Athlone Power Station Shannon

8/9/2019 Athlone Power Station Shannon

1/31

MASTERS IN URBAN INFRASTRUCTURE DESIGN AND MANAGEMENT

Susta inab le Urban Systems

ATHLONE POWER STATION REDEVELOPMENT PROPOSAL

sha nno n royden-turner RYDSHA001

INTRODUCTION:

The c ity of C ape Tow n, like m any o the r cities in the world , is fac ing a n infrastructu ra l c risis. The ma jority

of its infrastructu re system s we re built fo r a linea r, one -throug h m eta bolism wh ich is essent ially open,

meaning tha t the effec t has no impac t on the c ause a s wo uld be the c ase in a c losed system . In the

c ontext of a w orld w here more pe op le reside w ithin the urban environm ent tha n in the rural

env ironm ent , it has eve r increa sing c onseq uences for our na tural environm ent . Resourc es a re b eing

c onsumed a t a rate b eyond the regenerative ab ility of the na tural sources and wa ste is being

d isca rde d into our na tura l sinks at a rat e be yond their ability to ab sorb t hese wa stes.

This has dire c onseq uenc es not only for the e nvironm ent, but a lso for human w elfare and the

ultima tely the ec onomy, sinc e the ec ono my is reliant on resources from the environm ent a nd huma ns

to the w ork. The m a jority of de velopments a re e cono mica lly d riven, resulting in the d etriat ion of the

env ironm ent a nd to the ne g lec t of huma n we lfa re. Ba rtelem us (2003) refe rs to this as a red uc tionist

trend , where susta inable d eve lop ment is eq uate d with susta ined e conomic grow th. This trend has

be en seen as a means to a ddressing issues of p ove rty and unde rdevelop ment. It ha s how eve r

bec om e increa singly c lear that the se trends are failing to a c hieve any rea l deve lopm ent. It is useful to

give a de finition for develop me nt to ensure tha t there is a c lear understand ing of the d ifferenc e

be twee n g rowth and de velopment as I be lieve the terms have be c ome increasingly grey a nd ill-

de fined in the w ay p eop le use the words. Good land and Daly provide the dictionary de finition a s

follow s: 1. to g rowme ans to inc rea se in size, am ount or de gree by assimila tion ; 2. to d evelopmeans

to expa nd , bring o ut po tentialities, c ap ab ilities; to a dvanc e from a lower to a higher state . When


2/31

spe aking a bo ut sustainab ility it is impo rtant to note the d ifferenc e in the meanings of the se tw o wo rds,

in that d eve lopm ent is susta inable, and throug hput grow th is not 1

The p rop osal for Athlone Power Sta tion ac tively seeks new wa ys to eng ag e with the que stion of

susta inab le d eve lopm ent in a w ay that a c hieves integ rat ion b etw een p reviously dis-integ rate d

c om munities throug h find ing c rea tive wa ys to d esign a nd m anag e infrastruc ture to supp ort a

red uce d growth in throughp ut.

THEORY:

The first essent ial question tha t nee ds to b e und erstood in order to respond to our p rob lem sta teme nt

is what is our und erstand ing o f life . This will ena b le us to identify be twee n living a nd non-living

system s, but m ore imp ortan tly it w ill provide us with a basis for com parison betw ee n d ifferent living

systems, nam ely the na tural ec osystem and the urba n ec osystem . There is ric h insight tha t c an be

ga ined from understanding the funda menta l differences be twe en the se two system s. This

unde rstand ing will provide us with a set o f princ ip les which c an be ap plied to the urban system in

orde r to a lign it with a na tural system .

As desc ribed b y Fritjof Ca pro there a re three key c riteria tha t desc ribe a living system .

The study of, pa ttern which is unde rstood to inc lude fo rm, order and quality; and the study o fstruc ture, which includes substance, ma tter, and qua ntity, toge ther form the key to a c om prehensive

theory of living system s. To und erstand these tw o c riteria C ap ro uses the fo llow ing d efinitions:

The p a tte rn of o rganisa tion o f any system , living or non-living, is the c onfigura tion o f relat ionships

amo ung the systems c om pone nts tha t d ete rmines the system s essent ial cha rac teristics.

The structu re o f a system is the physica l emb od iment [ rep resenta tion] o f its pa tte rn of o rganisa tion.

This spea ks mo re spec ific a lly about the system s ac tua l physica l co mp one nts-their shapes and

c hem ica l com po sitions, where the pa tterns of orga nisat ion rep resent a more a bstrac t ma pping o f

rela tionships. These two c riteria c an b e used to desc ribe both a living a nd non-living system. This

+1Rob ert Good land; Herman Daly: Environm enta l Sustaina bility: Universal and Non-Negotiable

Ec ologica l Ap plic ations, Vol. 6, No. 4. (Nov., 1996), pp . 1002-1017.


3/31

nec essita tes an essential third c riterion tha t c an be used to de sc ribe the d ifferenc e be twe en living

and non-living system s. In a living system there is c ont inual c hange o f the c om pone nts. There is a

c onstant mot ion of m atte r through the c ell of a living system . All ce lls of a living system cont inually

me rge a nd d issolve structu res and eliminate waste p rod uc ts. This sugge sts a p rocess of life wh ich

Ca p ro d esc ribes as the a c tivity involved in the c ontinual emb od ime nt of the system s pa ttern of

orga nisation. It is therefore the link betw een p atte rn a nd struc ture.

Figure 1 be low show s the simp le me tabolic p roc esses in a p lant c ell. It c ont a ins the key c riteria

desc ribed a bove wh ich make it a living system . This d iag ram c ou ld a lso rep resent the p roc esses of a

natural ec osystem without a ny c hange s to the pa tterns, and proc esses. The struc ture c hang es to

reflec t d ifferent p hysica l comp onents, but the proc esses tha t happ en w ithin a nd relationships

between the physica l comp onents rem a ins the sam e a s for the c ell, as rep resented by figure 2. What

is imp ortant to note is that in both system s the wa ste p rod uc t from the d ec om po sition com po nent is a

resource fo r the p rod uc tion co mp onent, and this hap pe ns within the bound ary of the c ell or the

natural ec osystem . The outputs be yond the b ound a ry are minima l and in the ca se o f the c ell, the

out put is the inp ut to other proc esses. Likew ise the hea t tha t is the output from the na tural ec osystem

forms an input to the a tmospheric system .

Figure1. The me tabolic proc esses of a plant ce ll Source: Cap ro, 1996


4/31

Figure 2. The meta bolic p roc esses of the natural ec osystem Source: Ga sson, 1996

Figure 3 b elow show s an urba n ec osystem placed within the natural ec osystem .

There are two fund am enta l d ifferenc es betw een this d iag ram and tha t of bo th the na tural ec osystem

and tha t o f a c ell. The first, relates to the fac t tha t the urba n ec osystem relies on ma terial extrac tion

from the natural eco system in order to produc e e nergy to feed the p rod uction and c onsumption

c om po nents of the system . The sec ond differenc e is tha t the urba n de c om po sition com ponent sits

outside of the urba n b ound ary, within the na tural ec osystem . These impo rtant de viations from the

previous figures a re importan t since it de sc ribes a system tha t is ma terially op en. In cont rast to this, the

c ell and na tural ec osystem desc ribe a system tha t is ma terially closed , g iven tha t the inputs into these

two system s are energy and air, and there outp uts are energy and air, making them ma terially c losed .

In ot her wo rds a ll the ma teria ls req uired for their surviva l are ob ta ined from proc esses within the

boundary. A de fining c ha rac teristic o f urban ec osystem s therefo re is tha t it is ma terially op en. This has

an a dve rse effec t on the natural ec osystem within w hic h the urba n ec osystem functions, as these

ma terials are extrac ted and d isposed of into the natu ral ec osystem , disrupt ing the d elic ate

eq uilib rium of t he natural ec osystem .


5/31

Figure 3. The u rban me tabolism shown within the na tural ec osystem. Source: Author

Figure 3 c learly illustrates the increa sed c om plexity when the urban ec osystem is inserted into the

na tural ec osystem . The b a lanc e o b ta ined within the na tural ec osystem, as illustrated in Figure 2, is

c learly d isrupte d by the extrac tion of raw ma teria ls and extra wa ste m ate rials that it is req uired to

p roc ess. This puts p ressure on the sources of the na tural ec osystem as ma terials a re being extrac ted

from the e cosphere a t a rate tha t is beyo nd its ra te o f reg eneration . The sinks, wh ich a bsorb a ll the

wa stes, are a lso b eing forced to dec om pose a ma terial am ount tha t is be yond its ab sorptive

c ap ac ity. The a mount of bac teria responsib le for dec om position has not c hange d. Likewise the p lant

life respo nsible fo r prod uc tion has in most c ases dec rea sed , making the ba lanc e a chieved in figure 2

no longer po ssible.

The q uestion then is wha t c hang es c an we ma ke to the urba n ec osystem in orde r to a lign it with the

natural ec osystem to re-establish a ba lanc e?

The a nswe r to th is question lies in cha ng ing the urban ec osystem to m imic a na tural ec osystem ,

thereby reduc ing t he a dve rse e ffect s of the e xtrac tion of raw m ate rial from the na tural ec osystem ,

and t he w aste tha t is d ispo sed outside the bound ary in quantities be yond wha t the na tura l ec osystem


6/31

is c apab le of a bsorbing w ithin its p roc esses. This req uires a sep a ra te response to ea c h of the

c omp onents that m ake up the urba n ec osystem: produc tion, co nsumption a nd d ec omp osition.

Prod uc tion on the plane t ma kes use o f two prima ry sources- energy a nd ma tter, which p rovide wa ter,

ene rgy, food and ma terials for consump tion b y a ll living system s. These sources a re p resent as either

renewa ble or non-renewa ble resources, and are gove rned by the law s of c onservation.

Throug hout the proc ess of produc tion, consump tion and d ec om po sition both ma tter and ene rgy a re

c ont inually transformed throug h a proc ess go verned by three important physica l laws. These a re

c ollec tively known a s the Laws of Conservat ion. The first law of the conservat ion of energy [a lso know

as the first law of the rmodyna mics] d ea ls with the c onservation of e nergy a s an und erstand ing of

quantity, and states that energy is neither created nor destroyed during transformation processes.

Energy exists in a numb er of d ifferent forms, che mica l energy, hea t energy, motion energy a nd is

c ont inually transformed betw een these fo rms during both na tural and industria l proc esses. Simila rly the

law of c onservation o f ma ss during ma teria l transforma tions dic ta tes that the tota l ma ss of the

ma terial inputs to the transforma tion p roc ess is eq ua l to the to ta l ma ss of ma terial outp uts2.

The importanc e o f this law is tha t of a ll the resourc es which we extrac t, ind ustria l proc esses ge nerally

use a sma ll pe rcenta ge of the ma teria l which is extrac ted . This means that the rem a ining ma terial not

used during the p rod uc tion proc ess must end up som ew here, usua lly back in the natural environm ent.

The third law go verns the q uantity of a tom ic elem ents used during a proc ess, where the a mount of

at om s present b efore a proc ess is eq ual to the a mount o f ato mic elements a fter, allow ing us to

dete rmine the environm enta l burden c aused during industrial p roc esses.

These law s only provide a portion o f our understand ing ab out the ma terial and ene rgy w orld we live

in. From the a bo ve und erstanding o f the Laws of Conservation, we ma y question why we need to go

on e xtrac ting ma teria ls from the ea rth; why not keep using t he m ate rials we have alrea dy extrac ted

ove r and ove r aga in. To unp ac k the relationship b etw een our industrial ec onomy a nd the

env ironm ent , and why it is not p ossible to d o a way with the p rimary sec tor responsible for the

extrac tion o f ma terials from the environm ent, we ne ed to b e familia r with the sec ond law o f

thermo dynamic s. So, while the first law o f thermod ynamic s sta tes tha t the qua ntity of energy d uring

transforma tion rem ains the sam e b efore a nd afte r, and the sec ond law refers to the a va ilab ility of

+2 Tim Jac kson, 1996, Materia l Conc erns: Pollution , profit a nd the qua lity o f Life.


7/31

that ene rgy to pe rform useful work.3 So, while the qua ntity of e nergy be fore a nd a fter the

transforma tion rema ins the same , this same quantity be c om es less and less ava ilab le to p erform useful

wo rk. To be tter unde rstand this Jackson uses the exam p le of a c onve ntiona l therma l powe r stat ion

which conve rts hea t ene rgy into e lectrica l energy a t a n efficiency of 35-40 pe rc ent. This means that

acc ording to the first law o f co nservation, the to tal am ount o f energy must be c onserved, which

means tha t the rem aining 60-65 pe rcent of the ene rgy, is given o ff as wa ste. In p rac tise w e know tha t

this is given off as low g rad e hea t energy, and that , be c ause o f the sec ond law o f thermo dynam ic s,

this hea t ene rgy c anno t b e used to raise m ore stea m to ge nerate the turbine, as it is given o ff at a

lowe r tem pe rat ure tha n the hea t energy ente ring the system .

The a bo ve referenc e to a thermal powe r sta tion is a g oo d e xamp le of how the urban ec osystem

gene ra tes ene rgy as it poses another issue tha t is important to reflec t upon. The p rod uc tion of energy

within the urban ec osystem forms a c ritic al deviation from the p rod uc tion of ene rgy w ithin a na tural

ec osystem. The na tura l ec osystem relies purely on sola r energy as an energy source . This p rovides a

self-reg ulating element w ithin the system . The ba lanc e be twe en all the spe c ies is ma inta ined by this

limiting fac tor. The a mo unt o f energy rad iate d from the sun limits the g row th of p lants, which in turn

restric ts the g row th of the a nimal population keep ing it in harmony w ith the a mount of food tha t is

ava ilab le. This c onc ep t is eloq uent ly c ap tured in the fo llow ing quote, The strugg le for existence is the

strugg le for ene rgy4.

The urba n ec osystem d efies this ba lanc e. Huma ns have c rea ted a system tha t is no long er reliant on

sola r ene rgy, and have found other ways to substitute their ene rgy supp lies. This has essent ially freed

them from the p ositive fee dbac k, or limiting fa c to r, wh ich g ove rns the na tural ecosystem . This ha s

resulted in a p op ulation explosion whic h wo uld not b e p ossible within the na tural ecosystem. The

alternative energy systems that humans have created to sustain the urban ecosystems are extremely

ineffic ient, given our und ersta nd ing of the sec ond law o f thermod ynamic s. To illustrate t his point,

figure 4 b elow ha s be en c rea ted from da ta ab out Ca pe Town Metrop olitan, co llec ted by Barrie

Gasson [2007].

+3 Tim Jac kson, 1996, Materia l Conc erns: Pollution , profit a nd the qua lity o f Life.

4 Boltzmann living in a material world


8/31

Figure 4. A d iag ramm atic rep resenta tion of Ca pe Tow n s ene rgy system rep resent ing inputs, outputs

and wa ste. Source: Data from Barrie Ga sson

The w asted ene rgy from the va rious p rod uc tion p roc esses used within the Ca pe Tow n Me trop olitan toge nerate ene rgy is eq ual to 68%. This wa sted ene rgy is given off as low grad e energy tha t c anno t b e

used to g enerate m ore electrica l energy, but could how ever provide hea t energy to industry.

Current ly this hea t, or low grade, energy is g iven o ff as waste. This c learly de mo nstrates a ma jor issue

within the urba n ec osystem that need s urge nt a ttention. The e xtrac tion o f raw ma teria l from the

natural ec osystem is one of the funda mental p roc esses that set the urba n ecosystem apa rt from the

na tural ec osystem , as p rev iously disc ussed , and it is a lso the b iggest c ont ributo r tow ards the wasted

ene rgy, due to the fac t tha t it req uires large am ounts of ene rgy to extrac t and transpo rt it to the

p roc essing p lant. This ma terial c ycle c rea tes an imb alanc e within the natural ec osystem sinc e the

ma terial tha t is extrac ted from the na tural ec osystem is extrac ted at a rate that is faster than the

system s ab ility to reg ene ra te , ca using the dep letion o f these resources.

This dep letion o f resources is fundame nta lly importan t in understand ing the industria l ec ono my. The

resource inpu ts into industria l p roc esses a re c lassified by two types: rene wa b le and non-renew ab le.

The m a jority of industria l processes deve loped during t he industria l revo lution a re reliant on non-

renewable resources. At the current rate of extraction, there is a finite supply of non-renewable

resources since it has taken thousands of ye ars to c reate these ma terials. They essent ially bec om enon-renew ab le w hen they a re e xtrac ted at a rate which is faster than they a re a ble to reg enerate.

Renewa b le resources how eve r are p rod uc ed throug h much faster, c ontinuous natural p roc esses, and

a re the refore infinite to a n extent, provided that they a re no t ha rvested at a rate that is quicker than

their ra te o f reg ene ration.


9/31

Our current ind ustria l ec ono my is hea vily reliant on non-rene wab le resources, wh ich c rea tes an

ob vious p rob lem if we c onside r them to be finite. These resources a re transformed from o ne fo rm to

another from the t ime tha t they are extrac ted from below the e arths c rust. In essenc e, this is the

rea son why a w orld tha t is dep end ant o n non-renewa ble resources will need to c ontinually extrac t

these resources to p rov ide ene rgy. This posse s c onsiderab le c ha lleng es g iven tha t a ll our system s

have be en e stablished on t he a ssump tion that these source s are infinite. To c om po und the p rob lem

the resources tha t w e d o e xtrac t o r co llect a re e xtrem ely ineffic iently used . Below the d iagram s are

rep resenta tions of the m at erial and wa ter consump tion within the Ca pe Tow n Metropo litan, c ollec ted

by Ba rrie Ga sson [2007]. These d iag ram s illustrate the e xtrem ely waste ful systems within whic h we

func tion in the urban environm ent . Ensuring a susta inab le future requ ires a rec oncep tua lisa tion of the

wa y in which w e c onsume ma terials, what m aterials we c onsume a nd ho w w e c an c onside r waste a s

a resource.

Figure 5. A d iag ramm atic rep resenta tion o f Ca pe Tow n s solid waste system rep resent ing inputs,

out puts and rec yc ling . Source: Data from Barrie Ga sson


10/31

Figure 6. A diagramm atic rep resenta tion of Cape Tow ns wa ter system rep resent ing inputs, outputs

and recyc ling . Source: Data from Ba rrie G asson

These d iagram s show a loc al c ase within the South Africa n c onte xt. They c ould how eve r be used to

illustrate the sc ena rio of mo st c ities throughout o ur p lane t to a ma rg inally grea ter or lesser degree .

The p rod uc tion p roc esses within a n urban ec osystem predom inantly foc us on e nergy gene ration,

wa ter purifica tion, and industrial p rod uc tion processes. An impo rtant conc ep t that c ould p oint

towa rds esta b lishing p rod uc tion p roc esses tha t req uire less ma terial inputs and gene ra te sub stantially

red uc ed wa stes, is argued by Da vid Gibb s, [2005] to hold e normous potential throug h the c rea tion o f

industria l proc esses based on industria l ec olog y. Ind ustria l ec olog y a ttemp ts to a lign industria l system s

with natural ecosystems by connecting different waste-producing processes and industries into a

netwo rk ca pa ble o f op erating in a co llec tive m anner to reduc e bo th inputs and outputs from single

industries. In a n idea l sc ena rio it w ould be po ssible to achieve zero d isc harge we re effluents and

wastes from one p roc ess serve a s input m aterials for other p roc esses or a re rec yc led for further

produc tion, mimic king food we bs in the na tural systems. In industria l system s, as they a re c urrent ly,

flows from both p roduc ers and c onsume rs to rec yc lers a re relatively sma ll, while in the e c osystem this

c onstitutes the largest flow s.

Gibb s [2005] highlights the follow ing bene fits that c an be a c hieved by c rea ting an industrial eco logy:

+ The red uc tion of input c osts by using wa ste g ene ra ted b y ano ther industria l p roc ess,+ An inc rea se in ec ono mic p rofits since waste is now c onsidered a resource+ The c rea tion o f a larger and more varied ec onom ic ba se


11/31

+ New job s that a re c rea ted by the formation of niche businesses+ The c leaner ind ustries a re the less they req uire large d ista nc es of sep ara tion b etw ee n themselves

and residential areas, thereby reduc ing trave l distances be twe en the tw o.

Like w ith all system s, the fund ame nta l property of a ny system is tha t the whole is grea ter tha n the sum

of the parts. It is the refo re imp ortant to c onside r soc iety, spec ifica lly loca l comm unities, as integ ra l to

the industria l proc ess to ensure t ha t a ll parts of the system are c onsidered . This nee ds to dea l with the

em p loyme nt co nd itions which need to ensure improved wo rker hea lth and p rod uc tivity, p roviding

tra ining p rog ramm es, imp roved wa ge s, and em ploying loc a l co mm unities. The surround ing

c om munities will most impo rtantly derive b ene fits from an imp roved environm ent o wing t o a

red uc tion in wastes be ing em itted into their neighb ourhood which in turn w ill result in b ette r health

c ond itions. These c om munities will ga in from bett er rela tionships betw ee n them selves and t he

surround ing industries, throug h a proc ess of imp roved pa rticipa tion. Beyond the loca l co mm unities

and em ployee s, the inter-firm ne two rking be c om es ano ther imp ortant a spe c t since an industrial

ec ology w ould rely on trust a nd c oop eration to wo rk effectively.

Imp roving the prod uc tion system s within the urba n environm ent w ould imp rove one of three

important p roc esses tha t c ha rac terise living system s. Following on from there, we nee d to understa nd

the relationship be twe en soc iety and c onsume rism in orde r to reduc e the impac t of consump tion on

the ne ed for prod uc tion and dec om po sition. In und erstanding c onsump tion p atte rns it is nec essary to

add ress two questions: firstly an ethica l ap proac h a nd the sec ond a prac tica l respo nse to

unde rstand ing househo ld c onsump tion bo th in terms of d irec t a nd indirec t ene rgy in order to inform

polic y at nationa l, loca l and househo ld leve l.

Tim Jac kson considers the role o f som e e thica l questions in unde rstand ing our need to c onsume . The

first rela tes to the consump tion of w ell being w hich a ttemp ts to e sta blish whe ther there is a va lid

relationship b etw een c onsump tion and we llbe ing o f the m iddle a nd high c lass. It is ob vious that a n

increa se in consump tion is req uired by pe op le living in pove rty, but is it nec essa ry for peo p le who

alrea dy ha ve to co ntinue c onsuming at the c urrent rate that is c onside red ac ce pta ble.

Our econo mic p aradigm within which w e c onsume is ba sed on the assumption that hum an nee ds

are e ssent ially infinite, and tha t the mo re w e c onsume the better off we a re. This is reflec ted in the use

of G DP as a p rimary me asure o f suc c ess. There is how eve r inc rea sing emp irica l evidenc e to sugge st

tha t an increa se in GDP doe s not sup port an eve r increa sing leve l of we ll-be ing. The United Sta tes


12/31

c urren tly shows the highest levels of suic ide s and anxiety rela ted illnesses. [Jackson, 2005] This

insat iable desire for more ha s not a lways be en a c cep ted as a m ea ns to a c hieving the g ood life,

during Aristotle s times it was c onsidered a huma n failing and an ob stac le to ac hieving w ell-being.

Our mod ern economics how ever prefers to use w ants and preference s to d esc ribe our c onsump tion

ove r need s. This has tend ed to ge nerate a soc iety tha t c onsumes be yond there nee ds to satisfy wa nts

and desires in the belief tha t th is will ensure wellbeing .

Ma x Neef c onsiders a ne ed s based theo ry of de velopm ent a s the sat isfac tion of nine fundam enta l

human needs- namely: subsistence, protection, affection, understanding, participation, idleness,

c rea tion, identity, and freedom . Of these nine only the first tw o relate to ma terial nee ds, while t he

others a ll relat e to nonma terial need s. A la rge sec to r of the wo rld a ttemp ts to sa tisfy these

nonm ate rial need s inc rea singly throug h ma terial c onsump tion, therefore not p rod uc ing the kind o f

antic ipa ted results. This doe s point to som e p ote ntial in tha t it sugge sts tha t it is possible to c onsume

less by ensuring tha t we find b etter wa ys of sa tisfying the o ther seve n nee ds in wa ys tha t do no t

req uire ma terial co nsump tion, thereby red uc ing our impa c t on the environm ent a nd increasing our

qua lity of life.

The sec ond question c onsiders c onsumer beha viour as an evo lutiona ry ad ap tat ion which sugg ested

tha t humans have a n instinc t of a c quisition relating to o ur cha rac teristic ne ed to survive. This spea ks

p rima rily to our need to a ttrac t the o ppo site sex throug h the c onsump tion of positional go od s defined

by soc ial scarcity. This c om pe titive b eha viour tend s to increase a soc ieties pe rc eived need to

c onsume a nd p oints to a n imp ortant notion that the soc ial and institutiona l c ontext ca n have a

drama tic effect on c onsump tion p atterns de pe nda nt on how that soc iety c onside rs c omp etitive

beha viour in rela tion to c oo perat ive be haviour. This sugge sts policy interventions tha t nurture

c ooperative beha viour since no tions of susta inability don t c om e na turally in c ertain soc ia l and

institutional environments that tend to nurture the individual competition as appose to altruistic

behaviour.

Lastly Jackson considers the symb olic role o f c onsumer goo ds to be the mo st revea ling ap p roa ch to

achieving susta inab le c onsump tion. This po ints to the role of c onsump tion as a med ium throug h which

pe op le co mm unic ate that does not require w ords, since o ur ma terial go od s are used as symb ols and

signs c onveying soc ia l belonging to a certain group . Two impo rtant notions are tha t we consume in

order to co mmunicate and that w e c onsume in the p ursuit of m ea ning, both of which o ffer enormous

po tential in exploring a mo re succ essful and less ec olog ica lly d ama ging strate gy for the p ursuing

pe rsona l and c ultura l mea ning since it is possible t o find m ore meaningful wa ys to c om munica te.


13/31

Most of our c onsump tion takes plac e w ithin the househo ld, on a pe rsona l leve l relating to the a bo ve

notions. It is therefore imp ortant to unde rstand wha t the c ontribut ing fac tors are w hen c onsidering the

pursuit o f susta inable c onsump tion. A revea ling bod y of resea rc h looking a t the househo ld

me tabo lism wa s c ond uc ted by Henri C M oll and othe rs in Europ ea n c ities. Househo ld m eta bo lism is

defined a s the tota l direc t and indirec t energy req uired in order to ma intain househo ld c onsump tion.

Stud ies c ond uc ted d uring 1990 in the Netherland s shows tha t the c ont ribution o f househo ld

c onsump tion to the e nvironm enta l loa d is c onsidered to b e a s high a s 70-80% of the ene rgy use and

gree nhouse ga s em issions either throug h d irec t o r ind irec t c onsump tion. [H.Mo ll, 2005]

The d irec t househo ld energy, co nsumed as elec tric ity, natural ga s and mo tor fuel, ma kes up for 35%

of the nationa l energy consump tion, leaving indirec t c onsump tion as a substant ial cont ributor to

ene rgy consump tion. This indirec t c onsump tion refers to the ene rgy used for the p rod uc tion a nd

d istribut ion of c onsumer goo ds and services as we ll as the energy c onsumed in the ha nd ling of t he

wa ste. Sinc e the tota l energy req uirem ent o f a househo ld is the sum o f direc t a nd ind irec t ene rgy, the

industria l p roc esses used in the p rod uc tion of g oo ds p lays an impo rta nt role. The stud y loo ked a t the

relative budg eta ry ca teg ories by an a verag e househo ld in Norwa y, United Kingd om , The Nethe rlands

and Swe de n. The follow ing d ed uc tions we re ma de in relation to the relative imp ortanc e o f the

d ifferent b udg et c ate go ries whe n looking a t the househo ld energy me tab olisms:

+ 7 to 10% of the ho useho ld budg et w ent to wa rds d irec t ene rgy c ate go ries [mo tor fuel, solid andliquid fuels, elec tric ity, d istric t hea ting a nd na tural ga s] wh ich w as rela tively low ,

+ the food c ateg ory ac c ounted for high e xpe nditures of b etwee n 18 and 21%,+ the house c ate go ry is also high w ith betw een 15 and 23% of the b udge t go ing t ow a rds this

category,

+ 10 to 20% of the bud ge ts were spent o n transport, with transport expe nd itures gene ra lly high inc ountries with high tota l expend itures and

+ 9-14% on rec rea tion.

The d irec t ene rgy req uirem ents we re further ana lysed with the p rimary househo ld ene rgy use relatively

low in Norwa y and high in the United Kingdo m, which is caused by the d ifferenc es in the e nergy

supp ly. Norwa y ma kes use o f hydrop ow er, where United Kingd om is p rima rily reliant on c oa l.

In te rms of the indirec t e nergy requirem ent pe r househo ld the follow ing w as established :


14/31

+ The food c ate go ry has the highest indirec t ene rgy requirem ent rang ing be twe en 26 to 32%,+ The transpo rt a nd rec rea tion w ere important in a ll countries,+ The ho use c a tego ry has a low sha re, 10%, of the indirec t ene rgy, a lthoug h the e xpend itures for

houses are high .

In a ll of the c ountries, and for all househo ld typ es hea ting, electric ity, transport, and rec rea tion ha d

the highest energy requirem ents. Som e imp ortant d ifferenc es within these how eve r ca n g ive som e

c lues as to wha t is imp ortant to ad d ress in trying to red uc e the environm enta l loa d . The three ma in

d ifferenc es were:

+ The e ffic ienc y of e lectric ity g eneration+ The a verage levels of househo ld expe nd iture+ The average indirec t energy intensities.Henri Moll therefore sugg ests two ma in fac tors to a ffec t c hang e:

+ At the nat iona l leve l, the struc ture and effic iency o f the ene rgy supp ly as we ll as the struc ture ofthe ec onomy play a n important role in determining the p rice of g ood s and servic es and the

ene rgy intensity of c onsume r item s,

+ At the c ity level, the a va ilab ility of a high quality public transpo rt system supp orted by c ycle a ndped estrian links, with rec rea tiona l fac ilities loc a ted in close p roximity to residential

neighb ourhood s, and the the rma l qua lity of the build ings all have a imp ortant effec t on the d irec t

ene rgy req uirem ents of the househo ld .

+ At the individua l household level, the w ay in which p eop le d ivide up their bud get be twee ndifferent c onsumer items and the use o f direc t ene rgy d ete rmine to a high extent the househo ld

energy requirements.

PROPOSED TYPE OF DEVELOPMENT:

Within the c onte xt o f the c ity, I wo uld like to prop ose tha t the de finition of a living system , which

c om prises of the pa ttern of orga nisat ion, the struc ture and the p roc ess of know ing, o r cognitive

netwo rk, c ould b e c onc eived to rep resent the follow ing within the c ontext of the c ity:

+ Pa tterns of orga nisat ion = p atte rns [relationships] o f settleme nt, prod uc tion [urba n c harac ter],movement

+ The structu re = the infrastructure [p hysica l] & ma tte r + ene rgy [e nvironm ent ]


15/31

+ The p roc ess of knowing = soc iety & ec onomy [c og nitive ne two rk] rea c tive- pe rc ep tion, em otion,action.

The p rimary argum ent und erstoo d from the b od y of theo ry relates to ho w w e c an align t he struc ture,

patterns of organisation and the cognitive networks within our urban ecosystems [or unnatural living

system s] with those of na tural living system s in orde r to reduc e the neg ative impac ts tha t these urba n

ec osystem s are imposing o n the na tural ec osystem within which it exists. [Rep resented in Figure 3] To

achieve this it is nec essa ry to be tter unde rstand the proc esses of p rod uc tion, co nsump tion a nd

dec om po sition and find wa ys in whic h we c an e xist mo re succ essfully within the urba n bo unda ry and

red uce the amount of m ate rials tha t is extrac ted from outside o ur urban b ound a ry as we ll as the

amount of wa stes tha t are deposited outside of our urban b ound a ry.

This sugge sts tha t it is nec essary to define a bounda ry w ithin w hich it is possible to ana lyse and

rec onc ep tualise the p roc esses of prod uc tion, c onsump tion and de c om position. The redevelopme nt

of the p resc ribed site, Athlone Pow er Sta tion, presents an opportunity to c onsider these p roc esses and

establish a new typ e of de velopment by draw ing on the rich and c om prehensive theo ry ana lysed

abo ve. It is then ne c essary to d ec ipher wha t the m ost impo rtant leve rag e p oints a re in orde r to

ac hieve a de velop ment o utco me that is c ap ab le o f ac hieving a fac tor 4-10 times less ec ologica lly

de ma nding fro a c omp arable soc io-eco nomic set of b enefits.

In orde r to e ffect ively enga ge with this p rob lem sta tem ent I co nsiderate it key to und erstand the

grea ter co ntext within whic h the site is loca ted . I therefore p rop ose tha t we c onsider an e xtend ed site

to include the follow ing neighbo uring prec incts:

+ Epp ing Industrial 1+ Langa+ Bridg eto wn, Silvertow n, Kew ton a nd Sybrand Park+ Pinelands+ and Ndab eni.This will a llow the e ngage me nt with residential prec incts of va rying levels of c onsump tion, ba sed

large ly on the differenc es in the soc io-ec onomic charac teristic s of ne ighbo uring p rec inc ts, as we ll as

the inclusion of two industria l prec incts.

The p hysica l structure w ithin this defined bounda ry ca n primarily be und erstood within the histo rica l

c ontext o f the South A fric an c ity which is cha rac terised by dis-integ ration, a lega cy of seg reg ate d


16/31

p lanning. The struc ture of o ur cities, as the physica l emb od iment o f a pa ttern of o rga nisat ion,

rep resents a system tha t fund ame nta lly fa ils its inhab itants since no living system c an func tion if the

physica l structu re d oe s not support and enfo rce rela tionships amo ng the system s c om pone nts. The

ab ility of the system to func tion as a hea lthy living system is seve rely red uc ed when the p hysica l

structu re seve rs the ab ility for proc esses w ithin the system and rela tionships betw ee n the va rious

physica l com pone nts to exist. Figure 7 rep resents the extend ed site. From this d iag ram it is possible to

unde rstand aspe c ts of b oth the struc ture a nd pa ttern of orga nisat ion that c ha rac terises the typ e o f

existing de velopment within the a rea .

Figure 7 rep resents the extend ed site to include Epp ing Industria l 1, Langa, Bridg etow n, Silve rtow n,

Kew ton, Syb rand Park, Pineland s and Nda beni. Source: Autho r

The red lines are indica tive o f ma jor infrastructu re, p rimarily transport o rienta ted infrastructure, which

wa s deliberately used as a b arrier betw een d ifferent rac e g roup s to supp ort seg reg at ed planningp rincip les. The p ink c ent ra l nod e rep resents the p resc ribed site, Athlone Pow er Sta tion. The Athlone

po we r stat ion and wa ste w ate r trea tment wo rks, ind ica ted by the red c irc le, sits as a no de , centra l to

these three rac ial groupings, aga in to enforce seg regat ion. It is a prime exam ple o f one of the prima ry

p rincip les tha t was used to e nforce seg reg ation, tha t is to say the use o f infrastructu re o r physica l

c om ponents, to sep arate rac ial groups within soc iety. This seg reg at ion impa c ts neg at ively on the


17/31

ab ility of soc iety to form me aningful netw orks which is a key c riterion in support of a living system since

it enab les the p roc esses and relationships be twe en the physic al c om po nents to b e e ffect ive a nd

effic ient, whic h c an assist in red uc ing our imp ac t on the amount o f resources req uired within the

urban ec osystem .

Figure 8 rep resents on the left a na tural ec osystem with direc t and effic ient rela tionships betw ee n

physica l c om pone nts wh ile the figure on the right represents the unnec essa rily co mp lex rela tionships

and p roc ess s that e xist be twe en the p hysic al co mp onents of within the extende d A thlone po we r

sta tion site. Source: Autho r


18/31

Figure 9 show s the va rious infrastructu re func tions loc a ted on a nd within c lose p roximity to the site,

which is show n in grey. The Athlone w aste w ater trea tme nt works is indica ted with a grey outline.

Source: Autho r

The follow ing infrastruc ture exists within the p resc ribed site :

Pink ind ic ate s the d isused c oo ling tow ers and po we r stat ion.

Orange indica tes the Athlone Solid Waste Transfer sta tion

Yellow ind ic at es the g as turbine p ow er sta tion tha t supp lem ents the g rid d uring pea k co nsump tion

Brow n indica tes the Langa pump station

Green indica tes area s c ove red with veg eta tion, spo rts fields and the Langa initiation site

Blue represents water,

The red dashed line ind ica tes the residential urban ed ge surround ing the site

The solid blac k indic at es roa dw ays

Dash b lac k ind ica tes railwa y lines.


19/31

The e xisting p hysic al c om ponents [infrastruc ture] loca ted within the defined bo unda ry a ll function in

isolation o f ea ch othe r. Eac h system has inputs and outp uts which a re indepe ndent o f one a nothe r.

Initially when t he po we r sta tion wa s still functiona l the c oo ling tow ers we re supp lied with treate d

effluent used in the c oo ling p roc ess. Sinc e the c losure of the po we r stat ion the trea ted effluent ha s

be en d ischarged into the river system at a rate be yond the a bsorptive c ap ac ity of the sinks, the river

system and the sea . Within the extende d bo unda ry there a re system s of p rod uc tion, name ly ene rgy

prod uc tion, using ga s turbines and tw o industrial area s that prod uce a numb er of produc ts for

c onsump tion within the c ity bo undary and be yond . A de fining c harac teristic of these prod uc tion

systems is tha t the ma jority of the inputs requ ired for the p rod uc tion p roc esses a re sourced and

extrac ted from outside o f bo th the extend ed site bo unda ry as we ll as the urba n bound ary. By

referring bac k to figure 1, 2 and 3 we unde rstand this to b e o ne o f the d efining c harac teristics that set

the urba n ec osystem ap art from the nat ural ec osystem . There a re neighb ouring reside ntial areas that

ma ke up the m ajor bod y of co nsump tion which impac ts on the inputs req uired for the industrial and

ene rgy prod uc tion p roc esses. The p resc ribed site a lso d ea ls w ith the d ec om position p rocesses relat ing

to w aste g ene rate d within the c ity reg ion, in the form o f bo th solid wa ste a nd wa ste w ate r. The solid

waste fac ility is a transfer sta tion w here the solid w aste is transferred from the mun icipa l wa ste

c ollec tion trucks ont o rail where it is sent t o the land fill loc a ted out side o f the c ities bounda ry. The

wa ste w ate r trea tment w orks p roc esses sewerag e a nd grey wate r which is then dispo sed into the river

system and late r into the sea . Aga in, refe rring to figure 1,2 and 3 this desc ribes one of the other

defining c ha rac teristics the d istinguished an urban ec osystem from a na tural ec osystem by disposing

of w aste o utside o f its bo unda ry and not utilising it a s a resource feed ing back into the prod uc tion

proc ess.

The residential a rea s neighb ouring the presc ribed site are c harac terised by mo no-functiona l low

density housing tha t rely entirely on moto rised ba sed transport fuelled by non-renew ab le resources.

The ne ighbo urhoods are d isc onnec ted from ea ch othe r with ma jor roa ds, railways and assoc iat ed

und erutilised pa rc els of land wh ich serve to reinforce isola tion a nd seve r any possible ne tworks tha t

c ould e xist b etw een c om munities that c ould be mutua lly bene fic ial. It a lso serves to enforce a sense

of fear betw een the different groups of pe op le d ue to the lac k of opp ortunities for pe op le to enga ge

in a mea ningful wa y and find w ays to supp ort eac h other crea ting a soc iety c ap ab le o f working

tow ards a c om mon future based on integration and netw orks which function as a w hole rat her thanisola ted parts.

In essenc e, the t ype of d evelop ment tha t exists c ould be de sc ribed as isolate d parts with seve rely

fragm ented rela tionships. The result is largely ineffic ient p roc esses tha t req uire large amo unts of

ene rgy and ma tte r c rea ting a situation tha t is unsusta inab le since it is destroying the ve ry environm ent


20/31

on which it relies on a s a source o f energy and ma tter. A new t ype o f deve lopm ent therefore nee ds

to find a wa y to rec onc ep tualise o ur understand ing of the se p a rts. This notion o f the p arts of a who le

existing a nd funct ioning in isolation o f one ano ther is be st und erstoo d by referring to a bo dy of the ory

know n as systems theory, wh ich tries to und erstand how and w hy we view th ings in isola tion of each

othe r and ho w it is possib le to conc ep tualise a type of d evelop ment that und erstands the w hole,

ma king it po ssible to mo ve to wa rds a susta inable future tha t c an function w ithin the reg ene rat ive a nd

ab sorptive c ap ac ity of the environment.

Sinc e the be ginning of c lassic a l sc ienc e, c om posed of c hem istry, biology, physic s and soc ia l sc ience

the foc us has bee n on the isola tion o f the elem ents of the universe. This ha s resulted in a

c om pa rtmenta lised knowledge ba se, with little understand ing o f the who le which is ma de up o f

multip le entities that constantly interac t and affec t ea c h othe r. The g ap in our unde rstanding

therefore is the unifying struc ture o f the p arts and how tha t a ffec ts the b eha viour of the who le.

There is a ne ed to c om bine o ur knowled ge of a rithmetic w ith thought, and not see it as a substitute.

This imp lies tha t soc ial sc ienc es a re integ ra l to the physica l sc ienc es and req uires tha t we w ork ac ross

d isc iplines in order to bridge t he ga p b etw een know ledg e a nd und erstand ing. This notion be com es

increasingly impo rtant w hen trying to understand sustainability g iven that it a ttem pts to c onsider the

three dimensions of environm ent, ec onomy a nd soc ietyas interdep end ent p a rts of a w hole. This

req uires a d eepe r understand ing o f the interac tions be twe en na ture a nd soc iety.

The simp lific a tion of our world into com partme nts can therefo re ne ither solve no r ma ke sense o f the

c om plex system s at wo rk on our plane t. As our unde rstanding of the interac tion betw een these

systems is enha nc ed , we w ill get c loser to a c hieving susta inab ility. It c an therefo re b e see n as a

moving ta rge t, an unend ing proce ss through which c hang e c an be imp leme nted. Sustainable

develop ment therefore canno t be ap plied to a single p rojec t sc ale, but rathe r relies on c hange w ithin

the en tire system. This is best described by an und ersta nd ing tha t it is no t possible to susta in a sing le

pa rt of a system such a s a dam ; howe ver, c a ring for a w hole system to d eve lop in a susta inable

ma nner is ac hievab le.

Does this req uire a shift in our thinking parad igm..have t he sc ience s do minate d the wa y we think of

the wo rld ba sed on a mec hanica l ima ge. Until rec ently we ha ve a ssumed the outc ome of a n event

not to a ffec t the input. This informs our responses to p rob lem solving w hich is either throug h c ont rolling

the p roc esses that lead to the prob lem o r by atte mp ting to fix the p rob lem a fter it occ urs. This ma kes


21/31

a fund am enta l assump tion that the p rob lem is we ll defined a nd linea r with respe c t to c ause a nd

effec t. What we are b eg inning to unde rstand is that nature is far more c om p lex than this simple linea r

c ause a nd effect pa rad igm . Our rea lity has bec ome increasingly com plic ated with the result that our

ab ility to p red ic t the effect with any ac c urac y has be c ome problematic. Any planning relying o n

such pred ic tions or forecasts which looked b eyond the immediate future ha s turned out to be mo re

dam aging tha n the prob lem it wa s trying to solve.

If we c an t rely on forec asting the future w e nee d to find a new p arad igm within which w e a re a ble

to p lan for a d esirable future. It has be en sugg ested that a linea r view of c ause a nd effec t nee ds to

be excha nge d for a m ore orga nic und erstand ing of system s which und erstands the m any po ssible

wa ys in which a system m ight b eha ve und er a rang e o f circ umstanc es. This bec om es a m ana ge ment

too l rather than a means to p red ict the future.

Mov ing aw ay from linea r thinking we are a ble to unde rstand an alternative which sugg ests that a

va riable is bo th the c ause a nd effec t of ano ther. Throug h this unde rstand ing of c irc ular c ausat ion, the

wo rld is dep icte d as a series of inte rc onnec ted feedback casua l loo ps. This is refe rred to a s system s

thinking which allows us to see and de p ic t c om plexity within the w hole a nd not just an understand ing

of the parts. An imp ortant a spec t o f this wa y of thinking is the a bility to b lur the bo unda ries be twe en

sc ienc es and humanities and view them as insep arab le ent ities. It a lso helps us to see the structures,

patte rns and events that unde rlie c om plex situations.

Our traditional linea r thinking has formulate d an idea tha t there is an end sta te to wa rds which we a re

evo lving. This idea needs to be revised since susta inability c anno t b e v iew ed as a stat ic g oa l which

we are trying to ac hieve in a linea r fashion.

Susta inab le deve lopme nt is a p roc ess in which, in te rms of system s dynamic s, the d estroying

reinforc ing loops a re c ontrolled by mea ns of som e ba lanc ing m ec han ism a nd w here these balanc ing

loop s are a llowed t o a c t normally, as they must do in order to guarante e the system to w ork

eve rlastingly. There a re key loo ps in the rea l world which a re responsible for the viab ility of a ll

ec osystem s includ ing human b ased ec osystem s. We c a ll these Viab ility Loo ps. Thus, susta inab le

deve lopme nt is a p rocess in which the viab ility loop s rem ain inta c t. Planning fo r susta inab le

develop ment is therefore to ide ntify the viability loo ps and to keep them func tional

Planning a desirab le future is therefore a c ritica l fac tor in establishing a type of d eve lopm ent that is

c ap able of a ltering o ur current d eve lopm ent tra jecto ry. This c an be a c com plished throug h a rigo rous


22/31

process of understanding the various systems that exist with the extended boundary and identifying

we re in the produc tion co nsump tion and de c om position process it is po ssible to c rea te b a lanc ing

me c ha nisms c apab le of ensuring the e verlasting func tiona lity of the se system s. In defining a desirab le

future p lan, prop osal sta tem ents and d iagram s will be m ade in relation to the three c riteria t hat

define a living system with a view o f aligning t he urba n ec osystem with that of the natural ec osystem .

+ Pa tterns of orga nisat ion = p atte rns [relationships] o f settleme nt, prod uc tion [urba n c harac ter],movement

Based on the resea rc h b y Henri C M oll, indirec t energy c onsump tion is responsible fo r 65% of

c onsump tion w ithin the househo ld. The three c ate go ries that have the p otent ia l to ma ke a signific ant

d ifferenc e a re relate d t o transport, rec reat ion and foo d . This suggests tha t w ithin our presc ribes site it

is important to foc us on c rea ting a env ironm ent tha t is linked to p ub lic transport which is in turn

supported by pe destrian and c yc le fac ilities. The site p rovides the o pportunity to link previously

seg reg ate d c om munities tog ethe r by enforcing links ove r the m ajor roa ds that currently sep a rate the

three ne ighb ourhoo ds. The site therefo re p lays the role o f a linking nod e. Pub lic transport stops nee d

to a lign w ith the future links as a me ans for pe destrians and c yc lists to c ross the ma jor roa dwa ys.


23/31

Figure 10 show s the p rop osed new ped estrian a nd cyc le bo uleva rd which intersec t the existing

roa dwa ys to form the p ublic transpo rt interchang es. Source: Autho r

The sta r ma rks an inte rcha nge betw ee n the p rop osed BRT, ra il, pe destrians and cyc lists. The c ross

ma rks an interchange b etw ee n BRT, pedestrians and c yc lists. The p roposed link through the wa ste

wa ter trea tment wo rks wo uld req uire the rec onc ep tua lisation o f the wa y in which wa ste w ate r is de a lt

with in orde r to p rovide ac cess throug h the p rec inct a nd this will be d ea lt with in the follow ing text.

These new linkages form o ne imp ortant way in which the ba rriers be twe en c om munities can be gin to

be broken d ow n, howe ver it is in now wa y suffic ient. The p lac es of intersec tion a long the routes that

hap pe n within the p rec inct w ill designed as plac es of pub lic enga gem ent that a re foc used on

rec rea tion. This will assist to red uc e the indirec t c onsump tion of ene rgy by pe op le moving grea t

d istances to find rec rea tional a c tivities, as well as further supp ort the notion o f c rea ting integrated

communities.

Rec rea tion w ithin this c onte xt req uires ca reful planning since it ha s the p otential to ac t in a w ay tha t

red uc es the indirec t ene rgy c onsump tion within the neighb ouring com munities, but a lso ha s the

potential to supp ort the no tion of integ rat ion. This aspe c t w ill req uire extensive pub lic pa rticipa tion


24/31

be twe en a ll the neighb ouring com munities. It is imp ortant tha t this takes plac e o n two different levels.

In the first insta nc e it is important to consult the c om munities individua lly, howeve r it ca n p lay a role in

stimulat ing disc ussion b etw een the d ifferent c om munities abo ut their d ifferent ne ed s a re a nd wha t

rec rea tion me ans to a ll the d ifferent c omm unities, and try and g et p eop le to enga ge with eac h other

a round these a spec ts to e nsure a sense o f inclusion by a ll three ne ighb ours.

A new built c om ponent will seek to fill in a ll ava ilab le land tha t exists be twe en the do tted red lines.

Supp orting a c om pa c t city req uires that a ll land is va lued and de velop ed with approp riate funct ions.

Develop ment a long the ed ge s of the new linkage b ouleva rds is c ritic al to ensure tha t there is a high

level of surve illanc e a long these route s the reb y c reat ing sa fe spaces. A rich m ixture of a c tivities w ill be

found inc luding light industria l processes tha t a re b ased on p rincip les of industria l ec olog y, includ ing

ma king new links to t he o ther tow industria l prec incts. Housing, supporting d iverse inc om e g roups, will

ensure tha t there is a presenc e in the a rea at night, cont ributing to t he sa fety of the p rec inct. Reta il

op po rtunities, bot h formal a nd informal, will be locate d along the prima ry linking routes ma king these

spaces of intense a c tivity.


25/31

Figure 11 shows the extent of high and me d ium density mixed use a c tivities. All land tha t is c urrent ly

no-mans land s be twee n the three c omm unities need s to b e de veloped in supp ort of breaking do wn

ba rriers and supp orting the de velopment of sa fe pe destrian and c ycle b ouleva rds. Source: Autho r

The rema ining a rea will then be c onve rted into p rod uc tive ag riculture land s given the c lose p roximity

to wa ste water a s well as two river system s.

Figure 12 show s the a rea s for urban a griculture in green. Source: Autho r

+ The structu re = the infrastructure [p hysica l] & ma tte r + ene rgy [e nvironm ent ]

All infrastruc tures currently loc ate d within the presc ribed site will be ma intained and upg rad ed . The

solid w aste fac ility with b e re-imag ined as a ma terials resource fac ility. The existing fa c ility will be

sep arated to d ea l with munic ipa l waste o n the one hand and c lea n rec yclab les on the other. There

will be no sorting o f dirty wa ste since a ll solid w aste will be sep a ra ted a t source. The fac ility will be

further supp orted by a ma teria ls rec ove ry plant that c ould utilise the hea t ene rgy g iven o ff as a wa ste


26/31

p rod uc t b y the gas turbines to sterilise g lass bott les for re-use. There w ill be a buy-ba c k fac ility for the

residents in Cap e Tow n whe re m em be rs of the p ublic c an buy b ack plastic a nd glass c onta iners for

use in othe r p rod uc tion p roc esses.

The o ld c oo ling t ow ers w ill be c onverted into b iogas d igesters. These w ill form an iconic sta tem ent

ab out the transforma tion o f the p rec inct to supp ort a new ec ologica l trajec tory. The to p of the to wers

will rec eive a c ap that w ill ca pture the metha ne g as. The d esign of these c ap s will be d ec ide d

throug h a c om pe tition p roc ess and will create large sc ale urba n a rt elem ents. These t ow ers will now

bec om e a source of ene rgy a nd fe rtiliser. Orga nic wa ste c an b e redirec ted into the d ige sters,

red uc ing the amount of w aste b eing transported to the land fill. The d igesters will rep lac e the need for

the w aste w ate r trea tment wo rks which c urrently utilise va luable land as we ll as c rea te a n od our

p rob lem . There w ill no longer be a req uireme nt for a new c hlorine p lant which w ill further consume

land that c ould b e used to supp ort a c omp ac t c ity mod el, rather than c rea ting va st a rea s within the

c entral city area s that a re uninhab itab le.

+ The p roc ess of knowing = soc iety & ec onomy [c og nitive ne two rk] rea c tive- pe rc ep tion, em otion,action.

LEVERAGE POINTS:

Within these systems it is possible to find leverag e p oints ; plac es w ithin a c om plex system where a

sma ll shift in one thing can p rod uce b ig c hang es in everything else. These ha ve b een b roa d ly defined

and ordered b y Done lla Mea do ws to d esc ribe a hierarc hy of leverag e p oints. These c an be d ivide d

into t hree c ate go ries:

+ the p hysica l pa rt of the system ,+ the informat ion pa rt o f the system ,+ and the sc op e o f the system .The a bove orde r beg ins with the lea st po we rful point of intervent ion. The p hysica l pa rt of a system

finds the low est form of leverage in the c onsta nts, pa rame ters and numb ers. Following from there it

identifies buffers and size o f stocks rela tive to flows as the next leve rage point. The structu re a nd nod es

on intersec tion follow ed by the length o f de lays define the mo re p ow erful leve rag e p oints within the


27/31

physica l structu re o f the system. The informa tion p art of a system dea ls with the neg ative and positive

feed ba c k loops and the struc ture o f information flow for examp le a missing loop of informa tion

feedbac k. The sc op e o f the system sets the rules of the system followe d b y the p ow er to self orga nise

or ma ke new rules as being relat ively high leverage points.

The g oa ls of the system , the p a rad igm o ut wh ich the system s arises and the p ow er to transcend

parad igms hold the grea test va lue as they ha ve the po we r to to tally c hang e the system . These

leverag e p oints can b e the most d ifficult to c hang e, as soc iety will resist c ha llenges to their pa rad igm

harde r than a nything else. They d o not how eve r req uire anything physica l or expensive in order to

imp leme nt c hang e, and therefore d o ho ld po tential for quick cha nge within a system.

Within the c onte xt o f Athlone Power Stat ion one of the mo st p ow erful leverag e p oints will req uire a

pa rad igm shift, but it will affec t tha t large ma jority of the system s c urrent ly in operat ion, nam ely solid

wa ste, ga s turbine g enerate d p ow er and w aste w ate r. Considering w aste a s a resource c an greatly

c ontribute tow ards aligning our urba n ec osystem with that of a na tural ec osystem sinc e w e it will be

po ssible to red uce our req uirem ent fo r resources from outside o f our bo undary, red uc ing the neg ative

impa c ts on our natural sources that a re currently be ing dep leted . There w ill also be a rad ic a l shift

tow ards c losing the loop b etw een produc tion, c onsump tion and de c om position. Currently waste is

eliminate d outside o ur urba n bo unda ry. This is the sec ond funda me ntal differenc e b etw ee n the

natural and urban e co-system . In the na tura l eco system all wa ste p rod uc tions feed ba c k into the

system a s a resource .

I will use the exam ple of the solid wa ste fac ility to explore wha t the op portunities and c onstra ints are in

using this as a leverage point and whe ther it c an c ontribute to a 4-10 fac tor red uc tion in our

ec olog ica l imp ac t, while a lso c onside ring the e cono mic and soc ial bene fits. In terms of the solid

waste transfer fac ility, Athlone Transfer Fac iltiy [ARTS] which is c urren tly loc a ted on the site, on ly 0.5% of

the w aste p er month [Eng ledow , 2005] is rec ove red as a resourc e. The m unicipa l wa ste is dep osited

a t th is fac ility we re it is transferred to c ont a iners and sen t via ra il to Visserhoek land fill. The fac ility do es

include a dirty Materials Recovery Facility, referred to as dirty since the recyclables are recovered

from the gene ral wa ste stream. The va lue of these rec yc lab les is substantially red uc ed g iven tha t the

process of re-use o r rec yc ling req uires an ad ded proc ess to c lean the m aterials. The ta rge t of the

awarded cont rac t was to rec ove r 15% of the 850 tons per da y. [Eng ledow , 2005] The 0.5% is c learly

grossly be low ta rge t and only equa tes to a fac tor 0.5 improvem ent w hic h is we ll be low the state d

go al of a c hieving a fac tor 4-10 imp roveme nt.


28/31

This p resents an op portunity to grea tly imp rove on the c urrent rate of recove ry. One o f the key

c om po nents to e nsuring that the system c an a c hieve an imp roved rate o f rec ove ry is to imp lem ent

source sep ara tion. It is nec essary to understand we re in the c ity this would be m ost effec tive to ensure

that the projec t can ma ximise on the red uc tion of valuab le ma terials end ing up in the land fill.

If we c om pa re the d ifferent c om po sition of waste within an a ffluent a rea and a n informal settlement,

it is possible to d ed uc t tha t the g rea test be nefit will be in ad dressing source sep ara tion w ithin the

a ffluent a rea s. Rec yclab les ac c ount for 40% of the wa ste g ene rate d in affluent areas, and only 20% in

informa l sett leme nts. [Millard, 2003] This doe s not how eve r p rec lude the implem enta tion o f source

sep a ra tion w ithin the less a ffluen t a rea s, since these a rea s trad itiona lly suffer from substa ntially low er

levels of service and this c ould be a n important opportunity to red ress these issues of ineq ua lity. Wha t

c ould be considered is the imp lem enta tion of d ifferent system s which could ad dress leve ls of

afforda b ility. In the mo re a ffluent a rea s, we re p eop le a re a cc ustom ed to a high level of service a nd

a re g ene rally ab le to p ay m ore for these servic es a kerb-side rec ycling p rog ram me c ould b e

impleme nted . In the area s we re p eople a re less able to p ay, a d rop -off rec ycling programm e c ould

be impleme nted . A study co nduc ted by the University of East Ang lia has identified tha t a d rop off

rec ycling program me ha s an a pp roxima te 20% red uc tion in cost com pared to a kerb side recyc ling

p rog ramm e. [Dep artment of Environm enta l Affairs and Tourism, 2000:52] The d rop off p rog ramm e a lso

has a reduced environm enta l imp ac t since the ve hicle is req uired to travel red uced d istances in order

to c ollec t the resources. This c ould a c hieve a fac tor 2-4 imp rove ment.

Ana lysing the rem a ining w aste c om position, it is possible to a chieve a highe r fac to r if there is an

improved strat eg y to d ea l with foo d and green w aste. In the affluent a rea s this acc ounts for 35% and

in the informa l sett leme nts it ac c ounts for 20%. This wo uld req uire sep a ra tion o f the rem a ining wa ste

arriving a t the ARTS fac ility so tha t the foo d and green w aste c ould b e redirec ted into the b iog as

d ige ster. This wo uld effec tively improve the system by an a dd itional fac tor 3. It w ould also c rea te a n

increa sed resource in the form o f fertilizer which is a prod uc t p rod uc ed by the biog as d igester, which

c an supp ort a highe r quality of urba n a gric ulture, which in turn w ill further red uc e the environm enta l

impa c t g iven tha t food is one of the highe st c onsumers of indirec t ene rgy w ithin the househo ld.

The sec ond leverag e p rop osal wo uld respo nd t o the issue o f feed ba c k. Peoples bigg est source of

feed ba c k is the prima rily new spa pe r and television new s. Neither of the se two mediums give

fee dbac k to c itizens w ith reg a rds to issues of susta inab le d eve lopme nt. Essent ially this me ans tha t

unless one rea ds the c ities rep ort on susta inable d evelop ment one has no idea ab out w here we

sta nd , and eve n this will g ive one little insight as to the ir persona l lives. The p redo minant


29/31

c onseq uence s of c urrent g rowth and the impa c t that it is having on the environme nt and our

pop ulation rem ain largely hidd en from our da ily lives. I wo uld therefore p rop ose a set o f c riteria are

deve loped b etw een the three d ifferent c omm unities to m onitor and eva luate the ir prog ress. The

purpo se o f the system wo uld b e threefold. Firstly it could a c t a s an de vice t hat c ould serve to

integ rate the c om munities by establishing a c om mon go al towa rds which the three neighb ouring

c om munities c ould wo rk co llec tively tow ards ac hieving. It w ould serve to monitor leve ls of

c onsump tion, bo th a s one ent ity, as well as w ithin the three com munities. The p urpose o f this wo uld b e

eleva ting the c om munities that c onsume less thereby inverting the currently pe rc eived notions of

suc c ess. This c ould b e linked to a c ost bene fit scheme . In terms of m onito ring c onsump tion it wou ld be

interesting to try and link it to the nee ds based theo ry of develop ment as p rop osed by Max Neef, as

the satisfac tion o f nine fund amenta l human needs- nam ely: subsistenc e, protec tion, affec tion,

unde rstanding, partic ipat ion, id leness, creation, ide ntity, and free do m. Conc ep tually this could b e

linked to an sms system which c ould ha ve d isp lay boa rds in a ll neighb ourhood s providing a n

imme diate feedb ac k system.

CONCLUSION

The c om plexity of these issues nec essitat es that a broa der group of p eop le b eg in to eng ag e w ith the

top ics collec tively. Trad itiona lly, and in fac t still today, the ma jority of the c ivil infrastructu re w ithin our

c ities is design and built by eng ineers, in isola tion of und erstand ing the soc ial and environme nta l

c onseq uenc es of these p rojec ts. In order to e ffect ively respond to the c om plexity of the c halleng es

that fac e o ur p lanet to ad y it is nec essa ry to a dd ress issues of d eve lopm ent from a grea ter

perspective than just an engineering response. Tania Kat zschner reference to a c om ment ma de by

Albert Einste in, tha t w e c an no longer expec t to solve p rob lems of the globa l environment effectively

by relying solely on trad itiona l log ic and wa ys of knowing tha t unde rpin do minant mo de of thoug ht.

This points to the ne ed for peop le ac ross d isc iplines to w ork in a c ollab orat ive fashion w ithin netwo rks

as ap pose to hiera rc hic al struc tures to a c hieve greate r levels of de velopme nt ca pa b le of reduc ing

the grow th in throughput. By conc ep tua lising p rob lems using interdisc iplina ry tea ms it will be possible

to add ress the environm enta l, soc ia l and ec onomic susta inability.

REFERENCES

1. Go od land , R 1996 Environm enta l susta inab ility : universa l and no n-neg otiab le. Ec olog ica lapp lic a tions, vol.6,no .4(Nov., 1996), pp1002-1017.


30/31

2. Ped er Hjorth and Ali Bagheri, Nav iga ting towards susta inab le de ve lopme nt: A systemdynamic s app roa c h, Futures 38 [2006] 74-92

3. Bartelem us, P 2003 Dem aterializa tion and c ap ital ma intena nc e: two sides of the susta inab ilitycoin.

4. Ec olog ica l econo mics no46 (2003) 612-81. Ava ilab le:5. http://www.elsevier/locate/ecolecon6. Kam b iz Ma ani a nd Rob ert Cavana ; A metho dolog ica l fram ew ork for System s thinking and

mo deling Intervent ions; Sc hoo l of Business and and Pub lic Mna age me nt ; the University of Aukland ,

New Zea land .

7. William Braun; The System A rchetypes8. Done lla Meadow s; Lea vea rge points p lac es to intervene in a system; Susta inab ility Institute

1999

9. Bernad ette OReg an & Richa rd M oles; Ap p lying a System s Perspec tive to Environme nta lPolicy; Journal of Environm enta l Planning and Ma nage me nt, 40(4), 535 538, 1997

10.Henri C. Mo ll, Klaa s Jan Noo rman, Rixt Kok,Reb ec ka Eng strom , Ha rald Throne -Holst, andCharlotte C lark; Pursuing More Susta inab le Consump tion b y Ana lyzing Househo ld Me ta bolism

in Europea n c ountries and Cities; Journa l of Industria l Ecolog y Volume 9, Numb er 12 2005

11.Tim Jackson;Live Bet te r by Co nsum ing Less? Is There a Doub le Dividend in Susta inab leConsumption? Journal of Industrial Volume 9, Numb er 12

12.Edgar G. Hertwich;Consumption and Industrial Ecology; Journal of Industrial EcologyVolume9, Numb er 12

13.Peter H.G. Berkhout*, Jos C. Muskens, Jan W. Velthuijsen; De fining the reb ound effec t; EnergyPolicy 28 (2000) 425}432

14.Ma rk Swilling ; Susta inab ility and infrastructure p lanning in South Afric a : a Ca pe Tow n c asestud y; Environm ent & Urba nisa tion Vol 18 No 1 Ap ril 2006


31/31

15.Tim Jac kson, 1996, Mate rial Co nc erns: Pollution, p rofit a nd the qua lity o f Life.16. 1 Boltzmann living in a material world17.Christopher Kenne dy, John Cudd ihy, and Joshua Engel-Yan;The Changing M eta bo lism o f

Cities; Journal of Industrial EcologyVolume 11, Numb er 2

18.Rob ert Good land ; Herma n Da ly: Environme nta l Susta inab ility: Universa l and Non-Neg ot iab leEcological Applications, Vol. 6, No. 4. (Nov., 1996), pp. 1002-1017.

19.Fritjof C ap ro, The Web of Life

APPENDICES

Documents

Athlone Power Station Shannon