ten l e f t as replacements, multiplications of seedstoclts i s slow. Its growth,
of course, i s l imited t o the s a l t f r ee , somewhat more _Pertile areas protactea
from the ~rrind. Bananas seem t o be planted i n th ree general areas: (1) I n
the house courtyards, (2) i n %he groves adjacent t o the house, and (3) on the
s ides and bottoms of the t a ro p i t s .
The graveled courtyards a r e k e ~ t f ree of organic matter and 'eaves of
t he bananas are genei-al;y chloro.Lic because of a derici.ency of avai lable iron.
Young ~ l a n t s , par t icular ly , a r e occasionally zlmost completely yellow but
usually survive arid become greener, g e n e r a l y acc~nu la t ing i ron during wet
periods when the saturated soi1.s favors i'cs availabiSity. Severe defjciency
increases t he time required for f ru i t i ng and, of course, reduces yield . For
optimun growth and yield t he banana also requires moderately high leve ls of
s o i l nitrogen, ordinar i iy not found i n t he courtyard locations. Occasional
plants a r e vigorous with la rge dark green leaves but these exceptions suggest not
only t h a t t he family sani ta t ion does/comply *Ath the Plarshallese standards.
Planting s i t e s i n the s e c o ~ d group a re only arbitrarily separated from
those i n t he f i r s t but i n general have greater shading and somewhat be t t e r
s o i l s . Rwte i ron deficiency is ra re , although sub-,acute symptoms a re often
seen.. Commonly p i t s a r e dug and f i l l e d with organic refuse before t he shoots . . . .
a re planted; similarly, sand p i t s dug f o r t h e maintenance of walks are often . .
. ..
f i l l e d with household rubbish, then closed and a banana planted above. Several
a. of our s a i l p ro f i l e p i t s were le f t -open u p n request f o r t h e same purpose. . . : . ' . . . .
Such preparation i s considered good pract ice bf the more a l e r t grovers and
obviousiy i s an excellent, &beit laborious, means of providing the f e r t i l i t y
needed by t h i s crop. The method,is used i n probably no more than 25% of t he
plantings made. I n some s o i l s no marked benef i ts would be ex2ected and i n one . .
instance detrimental e f fec t s from t h i s method were reported.
On planting s i t e s of the t h i r d class, bananas usually grow well with
occasional weeding a s the only cul ture . On the lower slopes and mucky bottoms
of the t a r o p i t s nutr ients are i n f a i r supsly and moisture abundant but most of
these areas are too heavily shaded for a maximum growth.
Use - Fjrcting of conditions on nearby Majuro a t o l l , Spoehr suggested t h a t
. ,
perhaps bananas figured more a s food g i f t s f o r v i s i t i ng Americans than i n t he , .
l oca l d i e t . On Arno the banana seems t o be a well-liked f r u i t and is suff i -
c ien t ly well-regarded tha t many people, though not a l l , a r e wil l ing t o give it
the necessary minimum culture. Though children and honored vLsitors eddy I. mono~oiize the available supply, this seems t o be due more t o generosity and a
desire t o please ra ther tha t o indifference towards tine f r u i t . The present
plant numbers and yields do not seem great enough for t he f r u i t t o be of much
nu t r i t i ona l significance f o r t h e average person but it does provide some . . ' ...!
var ie ty i n t h e d i e t .
Factors Affecting Production
No major insec ts o r diseases were evident. The f r u i t i s usually
gathered green t o .avoid the f t and damage bj r a t s . . . . .
Thee f fec t s of iron and nitrogen deficiencies haire been mentioned but
there i s no doubt t 3a t these couid be Svolded o r overcome. Applications of
. . soluble i ron t o very yellow leaves i n Ine v i l l age produced a rapid greening
but such treatments neither feas ib le nor necessarj. Maintenance of a deep
surface mulch of organic matter woiild eliminate deficiency of iron, as well a s
supp1ying the nitrogen and other nutr ient elements required i n quanti ty f o r
rapid growth. Such a mulch, i f composec! l a rge ly of lo3r-nitrogen material l i k e
coconut husks, might lead t o temporary nitrogen deficiency throu.gh microbial
tie-up of t h i s element but the condition wouI;d be only temporary. If herbaceous
o r leguminous material were included i n t he mulch even such temporary tie-ups
would be unlikely.
Froduction of bananas could be jncreased.many fold simplyby fu r the r
p l a n t k ~ g s on the s o i l s known to . be most favoi-abk, such a s .the phosphate areas,
t a ro p i t s , etc., and on other s o i l s using mulch fertilization. The principal
l imi ta t ion t o such mulching i s t h e labor irwolved i n carrying the material; by
. . sca t te r ing the p l a t i n g s throughout s u i t a b l e areas, ra ther than concentrkting
them, the distance t o available materials can be kept ve.0- low. A~ound t h e
house areas, where surface organic matter often she l t e r s centipedes and
. . scorpions, p i t s f i l l e d with orgar,ic matter woad continue t o be. tiin'bcs%
iCsurance of sa t i s fac tory growth.
P a p x a and L5me -.
It i s probable t h a t t he papaya was introduced OD. the a t o l l ~ r e @ e a r l y in . .
t h e century but it i s nowhere abundant. It i s usually found a s a soaewhat
neglected t r e e near t he dwelling places and pe r s i s t s a s much by reason of it,s
heavy seeding a s by del iberate planting. The t r e e often suf fe rs from a sub-.
acute i ron deficlency. Tie only var ie ty obserrred has a mediocre f r u i t and t h e
plant i s usually allowed t o grow too t a l l . Unless picked green the f r u i t i s
. . . . ., . , . . . .. . . . . .
damaged by r a t s . There a r e occasional exceptions but generally t h e f r u i t -is . . . . .. . . . . ,
of very minor importance. :, 7 . . . . . . ,
Present i n t e r e s t i n the f r u i t does not warrant much at tent ion t o it. . . . . . . , .. ,. ~ . . . .
Introduction of be t t e r va r i e t i e s and Frovision of knowledge about t h e i r . .
cul ture and vegetative propagation a r e the obvious needs and might bring . I , :
. . . . . . . . .. . about fur ther acceptance of t he f r u i t .
. .
Large lime t r e e s a r e r e l a t i ve ly scarce but numerous younger >lants were
observed. The comon planting s i t e i s i n t he shaded i n t e r i o r s o r on t a r o p i t
slopes. Trees planted near
caused by iron deficiency.
f o r any s ignif icant e f f ec t s
but the lime ranks with t he . . . .
t he a to l l . . .
, . . . . . . . . .
t he houses often su-ffer from a severe cmorosis . , . .
The quantity of f r u i t produced is much too s m a l l . .
on the vitamin C intake of the average individual . . .
kino fern as t he major f lavoring agents used on . ,. .
~ u l c h i n ~ o r incorporation of organic matter beneath the young t r e e s a s . . . . . . . . .
, . . , ,, . . . . . .
suggested f o r the banana a r e tne obvious cu l tura l recom~endations. The s ing le . .. . . . . .
varie ty i s of good qua l i ty and apparently propagated by seed. Introduction of
addit ional va r i e t i e s i s rauch l e s s important than introduction of other c i t r u s
adapted t o the a t o l l habi ta t .
Other Introduced Food Plants . .. . . . . . . .
The ch i l e pepper (Capsicum frutescens) i s commonly grown near houses f o r
i ts f r u i t s which a re used, though sparsely, i n cooking. I n a few areas (eag .
t he phosphatic s o i l on ~ a k - l y b I s . ) an introduced punpkin grows as a semi-wild . .. . . .
plant; i t s occasional f r u i t s are eaten. Two va r i e t i e s bf' sweet potatoes,
"Bitato", were observed but t h i s crop i s grown only r a r e l y and i s of no s ignif i - .. .
cance i n the general d i e t . A small clump of sugar cane, To'o, was found growing .. . .
i n an old t a ro p i t near Ine but a p P a r e k y no e f fo r t i s being made t o increase . . . . . .
t h i s despite a general l i k ing f o r sweets. The presence of th6'yauti i ,
Xanthosoma, was noted under the discussion of taro. 4. small-fruited f i g , TEbro
(Ficus t i nc to r i a ) introduced from J a l u i t , i s found occasionally on the a t o l l
and does not appear t o have spread beyond the or ig ina l planting some years ago.
The f i r m marble-sized f r u i t s are boiled, masked and mixed with grated coconut;
thus it provides occasional var ie ty f o r few individuals. A single t r e e of
G r a k (Inocarpus fagiferus) grows and f r u i t s i n the garden of King Tobo in Ine
v i l l age and a single mango t r e e was planted on Arno Island a f t e r t h e war.
Other Introduced Plants
Neglecting horticultural. va r i e t i e s , roughly i+G$ of the species now
recorded on the a t o l l have been introduced in h i s to r i c times. I n addition t o
t he introduced food plants mentioned previously and a few weeds of foreign
or igin , several of the other exotics have some importance f o r t h e people of
Arno. With t h e i r fondness f o r flowers they have welcomed ornamentals and here,
a s throughout t he Pacif ic t rop ics , hibiscus and frangipangi (Plumeria) a r e
conspicuous. Oleander, Croton, and Bougainvillea a r e present but rare , the
l a t t e r represented by a single plant on Arno Is. Acalypha and species of
Polyscias a r e hedge plants i n Ine vi l lage, presumably by reason of Japanese
introduction. Much more widely dis t r ibuted a re two s ~ e c i e s of Pseuderanthcmm;
they are used a s hedge plants and t h e fleshy leaves of P. atropurpureum,
Tirosbin (= pink tearose) , a r e gathered a s pig feed. The herb Gcimum sanctum
i s used f o r scenting coconut o i l . The small pink f a i r y l i l y , =anthes,
blooms periodically in the graveled yards where it seems t o th r ive . The much
l a rge r H,vmenocallis l i t t o r a l i s , Kiop wau (= Lily of Gehu) was presumably brought
by Hawaiian missionaries but is now naturalized i n the open groves. Several
other garden flowers a r e found i n smaller numbers, presumably t h e hardy remnants
of successive waves of introductions. Similarly, a few plants of cotton,
Gossmium barbadense pers i s t though uncultivated. Another plant ca l led "Kotin"
. . . . .. ::. , . . . . . . - i s %e kapoi t r e e , -- ~eiba.pe&xid&; .- .- i ts ' f l o s s i s occasj.ona.lly"used f o r pillows.
. . . . . ' ~ c c o r d i n ~ ~ t o Felix, seedlings we&sellt t o k& i n 1915 by a Geman l i v i n g on
Ponape. -~kan<ed in the f e r t i l e phosphatic s o i l of ~ a k - i < b 1sl. they have
f lour ished &?I spreiki but the t r e e i s not fo&d el&wh&e oh tiie a t o l l . . . . . .
Seeds of tomat; and watermelon as 1&1 is' those of a numbir of garden . .
' &wers wire brought t o the a t o l l a s a g i f t t o t he p b p l e fiom. '~ii . Anderson. . . . . . .
observations on these plantings, a s w d l a s o n Q smali garden established by . .
t he wri ter , indlcai% a very high percentage of fa i lure . The use of' a r t i f i c i a l i' '
'f6i?tiY.izers, co~~@bst;s o r inul.ches be riekessary for successful growth of mcx;ti;,
.. . . . . .
common garden crops. ' In t h i s c o n k k t i & t h e shallow fresh'watgr peats of old
t a r o p i t s may be used t o surface smallgarden spots f o r a few preferred plants
such as the t.o.mato. . . . .
. . Indigenous E.1ants of Value
7 7 . virtually. , a,li. . . t$e indigenous p l a n t s figured i n the native materia medica . . .
and many had other uses. The loo, Hibiscus t i l i a c e s , i s a f i be r plagt of value. . . . .
I n habit it resembles a gigantic bush and i s found singly o r i n very.smal1
groups i n ruois.$ s o i l and abandoned t a r o p i t s . &l'though here considered . . .
. indigenous,. . . . i t s l imited occurrence znd l ack of aggressiveness suggest t n a t v e r j
possibly C t , too, i s an ancient introduction. The ta l l s t ra igh t poles a r i s ing . . . . , , . .
from the old horizontal branches a r e . . stripped f o r t h e i r tough inner bark. This . , .
is used as cordage o r as an eas i ly h y e d f i b e r fo r mat weaving, e tc . The inner . . . .
bark of arme, Pipturus ., argenteus , was r e l i e d up0.n. f o r f i s h l i n e s and is s t i l l
u s e d when:imported l i n e s are not available. The bark of Triumfetta provides a
colored f i b e r f o r weaving. .. .
T'fl.e,.grasses, Thuarea, glusine and Pas~a lu rn~ and espacial ljr . the ubiquit0LE . ..
legume, Vigna marina, provide much of the feed consumed bychickens. The leaT3s , . .;, ., . . . . ,,. ,
: . . ofIpomoeatuba -.- are gathered for,.pigs:,.,, I n addition t o t he uses,of i t s tough . . . , . . . . ., .
wood, t'qe f r u i i s of t he mangrove, JoR, gu-u~Lr2 con.iufiata, i s a source of t h e
blacic dye used f o r decorat?ig mat f ibers. Likewise, roots of Morinda provide
a yellow dye. The fronds of a fern, Kino, Folypodim,scoloy;endria, are widely . ..
, .. , .
used f o r the f lavor imparted t o fowl, etc., baked in i t s leaves. The nuts .. . ...
from the two species of Te rmina l l a r e used occasionally but t he supply is very
limited. Barr in~tonia , f r u i t s a r e used a s f i s h poison but only by children.
The wood of -- Guttarda was used f o r f i r e plows, not much in demand a t present.
Pr ior t o cooking, octopus i s covered with leaves of Y.esserschmidia a d
pounded. Tests of t he dried Leaves (by J. B. Sumner, Cornell University),
however, snow no appreciab1.e amounts of protein-decomposing enzymes.
LIVESTOCK
Other than does and ca t s and occasional pet pigeons and. reef herons,
t he only domesticated animals now on t h e a t o l l a r e pigs and chickens, first . ,.......... . . ~ . . . .
introduced by the Germans ar.d missionaries. Turkeys and ducks a r e said t o
have been $resent p r ior t o t he war.
Poult= -- Old men st i l l remember t h a t Defore t he missionaries came the jungle fowl
l ived i n quasi-domestication on these islands; they were vslued fo r t h e cockdl*
I t s e l f an ancient imnugrant, brought i n some forgotten canoe, t he jungle fowl
was absorbed by the introduced chickens although some of t he plumage character-
i s t i c s a r e still seen. The present population has resulted from a mixture of
breeds, mostly now unrecognizable except f o r the feather pat tern of t h e
Frizzles, sa id t o have been introriuced by the Japanese. The Arnoeze do no t e a t
eggs and t h e chickens a r e kept, only f o r meat. Body s i ze is usually qu i t e small
md the merits of the stock a re l a rge ly hardiness and t h e a b i l i t y t o forage.
The chickens a r e kept penned only r a r e ly and t h e i r food consist of grasses,
seeds (par t icular ly of Vigna), insects , etc. , discarded coconuts and the meager
househo3.d scraps. Young chicks a r e sometimes fed grated coconut o r coconut and
chopped grass. The hens ilste.alll th62r nest$; they a re good mothers and
corrmonly bring off broods of from 1 2 t o 15 chicks. Subsequent mortali ty is
high and three-Geek-old broods seldom nuaber more than 6 t o 9. Food, weather
and disease doubtlessly account f o r many of these losses hut predation by ca%s
i s probably much grea te r than the people concede.
Despite these hazards the chickens a r e abundant and of some importance
a s a protein source, :a l though. the use seems t o be Emited t o special o c c a h .
They could be more important' f o r there i s addit ional poultry range outside of
t he well popclated areas: Improvement of t h e exis t ing stock and pract ices i s
qui te possible but only,,within cer ta in limits: (1) There i s no reason t o
emphasize egg produ.ction u n t i l the time when people accept eggs i n t h e i r d i e t .
(2) Feed supplies w i l l continue t o be much a s described above, with an ample
native range and only l imited supplemental feeding. Additional coconut could
b e fed a s i n t i e Ph i l i pphes , but other supplements a r e not in sight . Hence,
feed w i l l probably continue t o l irnit growth. 3 Early mortali ty cou ldbe
' decide@Ijr'decreased by confinement and suppleme.nta.1 feeding of the chicks.
Other changes i n present practice cannot be expected, except possibly within
the vil lages, f o r the. chickens must range widely t o feed. The hardiness,
disease resistance and foraging a b i l i t y of the ,presen t stock a re necessary
a t t r ibu tes . Thus, t he only pract ical recommendation i s introduction of males
of some vigorous, f e r t i l e , medium-weight:breed such a s t h e meat-type
New Hampshire t o upgrade t h e native stock.
The C i v i l Administration n a t p ~ e school a t Majuro has recent ly i m ~ o r t e d
ducks. Various breeds, including tbe Muscovy, should be t r i e d f o r ducks ar'e
worthy of tflorough trial i n view of t he i r previous presence and the posssi le
.: . i - . . : food supply of t he shallow beaches.
Swine -- The rapid increase in n-mbcrs fol!.o.&ng i;ltroducti.on and t h e conseqxeat
disastrous e f fec t s on agr icu l ture ear ly i n the century have been mentioned in
connection d t h t a ro culture. in t h e %ore populated areas pigs a t l a rgc are
s t i l l prohibited, although enforcement i s not always s t - ic t , and there an
occasional family pig is kept i n a stone walled pen. In a f e-d areas pigs ranee
a t \ r i l l witn conseyent destruction of a l l edible plants.
A very rough eslimate o? t h e t o t a l nunber of pigs i n the a t o l l would be
besween 100 and 150. Their numbers were grea t ly educed during t h e war and
' some of t he Guani breed were brought in during post-'war rehabi l i t a t ion e f fo r t s .
Crosses of t h i s adapted Lrsed ,with t he rent; loca l animals have resul ted in
sone upgrading but t i e e f fec t s do not seem very mrked. I n two instances
second and th i rd generaGlon animals, s t i l l with 25 or 50% Guam blood,
qproached the loca l breed i n s ize .
Tnds d i r ec t s a t t a t i o n t.o t he nutri5iona.l s t a tu s of t h e animal. Con-
f ined anixals alrrost cex4xird.y rece ive ,a very low energy rat ion, unless
del iberaie ly fattened, for leaves, household scraps, etc., can seldom be f ed a s
swfficient q ~ a n t i t i e s . Coconut is v i r tua l ly she only concentrate and it is not
usually fed i n quantity except. t o pigs fattened f c r l a rd production. Pigs a t
l a rge appear t o f a r e sonewhat b e t t e r but unless t h e i r numbers are small i n
r e l a t i on t o area ranged they soon wipe out the plants t ha t supply t h e i r feed.
It i s obvio\ts t ha t protein in% aks must be minimal. Of the mir.erals, calcium
should be adequate because of the leafy feeds and incidee+,al ingestion of s o i l .
The sources of phosphorus a r e iim2ted aithough they may suff ice f o r tine low
energp r-t ' lon. . .
Thus it appears Chat both a n i m l nurbers and att,empts t o impro~re the . .
breed w i l l be rest,ricted by t h e natnre and apount of food avaflable. Increasing
t he area of "upen range" would pro vide more food bmt would el.iroir!a.r;e t h e
poss ib i l i t y of growir!g tacca.; bmanas, taro, etc. , there . Oork i s a highly
desirable food, providing ani.mil, p ro t e i c addin.5 much needed vai-i.ety . t o the
d i e t , and the l a r d is valued a s well.. k mdera t e .increase i n t h e swine popula-
t ion i s f eas ib l e but .under present conclitions an7 considerab3.e increase would
be - a t -the expense of other foodstuffs.
A s pointe.? out, mwh of t h e e.xtensicn of t he coconut groTJes was a t t he
expense of the or ig ina l forest.ed area. T h ~ s the Pko?ias which Agassis
copnenf;ed on wken he v i s i t ed the ato1.l i n 1930 a re nowhere abundant itow. T0da.y
there is l i t t l e t o show the nature of t h a t fores t a t its best ; t h e "jung3.e"
areas i n the i n t e r io r of Urno and L1angar is . are ~ l e a r l y secondary fores t . The
only wooded area. t ha t m y have s o ~ e af; init ies d t h original. f o re s t is on .,
t!.e a t m i c a l s o i l s of ,Tak-lib Is. Here a r e a few ltlrge PLsonia, Cordia., Tntsia
(Kfzelia) together with otb.er species, but the introduced C ~ i b a s ~ g g s s t s a very
Forest, s i t aa t ions --..--,--
Apart from the a.tove it is convenient t o recogn ize four Vorest
sZtuations," ~ ! t : i o u ~ ~ these are not va l id ecological unizs. (1) On exposed
shores ar,d recent l a rds tne s!?orelir.e b r u s h i s com~osed la rge ly of t h e spraw- - .-.-. -.-.
3caevola w i th a variable arnourit of P;essersckflidie.. On sandy lagoon ahores md
i . 6 ,, el-ior. s d i i i e f!a!Ls Temphisr or r a r e ly *iana, is more l i k e l y t o dominate.
This type i s of velue as a wiridbreal: and some of t h e woody stens a re used.
(2) Nwging w i t n the & w e i s t he ki;c;& ~ , ~ u i , c o ~ s i s t i n g of Scaevola
and 1Gesserschi:ii.dla together ! .~+,h t r e e species, such a s Pandarlus, Guettarda.,
Ochrosia, Ocnrocwp.ls, T e m i n d i a , Korinda, In t s i a an4 o c c . a s i . o n a ~ l y , ~ ~ u . ~ ~ g ~ ~
ar,d Calophyllum. The t r e e s a r e young and t h e species present deper.d on the
degree of s a l i n i t y and seed supply. Such m W m e s of ten represent stages i h
t he vegetational siccessiun. followin& dist,wbance by storms or clears-ng. ' Thus,
without ,periodic cut t ing t h e t r e e s would event~icllly dominate. Occasionally one
f inds small stands of older Ochrosia.,. Soularnea, Guettarda , or various mrixtures . .
where t h i s has occurred.. Else7,kere t he mixed brush areas a r e t r ans i t i on zones;
a mixture with Pandanus predominating i s of ten found on th- beach rampart,
tapering in height from the outer shore brush t o groves inland. The mixed
brush. . . . types . a.re widely d i s t r ibu ted and pmvi6e a var ie ty of d i f fe ren t woods
and shapes for iocdl. use.
3 Secondary fo re s t s on the dark sal t - f ree so i l s of the h t e r i o r con-
s i s t of AllaphyLlus, Premma., Korinda, P ip tur ia and Guettarda, together w i t h +he
wild Pandanus and sometimes I n t s i a o r young h r toca rpx . Ixora i s loce l ly
abundant on Lrno Islana, and Fibiscus til:'.aceus may occur i n moist spots. A l l
of the areas of such fo re s t s a r e r e l a t i ve ly young and usually they have
originated a s an understory i n abandoned coconut or breadfruit groves. A high
proportion of stems tend t o be ra ther crooked but t he stands a r e su f f i c i en t ly
dense t o la rge ly overcome t h i s . The r e l a t i ve ly long, small diameter p d e s a r e
well suited for framing thatched houses and a r e read i ly cut and mndled.
IIeqce t h i s f o r e s t is of value but i t s occurrence is limited t o a few is lands
and there l a rge ly owes i ts existence t o neglect. Several of these species a r e
good t i d e r t r e e s elsewhere i n t h e Pacif ic but on Arno the crooked stems of
young t r ee s and the spradi.ng form of older rel.fcs suguests t h i s is not t rue
on the a t o l l habi ta ts . Breadfruit (Artocarpus) is t h e fioteworthy exception.
(4) Several small areas of rrangrove -- o c c ~ r , cn ie f ly i n inland
depessions. Bruguiera i s the pr incipal species, forrring dense pure stands on
the . shallow . brackish peats and rocky aepressi.ons of L'angar,. Tinak and other , .
islands. Elsewhere it occurs x i t h Lurnnitzera,iri s m a l l brackish basins. The ;
young poles a r e s t r a i g h t kt the older t r e e s tend to be crooked and seldo2
exceed t e n inches i n diameter. 3n Biliareij and N m w i Is. Zmgniera forms sma1.1
pure slands along the mai3,qirs of s a l i ne f l a t s and Lzlets 3s wel l as mixing with
Sonneratia . The in1 and mangrove areas a r e cea r l y vabe le s s for agr icul ture but
a r e of decided iniportance to nearby res idents a s B .source of tough. poles and
durable wood.
Other sources of small diameter poles a r e the woady invaders of coconut,
and breadfruit groves but t h e i r abundance i s i n proportion t o t he i n t ens i ty of
clearing. Larse t r e e s of Pandmus, CalophyUm, Ochrosia, Terniina1i.a and
In t s i a a r e occasionslly found as isolhted ir ;dividmls along protected shores or
i n door yards. Ilnese a r e usual ly too la rge t o be u t i l i zed with available too7se
Frgifi t h e t o t ime the large breadfrwit d i e and decay without u t i l i z a t i o n f o r t h
saze reason. Root suckers of' breadfruit may form co lo~Les thsit occasionaEy,
as on the Arno Is., t & e on t h e aspects of a f o r e s t starld and & r e excellent
sources of s t ra igh t ~or!.<aDle trunks.
Species and Uses
A i ist of woody spec;es used by the Marshallese vou!.d simply be a
catalog of those occurring f o r almost a l l a r e u t i l i zed . Tile du rab i l i t y of
Bruguiera, Lmnitzera and In t s ia i n contacf i r i th t h e s o i l , as well as t h e ta@m
ness of these, Ochrccarpus and Galophylium a r e known. ?he bide use of bread-
frui.t fo r canoes has been mentioned and it is worked i n irany other ways.
Although l e s s abundant than now formerly, Corclia, workable snd tough, serves
f o r t!le end-pieces of small canoes, a d is nade into paddies, platform boards,
pounding bowls, hatblocks and for s imilar incidental csrving. I n addition t o
t he breddfruit Soulamea provides support beams for canoe octriggers and cwved
pieces of it, a s v ~ e l l a s t h e s t e m of Scaevola, a r e ~ s e d for the arched braces
t o t h e outrigger f l o a t . The very hard Pemphis is spliced on as mast t i p s and
onto sail. poles
protective keel
as a Searing frog against t he msst.; it js also used as t h e
. Penphis, Randia and Ixora a r e mzde into cage-type f i sh t raps . . .
and Prc?mna, ~1loph;rl lus ,and ~ k i f z e r a a r e t h e preferred woods f o r fishir!g poles . ,. . '
Net f l o a t s have been aide ~f ttil very r igh t wood of Hibiscus t i l i a ceus . St,raSght . . . .
p o l e s or posts of almost any species a r e bf v a h e f o r house building but di.ffer- , . . . . . . . ences are recognized, thxs Sasrngtonia is considered a very poor wood. COCOIII%
i s occasionall.y used, for heavy posts but is not durable i n contact ?dtb t h e so& ..
, Constmcti.on Requirements . . .
The discontinuance of tine wartime base on I%a.juro provided. a bonanza. of . .
construction materials t h a t s t i l l has i t s e f fec t on the archi tecture and con- . .
s t ruct ion of Arno. The abundance of frame and frame-thatched hybrid dwellings
tends t o obscurk t h e f a c t t h a t h o u s i q af sawn lurrber is si-mply not cornpatibible
with the present average income of the Arnoese. i3arring other bonanzas, most
of the people w i l l go back t o l i v i n g in thatched houses a s decay and
obsolescence claim the present shanties. The few pre-wcr 'frame buildings were , .
l a rge ly Japanese houses o r s t o r e s and copra sheds. it is e a s y t o ca!.cu!.atethat
a t present-day prices t he re w i l l be very l i t t l e construction, even of
Karshallese-size houses, with pxrchased lwn'aer. Hence the need for pandanus . . ! . , .
thatch and. smal!. diameter poles f o r framing is l i k e l y to increase i n the future, , .
... . . . . , . . . . . .
Since r a i n f a l l stored i n c i s t e rns provides the main fresh water source for t he . .
vi l lage areas, t h e demand f o r metal roofing i s a reasonable one and w i l l con-
t inue strong. Eoat construction :#ill continue t o require wo~d, e i t he r sol id
breadfrui t logs f o r outrigger canoes or sawn lumber for t h e more conventional
small boats . Because of the considerable d i f f i c u l t i e s of transporting wood some
. .
individuals o r groups nay lack but, a t present, t h e r e a r e ample supplies of . .
...
wood a n d . thatch . ,. f o r builcting on the a t o l l . Continued clearing and . .
i
be t t e r maintenance of t he groves w i l l . a~itomatica.lly reduce wood supply. Future
prospects a r e f o r diminishing supplies and somewhat higher demands.
Future Neasures -- Suggested measures for irnproting wood supply depend t o some degree on
education o r supervision and hence a re not practlcab3.e under exis t ing circum-
stances. They are: (1) Education i n and encour~gement of simple care of
woodland areas not i n confl ic t with agricu!.tural use. Thus the productivity of
t he mangrove swamps, i n terms of useful material, could be increased by simply
cut t ing or girdl ing oversized and crooked t rees . Breadfruit i s potent ia l iy t he
most valuable timber t r e e and i t s p h n t j n g should be e~couraged beyond the need
f o r the f r u i t .
( 2 ) It i s doubtful t h a t any introduced s ~ e c i e s would be superior t o
breadfruit i n r a t e of growth 0.r general u t i l i t y but Casuarina and the bamboos
have special merits. The Casuarina i s a strand t r ee , occurring on coral shores
elsewhere i n the Pacif ic and might succeed i n the beach zone.. Theform of the . .
t r e e i s f a i r t o good and the wood hard but subject t o sp l i t t i ng . T h e ba~boos
are so gmera l ly useful else-&here tha t they are worthy of e.xkensive t r i a l s .
Mr. Kessel of the Civil Government School a t Majuro reported tha t a pl-anting of
bamboo made there has fa i led . There are several genera and species of bamboos,
however, and these should be t r i e d on a var ie ty of planting s i t e s , especially
t he old t a ro p i t s and, moist s o i l s of the i n t e r io r s , and on the%ree areas of
phosphatic so i l s .
(3 ) Tne poss ib i l i ty of a small portable saxnil1 serving one o r more
a t o l l s should not be overlooked, although admittedly a project of t he future.
Presumahly t h i s would e n t a i l cooperative ownership, and operation would require
mechanical s k i l l s but these problems have already been met with some success i n
t he acquisit ion of atol-1-owned ships. The cap i ta l investment required would
amount t o , say, one-fo~?rth t o one-half of t he sum represented- by the . a t o l l ' s
copra production f o r a single month and hence i s by no meansprohibitive. The
r e a l problems involved a re sa t i s fac tory transpor-t of t h e mi l l from place t o
place and of the l o g s t o t he m i l l , a s well a s rigorous control of cutt ing. The
,sourca of logs wou!d be very la rge ly breadfruit and coconut, t h e l a t t e r yieldhg.
"porcupine wood," sui table f o r use i f kept dry. Obviously such cu t t ing could
not be' permitted t o reduce production of food o r copra and it need not. A re-
placement program for overage palms and removal of over-mature o r crowded
breadfruitwould provide a continuous supply of sawn lumber from materidlnow
l a rge ly wasted. . . . . . .
FOOD SUPPLIES AND NUTRITION
The appraisal of food supply and nut r i t iona l significance can be in only
themost general. terms f o r t he wr i t e r has no e s t i m t e s u f productivity and con-
sumption, nor are there nu t r i t iona l data f o r many components of t he d i e t .
Further, our observations were f o r a l imited period i n the seasonofabundarrt
food. Nevertheless, there a re - ample signs t h a t at present t h i s atoll. i s well
supplied with food, so f a r as t o t a l quant i ty i s concerned. The sustained pro-
duction of copra . i s an obvious guarantee against near-starvation levels . The
unused suppli.es of arrowroot, breadfrui t and alocasia, t he decrease i n f ishing
and t a r o culture, and the ra ther minor a t tent ion t o food storage suggest- that
such food shortages a s occur a r e f a r from c r i t i c a l . -There ma$ well be times
when the d i e t is l imited t o the l e s s desirable foods or those obtainedmore
laboriousiy - t o "fish, crabs and copra" a s was sa id on Lfangar -- but the
ac tua l calor ie intake can be maintained. Further than t h i s , some food i s , .
imported, although primarily f o r the high income f aa i l i e s . , . . .
' N u t r i t i o n i s one of the fads of our time a s well as a subject f o r sober
investigation, andsome of t he recent re&orts o n tRe.Pacif ic areas contain
f a c i l e judgments on ,the adequacy of nst ive diets . Without clinical. evidence of
deficiency . . . . o r detai led appraisal of d i e t , sup~lemented with analyses, s w h . . , ,
juclgnents can scawely be more than opinion. To begin with, from a l l accounts
t he Narshallese thrived f a i r l y well on %heir or iginal is land l i iet which contzind
no l ea fy vegetables, only pandanus and possibly bananas a s f r u i t , and cer ta in ly
no milk. iiather than the or ig ina l d i e t it is the subsequent modification of j.t
t h a t provides cause for co:mern.
From considerations i n other paragraphs it i s evident t h a t the
agr icul tural production of t he a t o l l i n terms of calor ies f a r exceeds present
die tary neecls, although la rge percentage of t h i s i s i n t h e form of copra. Thus . .
it may readi ly be cal.culated tha t about one-third (ca. 1 5 t o 16 tons .pr month) , -.
of t he present copra production would alone f u l l y supply the energy requirements
(2500 calor ies Fer p r s o n per day) of the en t i r e population (1200). Aithough
the idea of such a d i e t i s f an t a s t i c t he f igure demonstrates t he importance of
t h e coconut a s a reserve points out t h a t the amount actual ly consumed i s
only a f ract ion of t h a t prepared f o r ewor t . In f a c t t h e contribution of
coconut t o the average calor ie intake i s probably greater than comonly real.j.&,
for. although the mature nut i s scarceljr eaten when other foods a r e avai lable
the consumption of the sof t f l e sh of d r s ~ i n g nuts and of i~ (cav5ty t i s s u e ) i s
very appreciable. Xuch of t h i s i s eaten outside of the reguiar meals and often
away f romthe dwellings. It seems Likely t h a t coconut ranks near breadfrui t
and pandanus a s major calor ie sources, with t he protein foods, tacca, t a ro , etc.,
and imported foodstuffs ranking well. below.
There i s reason t o believe t h a t f i sh ing i s carr ied on t o a l e s s e r extent
than formerly but t h e principal protein sources are s t i l l f i s h and seafood.
Pork and poultry can make but a smal.1 contribution t o t he average requirement.
Breadfruit and t a r o a r e considered low protein foods but, according t o avai lable
analyses, i f eaten i n suf f ic ien t quanti ty t o s a t i s f y t he d a i l y c a l o r i e requLre- . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
.. . . . . . . . . . .
ment they supply from om.-fuurt,h t o one-haif t he established prote&n..rqpire- . . . . . . .. ,. . . . .
. . . . . . . .
, . . . . . ,
ments of t he normal adult , although the qua l i ty of tkiis protein i s unknow~.. . . . . . . . . . . . .
. . . . . Analyses of dried pandanus f lour and preserved breadfruit . . . . from . Kapingarnarangi .
~. , ,. ,
(kindly supp1j.ed by C, D. Miller, H. Denning . . . and A. Bauer of t l l e m i v e r s i t y . of . . , . , . : . > ' , , . . . . . . . .
, . :
Hawaii) show the dr ied pandanus, and hence presumably t4.e o ~ i g i n a l f r u i t , t o be . .
a poor protein source. Flesh of t he immature coconut qay have a muchhigher . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
protein-calorie r a t i o than the mature nutmeat. . :
Although concern has been expressed over t he starchy d i e t of breadfrui t , . , , , . .
and t a ro the Hawaiian workershave demonstrated tha+ t&ese foods are , i n f a c t , , .
much superior t o white f lour and r i c e i n respect t o t h e B,viti?1?5ns ind calcium. . . . .
- The high calcium content i n araceous plants may be of no value, however,
. . .
because of the presence of oxalates. Breadfruit i s consiciered a fa i r sour ,ce . of . .
vitamin C, even when cooked, and t h i s . . . may be of considerable significance i n . . . . .
view of t he quant i ty consumed. Assays. of the two Rapggaaarangi foods bear out . ,. . ..'.." . . . .
these r e su l t s and suggest t h a t t h e pandanus i s a f a i r source of vitamin A. . ^. , . . . . . . . . . . .
Aithough f lu id from t h e drinking nut contains re la t ive ly , ? m a l l amwnts o f ,> . ,..
accessory substances, t h e quant i ty consumed must be,considered . , i n e v a l u a t i n g its. . , .
contribution. Fish, crabs and other seafood provicle minerals and. several of Qx? . . . . . . .
vitamins, as well a s proteins, i n proportion t o t he q u q t i t y consmed. Vitamin . . .
D . . . i s presumably of l i t t l e concern except f o r in fan ts and some women c ~ n t ~ o u s l ; ~ . . . . . . ,
sheltered from the sun. .... . ,. .:. . . . . . . . .;., . . , . I . .
These considerations suggest t h a t the adequacy o f t h e native d i e t may . . . ..! >
have been maligned unduly, a l thwgh estimates of t h e calcium, phosphorus and , . , . . . . . . .
vitamin C s t a tu s a r e weak. Sut two unhealthy t r e d s , i n t h e d ie ta ry habits. a r e . ' i . . .
appearing: The su'ostituti.on i n par t of white.-flour, sugar. and. r i c e f o r t h e . . . . . . . . . . . !, >; . . . loca l carbohydrate sources, and the rsputed reduction i n fishing. . Both.,of t h e . , . . ' I, ' . . , . . .:: .
tendencies are most marked i n t he Ine v i l l age area b e c a ~ ~ s e of the higher income
and greater foreign contacts, and a re of l e s s e r ixportance i n the more renlo-te
portions of the a t o l i . Fdension of these tendencies w i l l inevi tably lead t o
deterioration i n qua l i ty of the d i e t f o r t h e lack of l ea fy foods, f r u i t s , and
addit ional ;;rotein sources leaves but l i t t l e margin for safety. Yet increase i n
purchasing power encourages such extension and it probably cannot be avoided,
barring actual controls, Suggested posi t ive measures are mandatory enrichment
of f lour , a t such tiiile-when i ts pot-ential use i s suf f ic ien t t o warrant t h i s ,
improved f ishing methods (see report of the lqarine Biologist) and diversifica-,
t i on of t he present subsistence agr lcd- ture , adding new foods while en60uraging
use of t h e old t o provide both var ie ty and nu t r i t i ona l qual i ty i n She modified
d ie t .
It must be pointed out t h a t t h e foregoing estimat.e i s la rge ly based on
i&p?essidns and a. few analyses. Data on the actual consumption of food, both
loca l and imyortsd, a s well a s nu t r i t iona l assays and re la ted evidence, a r e . .
necessary for accurate evaluat,ion and prediction.
SLWY OF T ~ E AGRIZULTUE~;I, SIT'JATION
The agr icul ture of t he a t o l l i s thus seen to 'have two aspects, subsist-
ence and export. The' present subsistence agr icul txre i s derivative and still
r e s t s l a rge ly upon' t h e or iginal food plants, c u l t u r a l zethods and uses of nat ive
vegetation. Introduced plants nave had only minor e f f ec t s on the subsistence
agriculture and d ie t . Originally, agrgculture and f ishing were complementary
subsistence a c t i v i t i e s and t o a large extent s t i l l are. The r e l a t i ve ly small
contribution of introduced animals t o the d i e t e r i s e s from t h e i r l imited number
ra ther than loca l acceptance. Some of the changes occurring i n t h e past half
century o r so a r e displacement of t a r o as a major food, a great increase i n t he
cult ivated area and consecpent elimination o? t h e or ig ina l vegetation, g rea te r
dependence on Lnpr ted goods, and the begimings of subst i tut ion of imported f o r
. J o c d foods.. The pattern: of land holding (see report of t h e hkhropologi.st)
: d o e s not always favor f u l l e s t use of the land, particularly for subsistence
crops. None tne l e s s , t he subsistehce agrLculture is la rge ly adequate and
capable of expanding t o support a considerable increase i n population.
. . . The export ~ g r i c u l t u r e is concerned wholly with cop ra , which i s the
product of an indigenous t r e e cult ivated with pract ices t h a t are .only modifica-
.:::.tions of bhoseempioyed in t h e native agriculture. By those concerned with t he
economics of such areas, increases in export agr icul tural vvales are often
looked upon a s t h e most promising means of providing the goods and services
necessary-:for material improvement of tne people. We nave already estimated
very grossly t ha t f o r A-rno about a two-fold increase :in .co'px% production is
about the most t ha t can be hoped f o r under exis t ing practices. Such an increase
, i s a vforthwhile ob jecti-re but a limi'tted one, even: .*~he~ combined vr i t l i moderate
increases i n qual i ty and productiori. efficiency.' Fujither, pr ices f o r copra in
t h e world markets have been subject t o wide fluctuations in t h e past and. may be
i n t h e future.
Such considerations lead t o t h e question of producing other export crops
i n order t o i n c r e a s e t h e . t o t a l income'of the area and rnilimize the r i sks
inherent i n a single-crop agriculture. Unfortuna.te1.y t h e kresent prospect of
any considerable gains by such means i s exceedingly dim. I n the en t i r e Narsh&
t h e t o t a l area of protected land sui table f o r such crops i s s m a l l and it is
scat tered piecemeal, precluding any la rge single develolxents o r mechanization,
and complicating production and shipaent. Taking Urno a s representative, even
i n favorable r z i n f a l l regions t n e inherent productivity of t he s o i l s f o r most
such crops i s very low. The calcareous s o i l s preclode some crops and without
measures f o r maintaining o r increasing f e r t i l i t y t he success of others would be
fo,redoomed. Finally, were a crop decic!ed upon, discovering var ie t ies ' and
. , < .
cliLtural met'nods adapted t o tire area, the a3nos-t cer ta jn Liicelihood of pest
control and f e r t i l i t y prob!..ems, and the consi.derab1.e task of adapting the
peoglels folk ways t o t h e new crop wokid together requi.r* sustained skill-ed
e f f o r t and suprv is ion .
These and addi t ional causes f o r pessimism a re s e t fo r th by J. C . R ippew.
i n h i s 1946 report on Some ~ g r i c u l t w a l Aspects of ~ i c r o n e s i a , vol. 17 of t he . ..
USCC. Ecckomics Survey of FIicronesia. They a r e a l so implic i t i n t he perceptive
statement of Project No. E. 6, nEconomic Development of Coral IslandsM p r e ~ a r e d
f o r t he South Facif ic Coinmission Research Council. The one possib3.e exception,
sugg@sted by isp pert on, i s the production of f r u i t s , t ruck crops, etc. o n a r e a s
near Pmericm bases t o supply gar r i son forces. Although local ized i n importance
such ma6kets are lucra t ive and t h i s possibi . l i ty should be developed fu l ly . The
price incentives, i f combined with production guidance, would accelerate
agr icul tural change i n t h e areas influenced.
I n the subsistence agr icul ture it i s d e a r that many gains can readi ly be
made and tha t , i n addition, there a r e many p o s s & ~ i i t i e s t h a t o f f e r enough
prospect of success t o waxant ~ome investig&ion. Improvement of the exis t ing
crops and crop t n e s , cu l tura l methods and u t i l i za t ion , a r e real izable
o'bjectives. itltroduction of aciditional. usefd. 'p l 'ants , of which there a r e many
i n t he t ropics , i s an obvious and a t t r ac t ive pros$ect. The same considerations
mentioned f o r nex export c rops apply t o such in t rodwt ions , however, and
numerous f a i l u re s a r e t o '0; ex~ekted: Yet, the clioice is great , t he irwestment
involved i s s m a l l , and a number have &ready been t e s t ed i n par t by former
introducti&s of low isl.ands. 3ut even though swcessfu1;mere introduction is
with0u.t 'value unless t he plant with i t s cul ture i s accepked by the ~ e o p l e and
f i l l s an exis t ing o r created need;;' Moreover, plant iatroduction shou1.d be
looked uFon la rge ly as a means of supplementing, not making over, t he present
adapted agric-dture.
The l imita t ions of agr icul ture have been mentioned, Some general and . . . . . . . . . ,
spec i f ic changes i n the export and subsisterice aspects have been suggested.
Yet what i s c lear ly needed fo r subs tan t ia l impovement i n t h i s region i s a long . .
time program of on-thk-ground invest igat ion l&ked with education and demondE+=-
t ion . Both a c t i v i t i e s can be on a small scale i f properly supported and < .:. . ., . . . . . .
s taffed. A t t h i s stage, by making use of &levant information accumulated . . . . . . . . . . % . . . % . .
elsewhere i n the tropics, 'well conceived einperical. investigations could pay off . . . . . . .
handsomely for a time. The r e s u l t s w i l l be of l i t t l e vrilue, though, without , .. . . . . . . . - . . .
demonstration a n d education 'to b r ing about acceptance. ' Such extension . . . . . .
a c t i v i t i e s n e ~ e s s a r i l ' ~ reachbey&d the questions 'of production t o influence . . . . . :., . . . , $ . . . . .. , . . . . .
u t i l i z a t i o n and consum&ion. Thus, they might weil be f i t t ed" in t0 a l a rge r ... . . . 8 . . . . ' I
program of education and assistance, embracing other aspects of nat ive . . .
. . . . . . indust& and >relfare, but t h i s is a question of administrative policy.
. . . , . . . . . The people of Arno a re extremsly receptive t o new ideas, even though
, ' . . . :. ,, ~
subsequent retention and execution a r e ra ther l e s s than outstanding. Arnericati.. . . . . . .
technical. capacity i s highly regarded because of t he war-time contacts, t he . . . . . , . . .
Bilcini t e s t s and the medical successes against yaws, venereal diseases, e t c . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ,
People would readi ly accept an extension program modeled a f t e r the fami l ia r . . . : . . . .
agr icu l tura l extension and home demonstration a c t i v i t i e s of the U. S., but . .
,, . .
adapted t o t h e i r needs and level . Yet a l l extension work i s presumptuous t o . . . . .. , . . . . . . . . , . . ,
some degree, implying the greater wisdom of the newer knowledge, and i f such a
program i s not t o dis turb the &Clues and the sense of secur i ty i n t h e ex i s t i ng . . . . , . .> , . .
order it must be guided by anthropological a s well. a s technical considerations. : . . .
Summarizing, f o r ~ r n b iitk1.1 we f ind tha t productive capacity i n terms of
value of agr icul tural exports i s below maximum a t present but t h i s maximum is . .
de f in i t e ly l imited. I n terms of subsistence agriculture, t h e land, supple- ~ . . . . . . .
by t h e sea, i s capable of sustaining a considerzbly higher population than i s : ... . . . . . ~ . . . . ~ . .
now present, provided the meager resources a r e used f u l l y and in t e l l i gen t ly .