Pre-1945 Meetings

1. June 1941: the Atlantic Declaration – Roosevelt and Churchill met to discuss the post-war world. At this point, Britain was fighting alone against Germany (America wanted to remain neutral). They agreed that after the war:

• UK and USA would not aim to make any territorial gains (everyone should have self-determination).

• Any transfer of territory should have the consent of the people involved.

• Freedom of trade.

2. November 1943: the Big Three leaders met in Tehran (Iran), currently controlled by Britain.

• USA agreed to open a second front against Germany in the Summer.

3. October 1944: Churchill met Stalin in Moscow. Churchill wrote the percentages agreement ("naughty document") on a piece of paper, which Stalin simply ticked. Roosevelt strongly disapproved as it went against the Atlantic Declaration. Churchill accepted that USSR would dominate Europe and so wanted to make some kind of agreement with Stalin.

1945 Summit Conferences

Yalta – February 1945:

• Roosevelt was very ill (dies 2 months later). Wanted democracy to be introduced in Eastern Poland, but he trusted Stalin and wanted to ensure good relations remained between USA and USSR.

• Churchill very concerned about future of Poland and Eastern Europe – Britain had gone to war in 1939 to protect Poland and did not want to abandon it to Soviet control. Did not trust Stalin and wanted to ensure that Stalin did not impose Communism on territory taken by the Red Army.

• Stalin obsessed with security of USSR. Wanted to retain Polish territory he had gained in 1939 (part of Nazi-Soviet Pact). Wanted to ensure a friendly Polish government (bufferzone against Germany – had been invaded twice in past 50 years).

Why was Poland such a Big Issue at Yalta?

• Largest country in Eastern Europe, so its post-war settlement likely to set a pattern for rest of Europe, but leaders disagreed.

• 2 different groups wanted to form a new governmen t, and Stalin had very different relationship with both:1. 'London Poles' (government in exile) were very hostile towards

USSR, especially after discovery of Katyn massacre (see below).2. 'Lublin Poles' – composed mainly of Communists (Stalin trusted

them).

Katyn Massacre:

1

• 1940 – NKVD (Soviet secret police) was responsible for murdering 11,000 Polish POWs – taken into the forest in Katyn and shot.

• Only discovered in 1943, and used as Nazi propaganda.• Cause of great tension between USSR and USA / Britain.

2

Warsaw Uprising:

• London Poles realised they could only control Poland if they got there before Stalin.

• August 1944 – Polish resistance fighters (loyal to London Poles) attacked German forces occupying Warsaw.

• Stalin did not help even though USSR troops were nearby (wanted Lublin Poles to take over after war).

• Uprising easily smashed by Germans. 300,000 Poles killed. Surviving people of Warsaw sent to concentration camps.

• UK and USA appalled by Soviet attitude (another cause of tension).

Terms of Yalta Agreement:

• Declaration on Liberated Europe : each liberated country (from Nazi oppression) would have free elections ASAP to set-up a democratic government.

• Poland shifted 100 miles West so that USSR gained land but Poland did not lose any (took German land as compensation). Really good for USSR:

- gains a bufferzone.- Poland now contains part of the former Germany, giving Germany reason to fight Poland in future – forced Poland to rely on USSR (creating an alliance).

• Lublin government would include some of the London Poles and there would be free elections ASAP (Stalin said "possible within a month").

• Poland within Russia's 'sphere of influence'.• All POWs in UK and USA would be sent back to USSR. In fact, about

10,000 were executed on their return and many more imprisoned.• Germany divided into 4 zones : occupied by USSR, USA, UK and France

(Churchill wanted its power to be restored).• USSR to help USA in war against Japan within 2 months of end of war

with Germany, and in return receive island territories of Northern Japan (did not actually have to fight much before Japanese surrender).

• UN to be established, with P5 having a veto in SC.

Weaknesses of Yalta Agreement:

• Interpreted differently (e.g. meaning of the word 'democracy' and 'sphere of influence'). For Stalin, democracy was Communism with no opposition allowed.

• Tried to reach an agreement over Poland but not really possible ; Poland was either democratic or friendly towards USSR. Leading Polish figures were anti-Russian and so Stalin needed to destroy free speech.

• Declaration on Liberated Europe contradicted Percentages Agreement of 1944.

Yalta in Practice:

• Stalin did not allow many non-Communists into Polish government, and Molotov (foreign secretary) refused to let London Poles play a significant role. Led by Gomulka, although agreed at Yalta led by Mikolajczyk (head of London Poles).

3

• Agreement was interpreted differently (e.g. 'democracy').• Polish opponents of Communism dealt with ruthlessly: in March 1945,

16 leaders went, at Stalin's invitation, to have talks with Soviet authorities near Warsaw – they were promised personal safety but were arrested and never seen again.

4

Potsdam – July / August 1945:

• Truman, Stalin and Churchill (replaced by Clement Attlee halfway through).

• Truman told Stalin about Manhattan (atomic bomb) Project. Churchill noted Truman's new sense of power in negotiations, as believed it would take USSR 20 years to develop one (actually only took until 1949). In fact, Stalin already knew about the project due to Russian spies but pretended he did not (didn't want to appear intimidated). Stalin told his leading scientist, "The atomic bomb has shaken the whole world. The balance is destroyed." Significant cause of tension.

Agreement at Potsdam:

• German reparations – each country was to take reparations from their zone of occupation. USSR was also to receive industrial equipment.

• Details of new German border, even though UK and USA disliked it.• Nazi Party should be destroyed .

Disagreement at Potsdam:

• USSR wanted to play a part in running the Ruhr (rich industrial area). USA rejected idea.

• USSR wanted to share occupation of Japan. USA rejected.• USA and Britain asked for greater say in events in Eastern Europe.

Stalin rejected.

5

Soviet Take-over of Eastern Europe

Soviet power gradually spread across Eastern Europe to the point that countries could be regarded as 'satellite powers' or 'puppet states', under the domination of Moscow. This was a clear violation of the Declaration on Liberated Europe – Stalin was betraying the Yalta agreement (to allow the development of democratic governments in states liberated from Nazi oppression) by 'liberating' them from freedom!

Poland:

• New Lublin government was dominated my Communists (against Yalta), including key ministries (e.g. Ministry of the Interior).

• Poland effectively forced to sign Treaty of Friendship with USSR, which allowed for Soviet troops to remain in Poland.

• June 1945 – in Moscow, 16 leaders of Polish Home Army (independence movement) convicted of planning military action against USSR (only 2 alive 6 years later).

• July 1945 – USA and Britain admitted defeat over Poland by 'recognising' Communist control.

• Free and fair elections postponed until 1947 (Communists confident they could rig a majority – gained 87% of seats). Mikolajczyk gave up on hope of Polish independence and went into exile. New Polish President was Boleslaw Bierut (Communist and had Soviet citizenship).

• Soviet policies like collectivisation imposed from 1948.

Romania:

• Red Army established Communist-dominated coalition government – in firm control by middle of 1945.

• Ordered the King of Romania to allow him to choose a Prime Minister.• Monarchy abolished in 1947.

Bulgaria:

• November 1945 – heavily rigged elections in which the Communist Party (Fatherland Front) won.

• September 1946 – monarchy abolished by Communist government.

Hungary:

• Had fought on Axis (Germany) side in WW2.• November 1945 – Stalin allowed free elections but the Smallholders

Party won.• Matyas Rakosi (who emerged as leader) referred to 'salami tactics' to

gradually eliminated opponents:- 1946 – members of Social Democratic Party eliminated from government.- Early 1947 – leaders of Smallholders Party arrested and imprisoned for alleged coup.- February 1947 – Treaty of Paris (Hungary's peace agreement) was humiliating - $200m reparations to Russia and loss of land to

6

Czechoslovakia.- August 1947 – rigged elections and Communist Party won. All non-Communist parties banned.

7

Germany:

Within the Eastern zone, Soviets had a free hand in implementing their policies, as did the British and American in the Western zones.

Soviet policies focused on demilitarisation and extracting reparations – whole factories and even rail lines were dismantled and shipped East. German scientists kidnapped and sent to Russia, including rocket scientists and those involved in Hitler's atomic programme. During May / June 1945, mass rape of German women. Millions of ethnic Germans living in (new) Poland (moved 100 miles West at Germany's expense) and Czechoslovakia forcibly expelled from homes creating refugee crisis.

Communist control rapidly established within Soviet zone:• German exiled Communists, led by Walter Ulbricht, re-established

KPD (German Communist Party) and, in April 1946, it was forcibly merged with SPD (most popular party) to form SED (Socialist Unity Party), which dominated government.

• Communists immediately began a programme of Land Reform, taking estates from the wealthy for redistribution. Reparations meant considerable hardship for people in Communist-controlled Germany.

Czechoslovakia (Coup in March 1948):

Situation was different, as it had strong Communist support (no need to rig elections). Czech people had been angered by their 'betrayal' by Britain and France in the Munich agreement of 1938 (gave Czechoslovakia to Germany), and they viewed the Soviet Army, by comparison, as 'liberators'.

• 1946 – free elections with Communists winning 38% of vote. Coalition led by Communists (Prime Minister and key ministries like Ministry of the Interior) was allowed, although it contained Social Democrats and other Central parties – President (Benes) and Foreign Minister (Masaryk) were not Communist.

• However, after forced to reject Marshall Plan by Stalin, Communist popularity rapidly decreased, and there were fears in Moscow that Czechoslovakia may become an unreliable ally.

• February 1948 – top ranks of Czech army, Ministry of Interior and Police purged of non-Communist elements.

• March 1948 – non-Communist ministers forced to resign and Communist Party took control of whole government.

• Masaryk (Foreign Minister) committed 'suicide' , jumping from the window of the Czech Foreign Ministry – KGB (Soviet secret police) involvement suspected.

NB – Czech Coup helped Marshall to persuade Congress to vote for Marshall Aid, as it showed that Europe needed help.

8

Why did Stalin Take Control of Eastern Europe?

To ensure Soviet security. Russia had been invaded twice in the past 50 years by Germany. In June 1941, Operation Barbarossa (the Nazi invasion of Russia) had come as a complete surprise to Stalin, who had been responsible for the Nazi-Soviet Pact. Russia was almost defeated in Winter 1941, which would have lost him his leadership, and so Stalin is therefore determined to ensure his country's security:

• German blitzkrieg (lightning war involving overwhelming force with tanks and armoured vehicles) advance in Summer 1941 proved Russian vulnerability and the need for defence in depth – German tanks advanced to the point where they were in sight of Moscow.

• Russia suffered 22m dead in WW2. Future security was inevitably a top concern.

THIS IS THE MOTIVE STRESSED BY SOME HISTORIANS WHO ARE SYMPATHETIC TO SOVIET FOREIGN POLICY.

Desire to build a Soviet Empire. Stalin can be regarded as a true heir to the Tsars in this respect (they created a Russian Empire). Many of Stalin's post-war ambitions were traditional Russian imperial ambitions.

• December 1945 – he put pressure on the Turkish government to allow Russian naval bases on the Straits linking the Black Sea to the Mediterranean (a traditional Russian imperial goal – naval access to the Black Sea would allow Russia's power and influence to expand southwards).

• 1945 – Stalin demanded control of Libya (a former Italian colony), but this was rejected by Britain and USA.

• July 1945 – at the Potsdam Conference, an American journalist complimented Stalin, saying how pleased he must be to have Russian troops in Berlin. Stalin replied, "Tsar Alexander reached Paris."

Desire to export the Communist system across Europe. Stalin was a convinced believer in the Communist system and wished to see it imposed on the rest of Europe – believed the USSR (and therefore Communism) had been mainly responsible for winning the war. This is proved by the actual conduct of occupying Soviet authorities in countries like Poland, Romania, Bulgaria etc. where Communist governments were swiftly imposed.

In addition to legitimate security concerns, Stalin is individually paranoid (e.g. he bugged the rooms at Yalta). Stalin had come to power in the 1920s by gradually outmanoeuvring and eliminating his opponents – many of those who stood against him were actually murdered (Trotsky, although he fled to Mexico, was eliminated by a Soviet assassination squad). Partly because of his own experience, Stalin was intensely suspicious of threats to his own authority. This explains the hugely aggressive approach he took to eliminating opponents within Russia (millions died in the 'purges'). Stalin's successor, Khrushchev, described him as 'sickly suspicious'. This suspicion extended to the Western powers and their motives (e.g. behind the Marshall Plan) and is one reason why Stalin felt it necessary to extend Soviet control of Eastern Europe.

NB – there is justification for this paranoia:• 1919 – during the Russian Civil War, Britain, France, USA and Japan

fought for the Whites (anti-Communist armies) against the Reds

9

(Communists). This showed capitalist interference in Russia's internal affairs. Churchill had also been the leader most in favour of intervention.

10

The Cominform:

The COMINFORM (Communist Information Bureau) was established in September 1947 in a meeting in Belgrade to coordinate the policy of Communist governments and Communist parties across Europe. This also effectively gave Moscow more control over Communist parties worldwide.

• The Cominform was partly set-up in reaction to George Marshall's proposals for the American-led reconstruction of Europe (which Stalin opposed), in order to coordinate opposition.

• Communist parties from Western Europe (France, Italian etc.) also attended the Cominform meetings and effectively received their instructions at those meetings (e.g. to launch a campaign of opposition to Marshall).

Yugoslavia:

NB – this is an exception to Soviet control, but the story also illustrates the extent to which Stalin expected to dominate the Communist governments of Eastern Europe:

Josip Tito had let Communist partisans (freedom fighters) in a ferocious campaign against the Nazi occupation (Hitler had invaded Yugoslavia in 1941). In 1944-45, these independent Communist fighters had played the dominant role in the liberation of Yugoslavia from Nazi oppression. Tito had not relied on the Soviet Red Army for the liberation of his country (unlike in countries like Poland), and so could be much more independently minded.

• Initially, Tito was Stalin's most loyal henchman. When the Cominform was set-up in September 1947, its first meeting took place in Belgrade, the Yugoslav capital.

• However, there were always tensions between the two men:- Tito's domestic policies (promotion of peasant agriculture) were different to Soviet policies (promoted heavy industry).- Tito was frustrated that Stalin did not actively support the Greek Communist rebels in the Greek Civil War, which was raging from 1945 until 1950.- Tito was known to support creation of a union between Bulgaria and Yugoslavia under his leadership ("Union of Southern Slavs"). Stalin feared this would create too powerful a rival in the Communist world.

In June 1948, the second meeting of the Cominform took place in Poland. Members voted to expel Yugoslavia.

• Violent campaign of anti-Tito propaganda launched by Moscow.• Thousands of 'Titoists' (independently-minded Communists) identified

by secret police forces across Europe and imprisoned / executed for fictional plots against Stalin.

• In late 1948-1949, with Soviet troops massing in Bulgaria, there were serious fears that Stalin was about to launch an attack on Yugoslavia to overthrow Tito. USA made it clear that an attack would not be tolerated and Stalin ultimately took no action. In fact, Yugoslavia even became a recipient of American Marshall Aid (received $60m of military equipment).

11

According to some sources, Stalin was making plans to have Tito poisoned when he died himself in 1953. After Stalin's death, his successor, Khrushchev, ended the dispute with Yugoslavia in 1955 (a foreign policy victory for Tito).

NB – AGGRESSIVE SOVIET IMPOSITION OF ITS POLICIES IN COMMUNIST STATES (FROM 1948) CAN BE SEEN IN YUGOSLAVIA AND IN THE COMMUNIST COUP IN CZECHOSLOVAKIA.

12

The Creation of Tensions between USA and USSR

Initial Determination in USA to Pursue Friendly Relations with USSR:

Initial US priority in 1945 was to bring their troops home from Germany (demobilisation) – there is no appetite within US public opinion for an interventionist US policy in Europe:

• US forces reduced from 12 million in June 1945 to 1.5 million in June 1947. Huge pressure at home for this; even riots at some military bases overseas where demobilisation was delayed.

• 1945 – the Office of Strategic Services (OSS), America's foreign intelligence service, which had been created during WW2, was disbanded. Truman did not see the purpose of such a body in the peaceful post-war world, and feared the creation of some kind of 'American Gestapo'.

This standpoint was also reflected in the initial US policy towards Germany, which was very much based on a fear of German military revival (no need to develop Germany as an ally against the Soviet Union.

• 1944 – Secretary of State Hans Morgenthau revealed the Morgenthau Plan which was very harsh on Germany (he was Jewish):

- partition of Germany.- reduce Germany's industrial potential to the point that it could never again threaten peace in Europe. Included complete dismantling of industrial plants and mines of Ruhr region within 6 months.- huge amounts of reparations.

Stalin was personally a popular figure in America. There was considerable awareness of the huge sacrifice of the Russian people (22m dead) in defeating Hitler. Stalin was Time Magazine's "Man of the Year" in 1942, and he was known as 'Uncle Joe'. Roosevelt had got on very well with Stalin, although even he had disagreements (e.g. during Warsaw Uprising of August 1944).

NB – British policy towards Russia in these very early post-war months was subtly different. British troops were responsible for the occupation of the Ruhr region and much more sensitive to the damage that the Morgenthau Plan could do to European post-war trade. In the face of huge Russian military presence on Western Europe's doorstep (175 Soviet divisions remained mobilised as late as 1947 and it was estimated by British intelligence that, if they wished, it would only take a matter of weeks to conquer Western Europe and reach the channel) the British Labour government (led by Attlee) were concerned about the pace of American withdrawal from Europe.

However, Underlying Tensions between USA and USSR:

To some extent, this was the result of Roosevelt's death in April 1945 and his replacement by Harry Truman (former Vice-President). Truman was much less experienced in foreign affairs, a less effective diplomat, hated Communism, and desired a tougher stance on USSR.

• April 1945 (when Roosevelt died) – Soviet Foreign Minister, Molotov, visited Washington to pay his respects to Roosevelt. Truman privately

13

lectured Molotov on Soviet conduct in Poland, telling him Russia should keep its Yalta promises, and he would not listen to Molotov's responses. Molotov told Truman, "I have never been talked to like this in my life." (NB – this was private; there was not yet any public criticism of USSR).

14

Indicative of the growing tension was the failure of he Allied representatives to agree peace treaties for some of the defeated powers, despite a series of diplomatic conferences in London, Moscow and Paris. In particular, no agreement was ever reached on a peace treaty for Germany at the end of WW2 (Russian demands were too harsh for British and American liking as they had learnt from the Treaty of Versailles). Signature of a formal peace treaty between the Allies and Germany had to wait until the end of the Cold War in 1989!

• Russian diplomats were perceived in the West as being so uncooperative and unhelpful that British newspapers in 1946 started referring to Molotov as "Mr. Nyet" ('No').

Under-the-surface tensions included:• The Nazi-Soviet Pact and Stalin's expansion into the Baltic States

(Finland, Lithuania and Estonia).• Russia was suspicious about the UK / USA war strategy : thought they

had deliberately avoided opening a second front against Germany so that Russian communism would be destroyed.

• NKVD were responsible for the Katyn Massacre in 1944 (page 1).• Soviet lack of involvement in the Warsaw Uprising (page 2).• Britain and America fought on the side of the Whites (anti-Communist

armies) against the Reds (Communists) in the Russian Civil War in 1919.

Further tension was quickly created:• Stalin sought access to the Mediterranean in December 1945 when he

demanded that Turkey should grant Russia naval bases on the Straits linking the Black Sea to the Med (with lots of Soviet troops in Bulgaria and Romania there were fears of fighting). Truman responded with strong diplomatic support for Turkey and a US aircraft carrier was despatched to Istanbul. Stalin backed down in the face of US pressure.

• Soviet failure to promptly withdraw its troops from Northern Iran at the end of 1945 also led to alarm. It had been agreed that they would withdraw within 6 months of the end of the war, but they remained there until March 1946 (seemed to be trying to get in a position to permanently control Iran) when a UN resolution was put forward by USA calling for Soviet withdrawal.

• In the Greek Civil War (1946-49), Communist forces fought against Royalist armies assisted by UK and USA. However, Stalin consistently refused to provide any military support to the Greek rebels – you could argue he was sticking to the his "naughty document" (percentages agreement) with Churchill of 1944 (Greece = 90% British, 10% USSR). This made his claim to other countries stronger.

The Atomic Bomb Created Tension:

August 1945 – atomic bombs dropped on Hiroshima and Nagasaki, forcing Japan to surrender. 246,000 killed in total.

• When Truman told Stalin about the atomic bomb at Potsdam, he told his leading scientist "The atomic bomb has shaken the whole world. The balance is destroyed."

• American justification for use of atomic bomb:- war was ended, saving lives overall.

15

- General George Marshall (head of US forces) estimated that, if they invaded Japanese mainland, 1 million US lives would be lost (and lots of Japanese).

- over the previous 6 months, American bombings had killed over 500,000 in 67 Japanese cities – in this context, atomic bomb was not so bad.

• Stalin saw it as a deliberate attempt to threaten the Soviet Union.• USA refused to share the atomic secret (the technology), creating tension.

16

How did the USA React to Soviet Expansionism?

George Kennan's 'Long Telegram' (February 1946):

George Kennan had been an American diplomat in Moscow since 1933 (when American first gave Russia diplomatic recognition), and so he had seen the brutality of Stalin's regime. The document's purpose was to convince his audience (high-ranking members of the US government – it was a secret internal document) of the need to adopt a tough anti-Communist policy of containment. Key points were:

• Russian foreign policy was aggressive and expansionist.• This was partly because Stalin had a desire to export Communism and

because of old-fashioned imperialism.• The dictatorial nature of the Soviet regime was internally justified by

the presence of a threatening capitalist world outside. Soviet 'security worries' about the USA or Britain were not genuine; the threat was manufactured.

• USSR would use the Communist parties of Western Europe to help infiltrate and undermine Western democracy.

• US policy must be to contain Soviet aggression through an anti-Soviet policy and by supporting Western democracies.

NB – THE (PUBLICLY SECRET) DOCUMENT WAS HIGHLY INFLUENTIAL WITHIN THE HIGHEST RANKS OF TRUMAN'S CABINET AND THE STATE DEPARTMENT.

Churchill's 'Iron Curtain' Speech (5 th March 1946):

Churchill's speech was the first significant public declaration of hostility towards to Soviet Union by a leading Western politician. He referred to the "iron curtain" descending over Europe and Churchill called upon the USA to join Britain in standing up to Soviet expansionism. The purpose of the speech was to draw attention to growing Soviet domination of Eastern Europe and thereby persuade the American people and government of the need to support a more interventionist foreign policy in Europe. Churchill wanted to 'wake them up' to reality as the big call in America was still for rapid demobilisation.

Churchill had a degree of freedom to make this speech; he was not in government, but in opposition, and so did not need to worry as much about the Soviet reaction. Nevertheless, he spoke from a podium (at the University at Fulton, Missouri – Truman's hometown) standing right next to Harry Truman. Despite Churchill's huge personal popularity, US public reaction to Churchill's speech was unfavourable (they still had pro-Russian sentiments), and Truman was forced to publicly distance himself from Churchill's words, as the Cold War was still not obvious at this time (March 1946).

Stalin's reply to Churchill's speech involved him calling him a "firebrand in war" and compared him to Hitler because he had rallied the "English-speaking nations" to stand-up to Communism. He claimed that the growth of Communist parties around Europe was a natural response to the discrediting of fascism and the leading role that Communist partisans (freedom fighters) had taken in standing up against Hitler.

British Economic Collapse Forced American Change (1947):

17

An extremely cold European Winter in 1946 was accompanied by a poor harvest, so people were cold and hungry; in Britain, rationing was worse than during the war. Furthermore, after WW2, there was an economic crisis, with extremely high unemployment. Britain had fought itself to exhaustion and the financial cost to the British government was huge. In 1945, the USA had provided loans to Britain but, particularly in the aftermath of the freezing Winter, Britain was on its knees economically (as was the whole of Europe); it could not afford to maintain its expensive foreign policy commitments (this led to the decision to rush through Indian independence).

• It was clear that Britain could no longer afford to give financial and military support to the governments of Greece and Turkey in their struggles against Communism. In February 1947, a British diplomat in Washington handed the US government a note to this effect.

• Truman was faced with a choice : America could either take over Britain's commitments in the Mediterranean, or he could allow a power vacuum to develop in which Soviet influence was bound to grow ('Long Telegram' advised the former - containment).

The Truman Doctrine (March 1947):

March 12th 1947 – Truman addressed a joint session of Congress and called for the grant of $400m aid to Greece and Turkey. He painted a vivid picture of a developing clash between "two ways of life"; between the "free peoples" and "totalitarian" regimes (an obvious comparison between American democracy and Stalin's Russia, which in turn was compared to Hitler's Germany). He said that "it must be the policy of the United States" to support free peoples in their battle for freedom. The purpose of Truman's speech was to mobilise the support of the US Congress for his policy of aid to Greece and Turkey (where the Doctrine was successful). Congress was controlled by the Republican Party (Truman was a Democrat) and the Republicans were opposed to large-scale government spending. Therefore, Truman needed to frighten his audience so that they would vote for a large grant of money for Europe (NB – Truman succeeded in mobilising Congress's support for his foreign policy, even though Woodrow Wilson failed in getting their support for the League of Nations).

MANY VIEW THE TRUMAN DOCTRINE AS THE MOMENT WHEN THE COLD WAR WAS DECLARED. CERTAINLY, THIS WOULD BE THE SOVIET VIEW AND THE VIEW OF HISTORIANS WHO BELIEVE THAT AMERICAN WARMONGERING WAS THE MAIN CAUSE OF THE COLD WAR. THEY WOULD, SIMILARLY POINT TO TRUMAN'S AGGRESSIVE TREATMENT OF MOLOTOV IN APRIL 1945 AND AMERICAN INTERFERENCE IN THE ITALIAN ELECTIONS OF 1947.

Marshall Plan / Aid:

June 1947 – US Secretary of State George Marshall went on a fact-finding mission to Europe, and was horrified by what he saw. On his return to the US, in the famous Harvard Speech (at the university), he called for a massive programme of aid ($13b) to get the European economy back on its feet. The aid would be offered to all European states (including USSR).

July 1947 – US representatives from most European countries (USSR included) met in Paris to discuss the terms of the American offer. At the

18

conference, it became clear that American aid came with some strings attached. In particular, America insisted that countries would have to work together in administering the aid within Europe. For Stalin, this condition was unacceptable, as he believed it was a US attempt to interfere with Soviet sovereignty.

Soviet Response to Marshall Aid:

The Soviet delegation (of 100 diplomats and economists) stormed out of the Paris conference and other countries of Eastern Europe followed suit. The Czechs remained at the conference, hoping the benefit from the US offers of aid, but President Benes and Foreign Minister Masaryk were summoned for an urgent meeting in Moscow with Stalin; the were forced to withdraw Czech participation (this rapidly decreased Communist support in Czechoslovakia – led to the Coup). This meant that Marshall aid would go to Western European countries alone in the end.

The USSR not only forbade Eastern European countries from accepting Marshall Aid, it also, established COMECON in 1949 – a trading bloc of Communist countries (not as effective as Marshall Plan). It was argued that this was an example of American imperialist interference in the sovereignty of other countries (NB – this view can be supported by US involvement in Italian elections in 1948, but it can also be opposed by the rapid American demobilisation in 1945-47). Across Europe, particularly in France and Italy, Communist parties remained strong and Communist-dominated trade unions launched strikes in protest against Marshall Aid.

• A pro-Soviet viewpoint would argue that Stalin sent the delegation to Paris with good intentions – over 100 Soviet diplomats and economists attended. It could be argued that Britain and France conspired with the USA to put forward a plan which they knew Stalin could not accept.

• An anti-Soviet viewpoint would argue that Stalin never intended to accept Marshall Aid and only sent a delegation to Paris to undermine the plan. Moreover, they would emphasize the brutality of the way in which Stalin forced other European countries, especially Czechoslovakia, to reject the aid.

US Motivation for Marshall Aid:

Genuine desire to help the people of Europe (real generosity!) Marshall had visited Europe in June 1947 and seen the awful conditions – serious starvation and a refugee crisis. Pictures of his visit were shown on US cinema screens, putting public pressure on Washington to act.

Genuine fears of economic collapse. American had vivid memories of the 15m unemployed in USA during the Great Depression, a dreadful time in America's history. There was real concern that, if European economies did not recover, the American economy would suffer because Europe was USA's major trading partner. Of course, with the return of millions of American soldiers who had been serving overseas (demobilisation), the threat of unemployment, which would accompany a fall in trade, was greater. Economic self-interest compelled America to back Marshall Aid, especially as much of the Marshall money was spent on American goods to help rebuild

19

Europe (including US mules – offspring of male donkey and female horse – exported to Italy and Greece to help recover agriculture).

US security concerns. There were fears that economic collapse would enable the spread of Communism throughout Europe. In 1947, membership of the Italian Communist Party had reached 2 million and membership of the its French counterpart had reached 1 million. If Communist countries came to power (as economic hardship breeds extremism – e.g. Hitler), then the security of Western Europe and ultimately the USA could be undermined. General Clay, the US General who led US occupation in Germany, said, "There is no choice between being a follow of Communism on 1500 calories and a believer in democracy on 1000 calories." Marshal Aid was a way of saving Europe from Communism, for America's security advantage.

NB – Marshall Aid was hugely expensive – it is very doubtful that Congress would have agreed to spending $13b on European recovery with this security imperative (most important reason). In fact, the Bill which made Marshall Aid a reality was facing considerable Republican opposition, until the Communist Coup in Czechoslovakia in March 1948. Finally signed on April 3 rd 1948 .

20

US Involvement in Italian Elections of April 1948:

America claimed to be disinterested in the aid it was giving to the countries of Western Europe. However, between 1947 and 1948 the new CIA was responsible for a covert (secret) operation to support the Christian Democrat Party, led by Gasperi, in its battle with the Communist Party. By its own later admission, the CIA secretly gave $1m to the Christian Democrat Party to help during the election campaign (which they won with 48% of the vote compared to 31% for the Communist Party) .

NB – this US interference in a democratic election (!) emphasizes American security concerns about Communism.

Success of Marshall Aid:

Marshall Aid was a great success. The programme finally ended in 1952 (started in 1948) by which stage the economy of every recipient state had surpassed its pre-war level (1948-52 was the fastest period of economic growth in European history with industrial production up by 35%). The largest recipients were France, Britain, the Western sectors of Germany and Italy, but almost every country in Western Europe (except Spain) benefited. Although Marshall Aid was not strictly a gift to all European countries (some countries, especially Germany, would have to repay a debt), in practice it was known from the start that almost all money would never be returned.

NB – the Communist Coup in Czechoslovakia helped Marshall because it persuaded Congress that Europe needed help. If it had not happened, Marshall Aid may not have been approved.

21

Berlin Blockade and Airlift

Situation in Berlin after the War:

There was an armistice (end to the fighting) but a peace treaty was never agreed (until end of Cold War in 1989):

• At Potsdam the leaders disagreed on the terms for a treaty.• After Potsdam, the new Conference of Foreign Ministers (CFM) met 5

times between 1945 and 1947. They agreed on treaties for Hungary and other countries, but not Germany.

• USSR wanted a really harsh treaty (22m dead) but UK and USA had learnt from Versailles.

• British newspapers in 1946 started referring to Molotov as "Mr. Nyet" (always said 'no'). Saw USSR as simply obstructive.

Treaty was badly needed:• Cities were simply rubble and people were suffering.• German economy was not functioning properly.• People were starving.• Britain had to export coal to Germany during the freezing Winter of

1946, even though they were suffering too (Germany was much worse).

Matters were made much worse when Soviet officials suspended shipments of grain from the agricultural Eastern zone of Germany (under Soviet control) to the more industrial Western zones. Food shortages made much worse.

Bizone and Trizone:

1st January 1947 – Britain and America responded with the creation of Bizone (a merger of US and British occupied zones of Germany):

• Britain was under huge financial stress and needed US support.• USSR was angry as their permission had not been requested and felt

as if they were being ganged-up on.

20th June 1948 – the Western powers introduced the new Deutsch Mark (new currency) in Trizone (France's zone had now merged with Bizone):

• New currency required to prevent economic collapse.• Currency is seen as the main symbol of a country's sovereignty and so

this was extremely provocative to the USSR (felt like they were creating a new country).

Berlin Blockade:

Berlin was completely contained within the Eastern (Soviet) sector of Germany, but three quarters was controlled by USA, UK and France. This frustrated the Kremlin as the situation appeared to offer British and American intelligence services an invaluable outpost from which to conduct their operations behind the 'Iron Curtain'. Furthermore, the introduction of the Deutsch Mark to Western zones of Berlin (Trizone) seemed to present a threat to the economy of the Eastern zone – people would see the capitalist system was working better.

22

24th June 1948 – blaming 'technical difficulties', Stalin ordered the severing (breaking) of all road, canal and rail links between Western and Eastern zones, even though they were allowed to be there!

The initial American response was to send US tanks to force their way up the autobahns. However, this military confrontation would have likely caused war.

The British response was more sensible – came up with the idea of keeping Berlin supplied from the air (all other access was blocked). Britain had learnt with Hitler that appeasement does not work and so, if they gave-in to Stalin, more would follow.

Berlin Airlift:

It was a hugely complex and difficult operation:• Needed to supply almost 5000 tons (imperial measure) of food and fuel

a day to keep the 2m inhabitants of the Western zones alive.• Required one US or UK plane to land at a Berlin Airport every single

minute (either at Tempelhof Airport in the US sector, or Gatow Airport in the British sector).

• By the end of August 1948, 1500 flights every day.

Soviet response:• The Communist press in Eastern Berlin ridiculed the exercise as

impossible and futile.• Stalin ordered Soviet fighter aircraft to interfere in these missions,

deliberately 'buzzing' British and American aircraft (pretend to crash into aircraft, moving away at the last second).

July 1948 – 60 B29 'atomic capable' US bombers were moved from their bases in the US to Britain (larger than the one used in Japan). This was well publicised = atomic blackmail.

Flying in the Berlin Airlift was extremely dangerous:• Only 500m vertical separation between aircraft.• 101 airmen died.• The Winter of 1948 was relatively gentle – the operation was still

difficult to maintain, but it would have been impossible with a harsh Winter (like in 1946).

Stalin remained cool throughout:• He could have easily ended the airlift by intercepting the radio signals

from US air traffic control, but he was very cautious – did not want to cause a war (like in Greek Civil War).

12th May 1949 – the blockade was ended ('technical difficulties' were resolved).

Consequences of the Blockade and Airlift:

Trivial consequences:• Huge propaganda boost for USA and UK – they had acted morally and

23

the USSR had backed-down.• Morale boost for anti-Communist Germans .• Gail Halvorsen, an American Lieutenant, was so impressed by the

positive reactions of German children that he dropped chocolate bars in mini parachutes – became known as the 'Candy Bomber'.

24

More serious consequences:• May 1949 – UK, USA and France created the new independent state of

Western Germany (separate country).• USSR responded with the creation of the German Democratic Republic

(East Germany).• Neither German state formally 'recognised' the existence of the other,

as the governments of both states claimed control of the whole of Germany.

NB – the 'Iron Curtain' was now really obvious.

NATO:

4th April 1949 – the North Atlantic Treaty (Organisation) was signed, which became the NATO alliance (mutual assistance pact):

• 12 founding member states, including Western Germany.• Article 5 of the treaty effectively bound the USA and other member

states to come to the aid of other member states were they to be attacked ("including the use of armed force").

• USA firmly turned its back on isolationism (agreed to defend Europe), which was very surprising.

• USSR was not mentioned in the treaty but it was clear that it was directed against Communist expansion.

• American troops remained in Berlin.

The USSR responded with the creation of the Warsaw Pact in 1955 – it was made with the satellite states who were forced to join.

NB – in April 1949 (same time as the creation of NATO), the USSR tested its first atomic bomb, which was a direct copy of the American bomb dropped on Nagasaki (Russian spies had stolen the technology from the Manhattan Project).

25

Who was to Blame for the Outbreak of the Cold War?

USSR was to Blame:

1. Aggressive imposition of Communism in states of Eastern Europe:

• Poland.• Romania.• Bulgaria.• Hungary.• Germany (Eastern sector).• Czech Coup.

2. Berlin blockade:• Attempted to starve 2m Berliners into submission.• Pushed the world to the brink of war.

3. Even during WW2, Stalin is behaving badly:• Katyn Massacre of 1940 (discovered in 1943).• Did not help Poles in the Warsaw Uprising, even though Soviet

troops were near.

4. Stalin's imperialism:• Demanded the Black Straits in Turkey in 1945.• Delayed withdrawing troops from Iran in 1945-46.• Aggressive treatment of Tito in Yugoslavia in 1948.

5. Stalin breached his promises:• Did not allow free and fair elections in Poland, breaking the

'Declaration on Liberated Europe' agreement from Yalta.

Not USSR – Actions were Justifiable:

1. Soviet security concerns were legitimate and justifiable:• 22m Russians dead in WW2.• Aggressive action in Eastern Europe was just to create a

'bufferzone' and to ensure that supply routes to Germany remained accessible.

• Russia had been invaded 3 times through Poland.• Western powers did not take Soviet security concerns seriously.

2. Legitimate reason to fear the Western powers:• Intervened in the Russian Civil War on the side of the Whites

(against Communism), interfering in Russia's internal affairs.

3. Stalin did not actually breach promises:• The Yalta agreement was ambiguous, and Stalin interpreted it

differently to Roosevelt (e.g. meaning of the word 'democracy').• He stuck to the 'Percentages Agreement' decided with Churchill in

1944 in Moscow, as seen by lack of intervention in the Greek Civil War. This agreement and the 'Declaration on Liberated Europe' contradicted each other.

26

USA was to Blame:

1. Unilateral approach taken in foreign policy in Europe:• Created Western Germany (sovereign state with its own currency).• Excluded USSR from decisions, even though it played a huge role in

winning the war. This was highly provocative.

2. Initiatives were provocative:• Economic cooperation required by Marshall Aid involved too much

interference in the Soviet economy, making it impossible for them to accept (would infringe on sovereignty).

• NATO was directed against USSR and its expansion.

3. Truman:• Extremely anti-Communist (unlike Roosevelt).• Little experience in foreign affairs (unlike Roosevelt).• Confrontation with Molotov as soon as he became President.• Insensitive towards legitimate Soviet security concerns.• Truman Doctrine compared Stalin to Hitler (talked about

'totalitarian regimes').• Atomic diplomacy provoked USSR, making them feel threatened:

- dropped on Japan before USSR could share victory.- USSR threatened with nuclear retaliation during Berlin

Blockade (60 bombers moved from USA to England).- failure to share the atomic secret (technology) with allies.

4. Not willing to compromise on ideology:• Interference in the 1948 Italian elections (CIA gave $1m to

Christian Democrat Party to help them with their election campaign to defeat the Communist Party).

Both USSR and USA were to Blame:

• Leaders were suspicious of each other.• Leaders were only focused on their own interests – not willing to

compromise.• Both involved in the Berlin Blockade and Airlift.• Leaders disagreed at the 1945 summit conferences – some areas

should have been resolved better to avoid disagreement at a later date (e.g. definitions of 'democracy' and 'sphere of influence').

No one was to Blame (probably the best answer):

• USSR and USA had vast differences in their beliefs and ideologies – they were uneasy allies, only as a result of a common enemy (Hitler) during WW2. Communism and capitalism are completely different; American Capitalism desired equal rights and freedom, whereas Soviet Communism wanted a dictatorship with no individual rights or freedoms. It was not their fault that they had opposing ideologies; it just happened to be, and this created all the underlying tensions that caused the Cold War.

27