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AMI Journal Special December 2013 “Preview” 1
AMI Journal2013/special
December “preview”
published by Association Montessori Internationale
EDITORIAL AND CONTENTSPEACE THROUGH EDUCATIONa 1937 lecture by Maria and Mario Montessori
AMI
MONTESSORIINTERNATIONALE
ASSOCIATION
AMI Journal Special December 2013 “Preview” 2
AMI Journal 2013Special December “Preview”
Contents
p 2 Contents AMI Journal 1/2 2013
p 6 Editorial Board
p 7 Editorial by David Kahn
p 19 “Peace through Education”, a 1937 lecture by Maria and Mario Montessori
AMI Journal Special December 2013 “Preview” 3
AMI Journal 2013/1-2 page 1
5 Editorial DavidKahn
PartIWorldWarI–Peace–WhiteCross(1917/1918)
SanDiegoLectures(1917)
9 TeachingPeaceinaTimeofWar:MariaMontessori’s1917Lectures EricaMoretti
9 PeaceLectureI,TheFirstofFourSpecialLecturesdeliveredonthe1917SanDiegoTrainingCourse,February18,1917
MariaMontessori
TheWhiteCross(1917/1918)
15 TheWhiteCross(1917) MariaMontessori
20 Nobodyleftbehind:Montessori’sworkindefenceofchildrenasvictimsofwar PaolaTrabalzini32 LetterontheWhiteCrossaddressedtoProfessorFerrari,PhysicianattheItalian
SocietàUmanitaria,ofMilan(1917) MariaMontessori
32 Montessori,theWhiteCrossandProf.Ferrari AugustoScocchera
Contents2013/1-2
them e of this double issue: education a nd peace
AMI Journal Special December 2013 “Preview” 4
AMI Journal 2013/1-2 page 2 AMI Journal 2013/1-2 page 3
PartIITheInterbellum:EducateforPeaceThePeaceCongressatCopenhagen(1937)
38 PeacethroughEducationMariaandMarioMontessori
53 TheAimsoftheSocialPartyoftheChildMariaMontessori
53 AStepforwardstowardstheFuture:TheSocialPartyoftheChild MariaMontessori
MontessoriandGandhi
38 SpeechMohandaK.GandhiatMontessoriTrainingCollege,London,October28,1931
53 FromalettertoDrMontessoriDatedNovember19,1931MahatmaGandhi
53 GandhiandMariaMontessori AlbertJoosten
PartIIIMontessori’seffortsforpeaceeducationafterWorldWarII
EducationforaNewWorld
53 ANewWorldandEducation(1946/47) MariaMontessori
53 SanRemoLecturesIV:WorldUnitythroughtheChild MariaMontessori
MontessoriandtheNobelPrizeforPeace
53 ALostOpportunityNobelPeacePrize—Some“NotesintheMargin”CamilloGrazzini
53 InSupportofMariaMontessori’scandidacyfortheNobelPeacePrizeMariaJervolino
53 MariaMontessoriwritestoherfriendGiulianaSorgeandreflectsontheNobelPrizeforPeaceMariaMontessori
PartIV
PartIVMontessoriEducationandPeaceEducationToday
38 AScienceofPeace AnnetteM.Haines
41 DevelopmentoftheChild’sMindandValuesofSolidarityAlbertoOliverio
53 Buildingpeace‘ininteriorehomine’—MontessorianpathsFrancoCambi
53 ASharpCalltothePublicConscience:MariaMontessoriandTheSocialPartyoftheChildGinniSackett
53 PeaceEducationPrimer KevinKester
53 Nature,MoralityandtheAdolescent:TowardthePursuitofHumanSolidarity LaurieEwert-Krocker
53 TowardtheUltimateGoalofPeace:HowaMontessoriEducationattheHighSchoolLevelSupportsMoralDevelopmentthroughStudyandSocialLifeElizabethA.Henke
53 EducationandPeaceReconsideredReginaFeldman
53 GuidedbyNatureNAMTA’sexhibitattheInternationalMontessoriCongressinPortland,inbookform
SpecialthankstoDavidKahnandNAMTAfordonatingtoAMIthecoloursectiononGuidedbyNatureandsponsoringitsproduction
Photographs&illustrationsinthisissuecourtesyofPaolaTrabalzini,theMontessori-PiersonPublishingCompanyandtheMariaMontessoriArchives,
heldatAssociationMontessoriInternationale.
AMI Journal 2013/1-2 page 2 AMI Journal 2013/1-2 page 3
PartIITheInterbellum:EducateforPeaceThePeaceCongressatCopenhagen(1937)
38 PeacethroughEducationMariaandMarioMontessori
53 TheAimsoftheSocialPartyoftheChildMariaMontessori
53 AStepforwardstowardstheFuture:TheSocialPartyoftheChild MariaMontessori
MontessoriandGandhi
38 SpeechMohandaK.GandhiatMontessoriTrainingCollege,London,October28,1931
53 FromalettertoDrMontessoriDatedNovember19,1931MahatmaGandhi
53 GandhiandMariaMontessori AlbertJoosten
PartIIIMontessori’seffortsforpeaceeducationafterWorldWarII
EducationforaNewWorld
53 ANewWorldandEducation(1946/47) MariaMontessori
53 SanRemoLecturesIV:WorldUnitythroughtheChild MariaMontessori
MontessoriandtheNobelPrizeforPeace
53 ALostOpportunityNobelPeacePrize—Some“NotesintheMargin”CamilloGrazzini
53 InSupportofMariaMontessori’scandidacyfortheNobelPeacePrizeMariaJervolino
53 MariaMontessoriwritestoherfriendGiulianaSorgeandreflectsontheNobelPrizeforPeaceMariaMontessori
PartIV
PartIVMontessoriEducationandPeaceEducationToday
38 AScienceofPeace AnnetteM.Haines
41 DevelopmentoftheChild’sMindandValuesofSolidarityAlbertoOliverio
53 Buildingpeace‘ininteriorehomine’—MontessorianpathsFrancoCambi
53 ASharpCalltothePublicConscience:MariaMontessoriandTheSocialPartyoftheChildGinniSackett
53 PeaceEducationPrimer KevinKester
53 Nature,MoralityandtheAdolescent:TowardthePursuitofHumanSolidarity LaurieEwert-Krocker
53 TowardtheUltimateGoalofPeace:HowaMontessoriEducationattheHighSchoolLevelSupportsMoralDevelopmentthroughStudyandSocialLifeElizabethA.Henke
53 EducationandPeaceReconsideredReginaFeldman
53 GuidedbyNatureNAMTA’sexhibitattheInternationalMontessoriCongressinPortland,inbookform
SpecialthankstoDavidKahnandNAMTAfordonatingtoAMIthecoloursectiononGuidedbyNatureandsponsoringitsproduction
Photographs&illustrationsinthisissuecourtesyofPaolaTrabalzini,theMontessori-PiersonPublishingCompanyandtheMariaMontessoriArchives,
heldatAssociationMontessoriInternationale.
AMI Journal Special December 2013 “Preview” 5
AMI Journal 2013/1-2 page 2 AMI Journal 2013/1-2 page 3
PartIITheInterbellum:EducateforPeaceThePeaceCongressatCopenhagen(1937)
38 PeacethroughEducationMariaandMarioMontessori
53 TheAimsoftheSocialPartyoftheChildMariaMontessori
53 AStepforwardstowardstheFuture:TheSocialPartyoftheChild MariaMontessori
MontessoriandGandhi
38 SpeechMohandaK.GandhiatMontessoriTrainingCollege,London,October28,1931
53 FromalettertoDrMontessoriDatedNovember19,1931MahatmaGandhi
53 GandhiandMariaMontessori AlbertJoosten
PartIIIMontessori’seffortsforpeaceeducationafterWorldWarII
EducationforaNewWorld
53 ANewWorldandEducation(1946/47) MariaMontessori
53 SanRemoLecturesIV:WorldUnitythroughtheChild MariaMontessori
MontessoriandtheNobelPrizeforPeace
53 ALostOpportunityNobelPeacePrize—Some“NotesintheMargin”CamilloGrazzini
53 InSupportofMariaMontessori’scandidacyfortheNobelPeacePrizeMariaJervolino
53 MariaMontessoriwritestoherfriendGiulianaSorgeandreflectsontheNobelPrizeforPeaceMariaMontessori
PartIV
PartIVMontessori PeaceEducationCommentaries
38 AScienceofPeace AnnetteM.Haines
41 DevelopmentoftheChild’sMindandValuesofSolidarityAlbertoOliverio
53 Buildingpeace‘ininteriorehomine’—MontessorianpathsFrancoCambi
53 ASharpCalltothePublicConscience:MariaMontessoriandTheSocialPartyoftheChildGinniSackett
53 PeaceEducationPrimer KevinKester
53 Nature,MoralityandtheAdolescent:TowardthePursuitofHumanSolidarity LaurieEwert-Krocker
53 TowardtheUltimateGoalofPeace:HowaMontessoriEducationattheHighSchoolLevelSupportsMoralDevelopmentthroughStudyandSocialLifeElizabethA.Henke
53 EducationandPeaceReconsideredReginaFeldman
53 GuidedbyNatureNAMTA’sexhibitattheInternationalMontessoriCongressinPortland,inbookform
SpecialthankstoDavidKahnandNAMTAfordonatingtoAMIthecoloursectiononGuidedbyNatureandsponsoringitsproduction
Photographs&illustrationsinthisissuecourtesyofPaolaTrabalzini,theMontessori-PiersonPublishingCompanyandtheMariaMontessoriArchives,
heldatAssociationMontessoriInternationale.
AMI Journal 2013/1-2 page 2 AMI Journal 2013/1-2 page 3
PartIITheInterbellum:EducateforPeaceThePeaceCongressatCopenhagen(1937)
38 PeacethroughEducationMariaandMarioMontessori
53 TheAimsoftheSocialPartyoftheChildMariaMontessori
53 AStepforwardstowardstheFuture:TheSocialPartyoftheChild MariaMontessori
MontessoriandGandhi
38 SpeechMohandaK.GandhiatMontessoriTrainingCollege,London,October28,1931
53 FromalettertoDrMontessoriDatedNovember19,1931MahatmaGandhi
53 GandhiandMariaMontessori AlbertJoosten
PartIIIMontessori’seffortsforpeaceeducationafterWorldWarII
EducationforaNewWorld
53 ANewWorldandEducation(1946/47) MariaMontessori
53 SanRemoLecturesIV:WorldUnitythroughtheChild MariaMontessori
MontessoriandtheNobelPrizeforPeace
53 ALostOpportunityNobelPeacePrize—Some“NotesintheMargin”CamilloGrazzini
53 InSupportofMariaMontessori’scandidacyfortheNobelPeacePrizeMariaJervolino
53 MariaMontessoriwritestoherfriendGiulianaSorgeandreflectsontheNobelPrizeforPeaceMariaMontessori
PartIV
PartIVMontessoriEducationandPeaceEducationToday
38 AScienceofPeace AnnetteM.Haines
41 DevelopmentoftheChild’sMindandValuesofSolidarityAlbertoOliverio
53 Buildingpeace‘ininteriorehomine’—MontessorianpathsFrancoCambi
53 ASharpCalltothePublicConscience:MariaMontessoriandTheSocialPartyoftheChildGinniSackett
53 PeaceEducationPrimer KevinKester
53 Nature,MoralityandtheAdolescent:TowardthePursuitofHumanSolidarity LaurieEwert-Krocker
53 TowardtheUltimateGoalofPeace:HowaMontessoriEducationattheHighSchoolLevelSupportsMoralDevelopmentthroughStudyandSocialLifeElizabethA.Henke
53 EducationandPeaceReconsideredReginaFeldman
53 GuidedbyNatureNAMTA’sexhibitattheInternationalMontessoriCongressinPortland,inbookform
SpecialthankstoDavidKahnandNAMTAfordonatingtoAMIthecoloursectiononGuidedbyNatureandsponsoringitsproduction
Photographs&illustrationsinthisissuecourtesyofPaolaTrabalzini,theMontessori-PiersonPublishingCompanyandtheMariaMontessoriArchives,
heldatAssociationMontessoriInternationale.
Part V: Montessori Adolescent Education, Peace, Solidarity and Morality
AMI Journal Special December 2013 “Preview” 6AMI Journal 2013/1-2 page 4
EditorialBoardKayBakerPhD.,directoroftrainingattheelementarylevel(6-12),USASusanFeez,PhD,SeniorLecturer,SchoolofEducation,UniversityofNewEngland,Armidale
NSW,AustraliaAlexanderHenny,memberoftheCommunicationsBoardCommittee,theNetherlandsDrStevenHughes,DirectoroftheCenterforResearchonDevelopmentalEducation,past
presidentoftheAmericanAcademyofPediatricNeuropsychology,andChairofAMI'sGlobalResearchCommittee,USA
DavidKahn,ExecutiveDirectorNAMTAandProgrammeDirectorofAMontessoriOrientationtoAdolescentStudies,USA
ProfessorHaraldLudwig,co-chair,professoremeritusoftheMontessoriCentreattheUniversityofMünster,andamemberoftheeditorialboardoftheGermanmagazineMontessori,Germany
RitaSchaeferZenerPhD.,co-chair,directoroftrainingattheprimarylevel(3-6),AMIexaminerandconsultant,USA
PaolaTrabalzini,Montessorihistorian,lecturerattheUniversityofRome"LaSapienza"wheresheisoneofthefoundersandmemberoftheScientificCommitteeofthe"MontessoriLaboratory",Italy
EditorialstaffatAMI:CarolinaMontessori,JokeVerheul.
PublishersAssociationMontessoriInternationaleKoninginneweg1611075CNAmsterdam,NetherlandsTel:+31206798932e-mail:[email protected]
copyto:[email protected]
ISSN:2215-1249
AMIBoard
AndréRoberfroid,PresidentLynneLawrence,ExecutiveDirectorIanStockdale,Treasurer
GuadalupeBorbolla,PeterDavidson,PhilipO’Brien,MollyO’Shaughnessy,MaryCarolineParker,MariaTeresaVidales.
Editorial
ConvergingPassages:SocialReform,Peace,andMontessoriEducationforLife
introduction: the essential peace message
MariaMontessorihadawide-reachinglifeandworkthatrevealstheexampleofanevolvingpersonalvision,adeepeningbeliefandworldviewregardingthe“missionofman”1toreformbotheducationandsociety.TheprofileofeducationalsocialreformisreachedthroughpassagesorstepsthatarepresentedonseveralconcretelevelsleadingtoMontessori’sconceptofpeace.Thehis-toryofMontessori’sthoughtfollowsaninexorablelogicleadingdefinitivelytosocialreformfirstandpeacesecond;thatis,socialreformpointingtowardsanewdefi-nitionofpeace.Themission of man—whatMontessoribringstopeace—seekstofulfileducation’sfinalaimtothefullestbybene-fitingthewelfareofhumandevelopmentontheonehand,andthepreservationofnatureontheother.
ThequestforfindingtheessentialpeacemessagefromMontessori’sprimarywrit-ingspresentsamyriadoftopicstodiscussincludingreverencefortheformativelearn-ingcapacityofthechild,theardorofsocialreform,thegrandeuroftheorganicunityoflife,thehuman-builtworld(supra-nature)encroachingonthenaturalworld,andtheperspectiveofhistoryshowingusthefuture(seeappendixforafulllistingoftopicsbypagefromEducation and Peace,adefinitivecollectionoflecturesestablishingherclas-sicalframeworkforreform).
ItisevidentthatMontessori’slifeworkofsocialreformindicatesabroadreformagendathatwasshapedfromherfirstreformexperiencesasanadult,fullyexpect-ingthateducationwouldcontinuetakingontheoppressedanddowntrodden.Asweconsidertheoriginsofsocialreform,wecannotoverlookthepowerofSanLorenzoastheultimatefoundationforsocialreformandgoalforpeaceinMontessori’slife.
the san lorenzo story: the origin of montessori reform
PaolaTrabalzinipresentedanewviewpointontheopeningofthefirstCasa dei Bambini.2Shedescribedadoublereality,socialandeducational,encounteredbytheyoungMariaMontessori,aphysician,apowerfulspeakerforthecivilrightsofwomen,auni-versitylecturerinanthropology,andanewmanagerofabuildingexperimentinaneighbourhoodknownas“theshameofItaly”.3
TheyoungMontessoriwasonasocialmissiontoministertotheSanLorenzochildreninneed;butintheexperiment,almostlikeanaccidentinthelab,Montes-soriencounteredaneducationalrealitysheneverexpectedtosee.Montessoriwasnoingénuetosocialcauses.Before1907,herspeechesreachedouttothe“silencesofeducation,”tomotherswithmentallyretardedchildrenwhothemselveshadnoresourceswithwhichtounderstandoradvo-
AMI Journal 2013/1-2 page 5
AMI Journal Special December 2013 “Preview” 7AMI Journal 2013/1-2 page 4
EditorialBoardKayBakerPhD.,directoroftrainingattheelementarylevel(6-12),USASusanFeez,PhD,SeniorLecturer,SchoolofEducation,UniversityofNewEngland,Armidale
NSW,AustraliaAlexanderHenny,memberoftheCommunicationsBoardCommittee,theNetherlandsDrStevenHughes,DirectoroftheCenterforResearchonDevelopmentalEducation,past
presidentoftheAmericanAcademyofPediatricNeuropsychology,andChairofAMI'sGlobalResearchCommittee,USA
DavidKahn,ExecutiveDirectorNAMTAandProgrammeDirectorofAMontessoriOrientationtoAdolescentStudies,USA
ProfessorHaraldLudwig,co-chair,professoremeritusoftheMontessoriCentreattheUniversityofMünster,andamemberoftheeditorialboardoftheGermanmagazineMontessori,Germany
RitaSchaeferZenerPhD.,co-chair,directoroftrainingattheprimarylevel(3-6),AMIexaminerandconsultant,USA
PaolaTrabalzini,Montessorihistorian,lecturerattheUniversityofRome"LaSapienza"wheresheisoneofthefoundersandmemberoftheScientificCommitteeofthe"MontessoriLaboratory",Italy
EditorialstaffatAMI:CarolinaMontessori,JokeVerheul.
PublishersAssociationMontessoriInternationaleKoninginneweg1611075CNAmsterdam,NetherlandsTel:+31206798932e-mail:[email protected]
copyto:[email protected]
ISSN:2215-1249
AMIBoard
AndréRoberfroid,PresidentLynneLawrence,ExecutiveDirectorIanStockdale,Treasurer
GuadalupeBorbolla,PeterDavidson,PhilipO’Brien,MollyO’Shaughnessy,MaryCarolineParker,MariaTeresaVidales.
Editorial
ConvergingPassages:SocialReform,Peace,andMontessoriEducationforLife
introduction: the essential peace message
MariaMontessorihadawide-reachinglifeandworkthatrevealstheexampleofanevolvingpersonalvision,adeepeningbeliefandworldviewregardingthe“missionofman”1toreformbotheducationandsociety.TheprofileofeducationalsocialreformisreachedthroughpassagesorstepsthatarepresentedonseveralconcretelevelsleadingtoMontessori’sconceptofpeace.Thehis-toryofMontessori’sthoughtfollowsaninexorablelogicleadingdefinitivelytosocialreformfirstandpeacesecond;thatis,socialreformpointingtowardsanewdefi-nitionofpeace.Themission of man—whatMontessoribringstopeace—seekstofulfileducation’sfinalaimtothefullestbybene-fitingthewelfareofhumandevelopmentontheonehand,andthepreservationofnatureontheother.
ThequestforfindingtheessentialpeacemessagefromMontessori’sprimarywrit-ingspresentsamyriadoftopicstodiscussincludingreverencefortheformativelearn-ingcapacityofthechild,theardorofsocialreform,thegrandeuroftheorganicunityoflife,thehuman-builtworld(supra-nature)encroachingonthenaturalworld,andtheperspectiveofhistoryshowingusthefuture(seeappendixforafulllistingoftopicsbypagefromEducation and Peace,adefinitivecollectionoflecturesestablishingherclas-sicalframeworkforreform).
ItisevidentthatMontessori’slifeworkofsocialreformindicatesabroadreformagendathatwasshapedfromherfirstreformexperiencesasanadult,fullyexpect-ingthateducationwouldcontinuetakingontheoppressedanddowntrodden.Asweconsidertheoriginsofsocialreform,wecannotoverlookthepowerofSanLorenzoastheultimatefoundationforsocialreformandgoalforpeaceinMontessori’slife.
the san lorenzo story: the origin of montessori reform
PaolaTrabalzinipresentedanewviewpointontheopeningofthefirstCasa dei Bambini.2Shedescribedadoublereality,socialandeducational,encounteredbytheyoungMariaMontessori,aphysician,apowerfulspeakerforthecivilrightsofwomen,auni-versitylecturerinanthropology,andanewmanagerofabuildingexperimentinaneighbourhoodknownas“theshameofItaly”.3
TheyoungMontessoriwasonasocialmissiontoministertotheSanLorenzochildreninneed;butintheexperiment,almostlikeanaccidentinthelab,Montes-soriencounteredaneducationalrealitysheneverexpectedtosee.Montessoriwasnoingénuetosocialcauses.Before1907,herspeechesreachedouttothe“silencesofeducation,”tomotherswithmentallyretardedchildrenwhothemselveshadnoresourceswithwhichtounderstandoradvo-
AMI Journal 2013/1-2 page 5
AMI Journal Special December 2013 “Preview” 8AMI Journal 2013/1-2 page 7
devotedtotherescueandrehabilitationofchildrenwhohadsufferedfromtheGreatWar.ShebeginsacompassionatepleafortheWhiteCross:
Thereisfound,intheserefugeechildren,a
specialformofmentaldisturbance,which
constitutesarealmentalwound—alesion
thatisasserious,ifnotmoreserious,than
woundsinthephysicalbody.
Picturetheseinnumerablelittlevictims,who
aresuffering;sufferingfromhungerand
fatigue;oftenphysicallywoundedaswell;
sufferingfrominfectionsofeverykind;but
alsofromthismoreprofoundandprolonged
lesionofthenervoussystem.Weknowthat
thetreatmentofnervousdiseasescannotbe
bymedicine.Thetreatmentofthenervous
systemornervesmayproperlybecallededu-
cation.(seepage39)
TheWhiteCrosswasmeanttobeanorgani-zationof‘thosewhoseektosavethefutureofhumanityandtohealthewoundsintheheartsofthesechildren,’butitnevermateri-alized.However,thehealingintentofMon-tessorimostcertainlyseededsocialreformprojectslikeUNESCO(1950)and,afterherdeath,theHelptheChildrenFund-UnitedKingdom(1968),TibetanIndigenousRefu-gees(1969),SouthAfricanInitiativesforTownshipsandSettlements(1978),Austra-lianIndigenousgroups(2005),and,mostrecently,theCornerofHopeinNewCanaan,nearNakuru,Kenya(2007).Mon-tessoribelievedthatthebestdeterrentstowarwerethestrengtheningofcharacter,thenurturingofthespirit,andwhathascometobeknownas positive psychology.Somecon-sideredherdiscourseidealisticandherthe-oreticalapproachunrealistic,unconvincing,andnotimmediateenough.Butshebelievedinthetransformingpowerofadevelopmen-
taleducation.Childrenwerehercalltoactionandhersensitivitytothepersonalityofthechildtransformedthehouseforchil-drenintoahome.
Lecturethreeofthe1917SanDiegolec-turesformulatesapositivepsychologythatrevealsafoundationaltenetofMontessori’s"peacethrougheducation":
So,wehaveamethodofconsideringthe
humanbeingthatisdifferentfromcurrent
thought,becausetodayweknowwecaninflu-
encethe…innerlife...Andthatfutureman,
whowillbehealthier,moresaneandmore
moralthanwe,willsolveproblemsimpossi-
bletous.
InFrancoCambi'sarticleBuilding Peace in interiore homine,interiorpeaceisdistin-guishedfromthepeaceoftheouterworld,andhecreditsMontessoripedagogywithauniquereconstructionoftheself.
But,forMariaMontessori,thereisalsoa
placewherethe“secret”potentialityofchild-
hoodcanandmustcometolight:itisschool,
asaspaceofsocialization,ontheonehand,
andofhumandevelopment,ontheother.
Startingfrominfantschool,sinceitishere
thatthechildispreservedandinterpreted,
protectedanddeveloped.
Itisthusthetaskofeducationtosteerhim
[thechild]backtowardshismoreauthentic
self.…Thus,pedagogybecomestheprimary
instrumenttogiverealfinalshapetothat
taskof“everlastingpeace”whichstands
beforeus.
TheevolvingaspectsofMontessori'sper-sonalitytheoryinrelationtopeaceandedu-cationareexpressedintheconceptsofnor-malization,normality,andvalorization.Norma meansthenorm of the species,implying
catefortheirchildren.Montessoriperse-veredforthesemothers’rights,inthewordsofPaolaTrabalzini,‘therighttoeducation,training,knowledge,employment,eitherfactoryorofficework,therighttochooseone’spartner,andtherighttovote…’.4
ButTrabalzinialsopointedoutthatSanLorenzowasitsown prepared environment,anewplacewithindoorandoutdooractivitiesimplementedforthesakeofintimatefamilylife,‘airy,welllit,comfortable.’Aroundthesenewapartmentswereposted‘educa-tionalwritingsinspiredbyprinciplesoforderandpreservationofthecommongoodsuchas“Thehygieneofthehomeisthechil-dren’shealth”or“Hewhocaresforhishomecaresforhimself”’.5
Thewelfareofthebuildingwasthustranslatedintotheexercisesofpracticallifeandtheresponsibilitiesconveyedtothecommunity.ThedramaofSanLorenzoisthatcareoftheenvironmentwasasocialtaskimmersedinreality,intendedtoenactsocialreform.AsTrabalzinipointedout,bothfreedomandpeacewerelinkedtoresponsiblecommunitylife.ButwhenMon-tessoritaughttheactivitiesofpersonalandhomehygienetotheyoungchildrenthere,shediscovered‘theireducationalvalue:con-trolandcoordinationofmovements,con-centration,developmentofindependence,oftheselfandofsocialrelations’.6Firstcametheintentiontocreatesocialchange;thencamethediscoveryoftheimportanceofpracticallife,whichemergedfromobserv-ingtheimpactofcareoftheenvironmentintheframeworkoftheSanLorenzobuilding.
after san lorenzo: the 1917 san diego lectures
Thisjournalbeginswiththe1917SanDiegolecturesthatdescribedwar,pestilence,fam-ine,andtherelatedsufferingandlossof
humanlife.Theencounterwiththewar-tornlivesofchildreniswhereMontessoribeganherconsciousviewof“peacethrougheducation.”
EricaMorettiintroducestheSanDiegolecturesbydiscussingthepathologyofwarandthenreturnstohealingwiththesub-stanceofMontessori’shumanitarianintent.
Itwasonlyinher[Montessori]1917lectures
thattheeducatorbegantodescribemorespe-
cificallyhowhereducationalmethodology
couldhelpcreateamorepeacefulsociety.At
thebasisofthisideawasthenotionthather
pedagogicalapproachwouldhelpthechild
formasoundpsyche,andthatthisphysically
andmentallyhealthychildwouldconse-
quentlybecomeanadultwhocouldcontrib-
utetothecreationofaworldnotplaguedby
violentconflict.
MorettitellsusthatMontessoriobservedthesymptomsoftraumaintheFranco-Bel-giumorphansofParisafterWorldWarI.OrganizedbyanAmerican,MaryCromwell,thesechildrenmadematerialsfortheMon-tessorischoolinParis(1918)whileworkingalongsiderecuperatingwarveteransandrefugeesfromWorldWarI.BytheendofWorldWarI,Montessorisawclearlythatthenegativeconditionsofwarandpovertycre-atetrauma,whichshealsomentionedinherpeacelecturesthroughoutthethirties.ShewasstronglyinfluencedbyherexperienceswiththeSanLorenzostreetchildren(1907),thechildrenwhosurvivedtheMessinaEarthquake(1908),thesinglemothersandchildrenoftheMaternidadinBarcelona,Spain(1915),andthechildrenofwar-tornfamiliesattheHaus der KinderinVienna(1922).
n1917MariaMontessoriadvocatedforthecreationofaCroce Bianca(WhiteCross)torunparalleltotheRedCrossandtobe
AMI Journal 2013/1-2 page 6
AMI Journal Special December 2013 “Preview” 9AMI Journal 2013/1-2 page 7
devotedtotherescueandrehabilitationofchildrenwhohadsufferedfromtheGreatWar.ShebeginsacompassionatepleafortheWhiteCross:
Thereisfound,intheserefugeechildren,a
specialformofmentaldisturbance,which
constitutesarealmentalwound—alesion
thatisasserious,ifnotmoreserious,than
woundsinthephysicalbody.
Picturetheseinnumerablelittlevictims,who
aresuffering;sufferingfromhungerand
fatigue;oftenphysicallywoundedaswell;
sufferingfrominfectionsofeverykind;but
alsofromthismoreprofoundandprolonged
lesionofthenervoussystem.Weknowthat
thetreatmentofnervousdiseasescannotbe
bymedicine.Thetreatmentofthenervous
systemornervesmayproperlybecallededu-
cation.(seepage39)
TheWhiteCrosswasmeanttobeanorgani-zationof‘thosewhoseektosavethefutureofhumanityandtohealthewoundsintheheartsofthesechildren,’butitnevermateri-alized.However,thehealingintentofMon-tessorimostcertainlyseededsocialreformprojectslikeUNESCO(1950)and,afterherdeath,theHelptheChildrenFund-UnitedKingdom(1968),TibetanIndigenousRefu-gees(1969),SouthAfricanInitiativesforTownshipsandSettlements(1978),Austra-lianIndigenousgroups(2005),and,mostrecently,theCornerofHopeinNewCanaan,nearNakuru,Kenya(2007).Mon-tessoribelievedthatthebestdeterrentstowarwerethestrengtheningofcharacter,thenurturingofthespirit,andwhathascometobeknownas positive psychology.Somecon-sideredherdiscourseidealisticandherthe-oreticalapproachunrealistic,unconvincing,andnotimmediateenough.Butshebelievedinthetransformingpowerofadevelopmen-
taleducation.Childrenwerehercalltoactionandhersensitivitytothepersonalityofthechildtransformedthehouseforchil-drenintoahome.
Lecturethreeofthe1917SanDiegolec-turesformulatesapositivepsychologythatrevealsafoundationaltenetofMontessori’s"peacethrougheducation":
So,wehaveamethodofconsideringthe
humanbeingthatisdifferentfromcurrent
thought,becausetodayweknowwecaninflu-
encethe…innerlife...Andthatfutureman,
whowillbehealthier,moresaneandmore
moralthanwe,willsolveproblemsimpossi-
bletous.
InFrancoCambi'sarticleBuilding Peace in interiore homine,interiorpeaceisdistin-guishedfromthepeaceoftheouterworld,andhecreditsMontessoripedagogywithauniquereconstructionoftheself.
But,forMariaMontessori,thereisalsoa
placewherethe“secret”potentialityofchild-
hoodcanandmustcometolight:itisschool,
asaspaceofsocialization,ontheonehand,
andofhumandevelopment,ontheother.
Startingfrominfantschool,sinceitishere
thatthechildispreservedandinterpreted,
protectedanddeveloped.
Itisthusthetaskofeducationtosteerhim
[thechild]backtowardshismoreauthentic
self.…Thus,pedagogybecomestheprimary
instrumenttogiverealfinalshapetothat
taskof“everlastingpeace”whichstands
beforeus.
TheevolvingaspectsofMontessori'sper-sonalitytheoryinrelationtopeaceandedu-cationareexpressedintheconceptsofnor-malization,normality,andvalorization.Norma meansthenorm of the species,implying
catefortheirchildren.Montessoriperse-veredforthesemothers’rights,inthewordsofPaolaTrabalzini,‘therighttoeducation,training,knowledge,employment,eitherfactoryorofficework,therighttochooseone’spartner,andtherighttovote…’.4
ButTrabalzinialsopointedoutthatSanLorenzowasitsown prepared environment,anewplacewithindoorandoutdooractivitiesimplementedforthesakeofintimatefamilylife,‘airy,welllit,comfortable.’Aroundthesenewapartmentswereposted‘educa-tionalwritingsinspiredbyprinciplesoforderandpreservationofthecommongoodsuchas“Thehygieneofthehomeisthechil-dren’shealth”or“Hewhocaresforhishomecaresforhimself”’.5
Thewelfareofthebuildingwasthustranslatedintotheexercisesofpracticallifeandtheresponsibilitiesconveyedtothecommunity.ThedramaofSanLorenzoisthatcareoftheenvironmentwasasocialtaskimmersedinreality,intendedtoenactsocialreform.AsTrabalzinipointedout,bothfreedomandpeacewerelinkedtoresponsiblecommunitylife.ButwhenMon-tessoritaughttheactivitiesofpersonalandhomehygienetotheyoungchildrenthere,shediscovered‘theireducationalvalue:con-trolandcoordinationofmovements,con-centration,developmentofindependence,oftheselfandofsocialrelations’.6Firstcametheintentiontocreatesocialchange;thencamethediscoveryoftheimportanceofpracticallife,whichemergedfromobserv-ingtheimpactofcareoftheenvironmentintheframeworkoftheSanLorenzobuilding.
after san lorenzo: the 1917 san diego lectures
Thisjournalbeginswiththe1917SanDiegolecturesthatdescribedwar,pestilence,fam-ine,andtherelatedsufferingandlossof
humanlife.Theencounterwiththewar-tornlivesofchildreniswhereMontessoribeganherconsciousviewof“peacethrougheducation.”
EricaMorettiintroducestheSanDiegolecturesbydiscussingthepathologyofwarandthenreturnstohealingwiththesub-stanceofMontessori’shumanitarianintent.
Itwasonlyinher[Montessori]1917lectures
thattheeducatorbegantodescribemorespe-
cificallyhowhereducationalmethodology
couldhelpcreateamorepeacefulsociety.At
thebasisofthisideawasthenotionthather
pedagogicalapproachwouldhelpthechild
formasoundpsyche,andthatthisphysically
andmentallyhealthychildwouldconse-
quentlybecomeanadultwhocouldcontrib-
utetothecreationofaworldnotplaguedby
violentconflict.
MorettitellsusthatMontessoriobservedthesymptomsoftraumaintheFranco-Bel-giumorphansofParisafterWorldWarI.OrganizedbyanAmerican,MaryCromwell,thesechildrenmadematerialsfortheMon-tessorischoolinParis(1918)whileworkingalongsiderecuperatingwarveteransandrefugeesfromWorldWarI.BytheendofWorldWarI,Montessorisawclearlythatthenegativeconditionsofwarandpovertycre-atetrauma,whichshealsomentionedinherpeacelecturesthroughoutthethirties.ShewasstronglyinfluencedbyherexperienceswiththeSanLorenzostreetchildren(1907),thechildrenwhosurvivedtheMessinaEarthquake(1908),thesinglemothersandchildrenoftheMaternidadinBarcelona,Spain(1915),andthechildrenofwar-tornfamiliesattheHaus der KinderinVienna(1922).
n1917MariaMontessoriadvocatedforthecreationofaCroce Bianca(WhiteCross)torunparalleltotheRedCrossandtobe
AMI Journal 2013/1-2 page 6
AMI Journal Special December 2013 “Preview” 10AMI Journal 2013/1-2 page 8 AMI Journal 2013/1-2 page 9
erdkinder theory into pr actice: the young adolescent approaching peace
Now,forthethirdplane,theexplorationis
evenwider,encompassingthefarmandthe
communityoftheruralarea.Itechoeswhat
thechildrenexploredatthesecondplane:civ-
ilizationandhowitcameabout.Butnowthe
explorationtakesplaceinrealitybecausethe
adolescentsareactuallydoingit.Cooperation
withtheland,cooperationincommerce,and
cooperationintheculturallifeoftherural
societytouchmateriallythethingsstudiedin
thesecondplaneandaffordtheadolescentthe
opportunitytoseehisorherplaceinsociety.7
Montessoriclearlysuggestedinherpam-phlet“TheErdkinderandFunctionsoftheUniversity”(1936)thatafarm,aboardinghostel,andastorecancreateanoptimallearningandsocialenvironmentfortheadolescent.ShelaunchedherideaofErd-kinder(ChildrenoftheEarthorLand-Chil-dren)afterhavingvisitedGermanlandschools(Landerziehungsheime)inBerlinintheearly1920s.8
Thechildundersix,theelementarychild,andtheadolescentconstructeverypartoftheMontessori“missionofman,”expand-ingintomaturity.Montessorieducationisonthethresholdofitsadultstageasitsped-agogyclimbsthedevelopmentalladderfrombirthtoadolescence,immersedinsuc-cessivepreparedenvironments.Thereareglimpsesinourexperimentalconstructthatthenewadolescentwillbetheembodimentofservicetohumanity,seekingcollabora-tivewaystoentersocietyasaconsciouscontributor.Ifonestudiestheunity,diversity,andscopeofMontessori’sthinkingabouttheplanesofeducation,thentheadolescentbecomesdefactoaMontessoriagentofchangeorof
peace—knowinghowtobeuseful,howtohelpmankind,developingasocialrealitythroughbuildingaresponsibilitytohisorherownfarmcommunity,andthenthevil-lage,andontotheworld.TheclearestembodimentofMontessoripeaceistheauthenticallyeducatedadolescent,whohasachievedthefollowing:
• thedevelopmentofapersonalmissionand
activism;
• theexerciseofvirtues,values,andskills
directedtohumanwork;
• thecommitmenttosocialreformthatdemon-
strateshowenlightenedservicecanbedone
asaseriesofprojectsandexperimentsbased
oncommunityengagement;
• theunderstandingthatpersonalspecializa-
tionisapracticalmethodofcontributingto
society,whilstatthesametimepossessinga
visionbeyondthelimitsofone’sownspecial-
izationorrole.
TheErdkinderconcept,theadolescentonthefarm,suggestsacommunityaspectofbelongingtoaplace,toasystemofeco-nomicproductionandexchange,toaninti-mateboardingexperienceofadultsworkingalongsidechildren,toconditionsoflearningwherethematerialsarethecomponentsofthefarmenvironmentleadingtoacademiccontexts.AndthisconceptiswhereMontes-soridramaticallynavigatesawayfromcon-ventionaleducationandcarefullydefinesherapproachtoreform:
Theneedthatissokeenlyfeltforareformof
secondaryschoolsconcernsnotonlyanedu-
cationalbutalsoahumanandsocialproblem.
Thiscanbesummedupinonesentence:
Schoolsastheyaretoday,areadaptedneither
totheneedsofadolescencenortothetimesin
whichwelive.Societyhasnotonlydeveloped
intoastateofutmostcomplicationand
thatthereareuniversalnaturallawsthatgoverntheself-formationofthehumanbeing.MontessoriwritesonnormalizationintheSecret of Childhood:
Theessentialthingisforthetasktoarouse
suchaninterestthatitengagesthechild’s
wholepersonality…activity,freelychosen
becomestheirregularwayofliving.Theheal-
ingoftheirdisordersisthedoorwaytothis
newkindoflife.(256)
ThenormalizationconceptisaspiritualdrivethatMontessorialsowritesaboutinThe Child and the Church:
Itsobject[theMontessoriMethod]istoinflu-
encethewholelifeofthechild:itaims,in
short,atatotaldevelopmentofthepersonal-
ity,aharmoniousgrowthofallthepotentiali-
tiesofthechild,mentalandphysical,accord-
ingtothelawsofitsbeing.
Valorizationcontributestohealingasitbringsvaluebacktothedevaluedchildofwarandbecomesasocialprocesswherethecommunityrecognizesthecontributionsofeachindividual.MarioandMariaMontes-sori'sarticle‘PeacethroughEducation’(1937)putsthelawsofdevelopmentintoasocialcontext:
Eachindividualismadetofeelthatheforms
anecessaryandimportantpartofanorgani-
zationwithaimssoloftyastoseemalmost
unattainable.Byallowingthemtotakepart
officiallyinthenationalactivities,theindi-
vidualsaremadetofeelthattheirhelpand
collaborationistrulynecessaryiftheseaims
aretobereached.Whatanimmenseimpulse
totheformationoftheircharacter!
Montessori'svision(From Childhood to Adoles-cence,1935-pre-publication)bearsherthink-
ingabouttheimportanceofdevelopmentduringadolescence.‘PeacethroughEduca-tion’ (1937)reflectshernewlyacquiredframeworkaboutthestrengtheningoftheselfandusesthetermvalorizationtodescribethisprocessofstrengtheningandofrealizingone’sownvaluewhichoccursastheadolescentbecomesanengagedandcontributingadultinthecontextofadult-hood.TheCopenhagenCongress(1937)reflectstheconfidenceofacompletededu-cationaldevelopmentalplanwhereinMon-tessorideclaredhervisionofpeacethroughsixlecturesprimarilyabouteducationanddevelopmentasthemainpathwaytopeace.
Whenwespeakofpeace,wedonotmeana
partialtrucebetweenseparatenations,buta
permanentwayoflifeforallmankind.This
goalcannotbeattainedthroughthesigning
oftreatiesbyindividualnations.Theproblem
forusdoesnotlieinpoliticalactiontosave
onenationoranother;oureffortsmustbe
devoted,rather,tosolvingapsychological
probleminvolvingallmankind,andasacon-
sequenceacquiringaclearconceptionofthe
kindofmoralitynecessarytodefendhuman-
ityasawhole.(PeacethroughEducation,
insertpagenumberfromjournal)
LookingaheadtothecompletionofMontes-sori’seducationalexperience,theconceptofErdkinderadolescentprogrammesonthefarmreorientsMontessorithinkingtotheessentialdevelopmentalinteractionwiththenaturalworld.Rekindlingtheroleofnatureinbalancewithsupranatureisadevelop-mentalcorrelationthatisseeminglyself-evident,butnotnecessarilyrealizeduntilnowwiththerecentimplementationoftheadolescentErdkinderenvironment.TobringErdkindertheoryintoactioncreatesatotalvisionofMontessorinatureeducationandpersonalityformationacrosstheplanes.
AMI Journal Special December 2013 “Preview” 11AMI Journal 2013/1-2 page 8 AMI Journal 2013/1-2 page 9
erdkinder theory into pr actice: the young adolescent approaching peace
Now,forthethirdplane,theexplorationis
evenwider,encompassingthefarmandthe
communityoftheruralarea.Itechoeswhat
thechildrenexploredatthesecondplane:civ-
ilizationandhowitcameabout.Butnowthe
explorationtakesplaceinrealitybecausethe
adolescentsareactuallydoingit.Cooperation
withtheland,cooperationincommerce,and
cooperationintheculturallifeoftherural
societytouchmateriallythethingsstudiedin
thesecondplaneandaffordtheadolescentthe
opportunitytoseehisorherplaceinsociety.7
Montessoriclearlysuggestedinherpam-phlet“TheErdkinderandFunctionsoftheUniversity”(1936)thatafarm,aboardinghostel,andastorecancreateanoptimallearningandsocialenvironmentfortheadolescent.ShelaunchedherideaofErd-kinder(ChildrenoftheEarthorLand-Chil-dren)afterhavingvisitedGermanlandschools(Landerziehungsheime)inBerlinintheearly1920s.8
Thechildundersix,theelementarychild,andtheadolescentconstructeverypartoftheMontessori“missionofman,”expand-ingintomaturity.Montessorieducationisonthethresholdofitsadultstageasitsped-agogyclimbsthedevelopmentalladderfrombirthtoadolescence,immersedinsuc-cessivepreparedenvironments.Thereareglimpsesinourexperimentalconstructthatthenewadolescentwillbetheembodimentofservicetohumanity,seekingcollabora-tivewaystoentersocietyasaconsciouscontributor.Ifonestudiestheunity,diversity,andscopeofMontessori’sthinkingabouttheplanesofeducation,thentheadolescentbecomesdefactoaMontessoriagentofchangeorof
peace—knowinghowtobeuseful,howtohelpmankind,developingasocialrealitythroughbuildingaresponsibilitytohisorherownfarmcommunity,andthenthevil-lage,andontotheworld.TheclearestembodimentofMontessoripeaceistheauthenticallyeducatedadolescent,whohasachievedthefollowing:
• thedevelopmentofapersonalmissionand
activism;
• theexerciseofvirtues,values,andskills
directedtohumanwork;
• thecommitmenttosocialreformthatdemon-
strateshowenlightenedservicecanbedone
asaseriesofprojectsandexperimentsbased
oncommunityengagement;
• theunderstandingthatpersonalspecializa-
tionisapracticalmethodofcontributingto
society,whilstatthesametimepossessinga
visionbeyondthelimitsofone’sownspecial-
izationorrole.
TheErdkinderconcept,theadolescentonthefarm,suggestsacommunityaspectofbelongingtoaplace,toasystemofeco-nomicproductionandexchange,toaninti-mateboardingexperienceofadultsworkingalongsidechildren,toconditionsoflearningwherethematerialsarethecomponentsofthefarmenvironmentleadingtoacademiccontexts.AndthisconceptiswhereMontes-soridramaticallynavigatesawayfromcon-ventionaleducationandcarefullydefinesherapproachtoreform:
Theneedthatissokeenlyfeltforareformof
secondaryschoolsconcernsnotonlyanedu-
cationalbutalsoahumanandsocialproblem.
Thiscanbesummedupinonesentence:
Schoolsastheyaretoday,areadaptedneither
totheneedsofadolescencenortothetimesin
whichwelive.Societyhasnotonlydeveloped
intoastateofutmostcomplicationand
thatthereareuniversalnaturallawsthatgoverntheself-formationofthehumanbeing.MontessoriwritesonnormalizationintheSecret of Childhood:
Theessentialthingisforthetasktoarouse
suchaninterestthatitengagesthechild’s
wholepersonality…activity,freelychosen
becomestheirregularwayofliving.Theheal-
ingoftheirdisordersisthedoorwaytothis
newkindoflife.(256)
ThenormalizationconceptisaspiritualdrivethatMontessorialsowritesaboutinThe Child and the Church:
Itsobject[theMontessoriMethod]istoinflu-
encethewholelifeofthechild:itaims,in
short,atatotaldevelopmentofthepersonal-
ity,aharmoniousgrowthofallthepotentiali-
tiesofthechild,mentalandphysical,accord-
ingtothelawsofitsbeing.
Valorizationcontributestohealingasitbringsvaluebacktothedevaluedchildofwarandbecomesasocialprocesswherethecommunityrecognizesthecontributionsofeachindividual.MarioandMariaMontes-sori'sarticle‘PeacethroughEducation’(1937)putsthelawsofdevelopmentintoasocialcontext:
Eachindividualismadetofeelthatheforms
anecessaryandimportantpartofanorgani-
zationwithaimssoloftyastoseemalmost
unattainable.Byallowingthemtotakepart
officiallyinthenationalactivities,theindi-
vidualsaremadetofeelthattheirhelpand
collaborationistrulynecessaryiftheseaims
aretobereached.Whatanimmenseimpulse
totheformationoftheircharacter!
Montessori'svision(From Childhood to Adoles-cence,1935-pre-publication)bearsherthink-
ingabouttheimportanceofdevelopmentduringadolescence.‘PeacethroughEduca-tion’ (1937)reflectshernewlyacquiredframeworkaboutthestrengtheningoftheselfandusesthetermvalorizationtodescribethisprocessofstrengtheningandofrealizingone’sownvaluewhichoccursastheadolescentbecomesanengagedandcontributingadultinthecontextofadult-hood.TheCopenhagenCongress(1937)reflectstheconfidenceofacompletededu-cationaldevelopmentalplanwhereinMon-tessorideclaredhervisionofpeacethroughsixlecturesprimarilyabouteducationanddevelopmentasthemainpathwaytopeace.
Whenwespeakofpeace,wedonotmeana
partialtrucebetweenseparatenations,buta
permanentwayoflifeforallmankind.This
goalcannotbeattainedthroughthesigning
oftreatiesbyindividualnations.Theproblem
forusdoesnotlieinpoliticalactiontosave
onenationoranother;oureffortsmustbe
devoted,rather,tosolvingapsychological
probleminvolvingallmankind,andasacon-
sequenceacquiringaclearconceptionofthe
kindofmoralitynecessarytodefendhuman-
ityasawhole.(PeacethroughEducation,
insertpagenumberfromjournal)
LookingaheadtothecompletionofMontes-sori’seducationalexperience,theconceptofErdkinderadolescentprogrammesonthefarmreorientsMontessorithinkingtotheessentialdevelopmentalinteractionwiththenaturalworld.Rekindlingtheroleofnatureinbalancewithsupranatureisadevelop-mentalcorrelationthatisseeminglyself-evident,butnotnecessarilyrealizeduntilnowwiththerecentimplementationoftheadolescentErdkinderenvironment.TobringErdkindertheoryintoactioncreatesatotalvisionofMontessorinatureeducationandpersonalityformationacrosstheplanes.
AMI Journal Special December 2013 “Preview” 12AMI Journal 2013/1-2 page 10 AMI Journal 2013/1-2 page 11
embodiesthe“missionofman,”ReginaFeldman,ahistoryteacherofolderadoles-centsatthehighschoollevel,seesapossiblerealizationofthepeacemissioninherteaching.
Thescienceofpeacehenceisaneducation
withoutborderstobetakenfarbeyondthe
fourwallsofaclassroomto“transformideals
intoactions,”asthesloganoftheMontessori
Peace Nowinitiativesays,forthebettermentof
society.Thehighschoolisthetraining
groundforascientia conaturalis,anexaltedtype
ofknowledgeforanewworldwhere‘the
knowerbecomestheknown,thedancer
becomesthedance,thepeaceseekerbecomes
peace.Noneedforconcepts,justadisplayed,
seamlesshabitofknowledgeandaction’
(Wyatt)thatevolveswithchangeinand
aroundus.10
the role of the natur al world
In2013thenaturalworldisemphasizedasameanstopeaceontheplanet,becauseineffectnomatterwhattheageandstageoflife,fromnewborntoseniorcitizen,naturehasaroletoplay.
Thecriticalfunctionofthenaturalworldisthatitprovidescontinuityinthepreparedenvironmentateachplaneofeducation;asthechildgetsolder,nature’sroletakesonawiderscopeasamaterialfordevelopment.Natureistheultimatepsychodiscipline—anetworkofsystemsthatintegratesknowl-edgeandtransformsthepersonalityatthesametime.ThefollowingisborrowedfromtheGuided by Nature exhibitinPortland,2013,summarizingitsintenttoshowingtheunfoldingintegrationofnatureandlearningacrosstheplanesofeducationleadingtoMontessori’sbroadestconceptofpeace.(exhibitpresentationonpage_____)
Attheprimarylevel,theabsorbentmind
reachesnaturethroughthephysicalindoor
andoutdoorspaceforenrichedexperiencein
theChildren’sHouse.
Attheelementarylevel,afternaturearouses
theimagination,classificationorganizesthe
child’sknowledge,introducingabstractprin-
ciplesthatexplainnaturalphenomena.Nature
alsoprovidesanevolutionarysequencethat
pointstoone’splaceintheworld.Realexperi-
enceinnatureisstillafundamentaland
essentialrequirement.
Attheadolescentlevel,natureisacollabora-
tor.Theadolescentproducesinpartnership
withnature.Whilecooperatingwithplants
andanimals,adolescentsalsoneedtocooper-
atewitheachother.TheErdkinderprovidesa
basisforsociallifeandcommerce,anditcre-
atesanewkindofsocialknowledgebasedon
farmexperiencesduringtheformativeyears
oftwelvetofifteen.
WhileitistheadolescentwhobringsdownthefinalcurtainonourstageofMontessoridevelopmentalreform,itisthesweepfromearlychildhoodtoadolescenceinaMontes-sorischoolthatactualizesreform.Iftheadolescentprogrammesbydesignaresmallcommunitiesinschoolandoutsideschool,eitherurbanorrural,thenwenolongerhaveplacescalledschoolsthatareanythinglikethetraditionalschoolsofthepast.Instead,theschoolreshapesitselftobecometheorganiccultureenvisionedintheutopianannalsof“HumanSolidarityinTimeandSpace”:
Thisisthegreattaskofeducation:tomake
thechildconsciousoftherealityanddepthof
humanunity.…Aboveall,wemustmakethe
childrenunderstandhowextraordinarilymov-
ingitisthatmenarenotunitedbytheirinter-
extremecontrasts,butithasnowcometoa
crisisinwhichthepeaceoftheworldandcivi-
lizationitselfarethreatened.9
NeverintheMontessoriliteraturehasthecallfor“reform”beensointenseandsovig-orouslyaimedattheproblemsofourtimesaswiththeadolescent.Theimportanceofadolescenceisthatitisasecondformativeperiod,andMontessorilookstoadolescencetogivethefinalpersonalitypiece—oreventhefinalmissingpersonalitypiece—toequiptheadolescentasafreeagentofsocialreformandpeace-buildingefforts.
Thefarmassliceofreallifeiscriticaltoearlyadolescence.Toexperiencethehardrealityofeconomics,productionandexchange,tocareforoneselfandforothers,tounderstandtheharsh,clashingrealitybetweennature’sbalancingsystemsandthehuman-builtworld—thesearesomeoftherealoutcomesofMontessorieducationontheland.TheMontessoriadolescentis“called”tobedifferent,tohaveacertainseriousnessaboutwhatone’slifeneedstoincludetobeapositiveandcontributingciti-zen.Inthisjournal,Laurie-EwertKrockerwritesaboutthesocializationoffarm-basedyoungadolescents.
Adolescentsdohaveuniversaldevelopmental
needsandcharacteristics,andthoseneeds
andcharacteristicshavemostlytodowith
socialization,socialidentity,andestablishing
socialorganizationinagroup.Thedevelop-
mentoftheindividual’spotential,freedomto
choose,independenceinskillandthought,
andindividualidentityareallimportant—but
emerge only in the context of the social group. The
qualityoftheenvironmentinwhichthis
socialbeingisnurturedandtheculturethey
adoptwithinthesocialgrouparecrucial
shapingforcesatthistimeoflife.Wecannot
supportadolescentdevelopmentwithoutseri-
ousconsiderationoftheconfigurationofthe
environmentifweareconcernedaboutthe
shapingofmorallyconscientioushuman
beingsforwhomtheinterdependentwebof
lifeisrealandnecessary.(p._____)
the montessori high school: ado-lescent becoming adult
ThefinalbridgetoagreatersocietyistheMontessorihighschool,wherethereisanintensificationofthecalltoactionimplicittobecominganadult.Sociallifemusttran-sitionfromtheelementarycooperativecos-micstudiestotheadolescentfarmcommu-nitytoanew,largercontextofalimitedbutrealcommunity.Thiscommunityissquarelyplacedinanadultworldthatisurban,sociallyandculturallydiverse,creative,andimmersedinbusinessandservicetoothers.ElizabethHenkewritesinthisjournal,
Thedevelopmentalneedsoftheadolescent,
particularlyastheyrelatetotheacademicdis-
ciplines,revolvearounddeeplyunderstanding
thetimesinwhichtheyliveanddiscovering
howtheyarecapableofpositiveactionwithin
theworld.Ihavecometobelievetheolder
adolescentinsearchofaroletoplayinsoci-
ety,seeks,atanevendeeperlevel,tounder-
standtheuniverseandhisplacewithinit.
Adolescentsareconstantlyaskingtheinternal
questions,‘WhoamIinrelationtohuman
society?WheredoIfitintothissociety?and
HowcanIserveotherswithinsociety?’(Davis,
2008).Thesequestionsareexploredthrough
theshiftinglensesoftheacademicdisciplines
andthedevelopmentofsociallifewiththe
helpofteacher-experts.(seep.145)
Theadolescentbecominganadultrevealstheessentialcharacteristicsofthekindofhumanthatwilltakeonanengagedcom-mitmentforpeace.Asthesecondaryschool
AMI Journal Special December 2013 “Preview” 13AMI Journal 2013/1-2 page 10 AMI Journal 2013/1-2 page 11
embodiesthe“missionofman,”ReginaFeldman,ahistoryteacherofolderadoles-centsatthehighschoollevel,seesapossiblerealizationofthepeacemissioninherteaching.
Thescienceofpeacehenceisaneducation
withoutborderstobetakenfarbeyondthe
fourwallsofaclassroomto“transformideals
intoactions,”asthesloganoftheMontessori
Peace Nowinitiativesays,forthebettermentof
society.Thehighschoolisthetraining
groundforascientia conaturalis,anexaltedtype
ofknowledgeforanewworldwhere‘the
knowerbecomestheknown,thedancer
becomesthedance,thepeaceseekerbecomes
peace.Noneedforconcepts,justadisplayed,
seamlesshabitofknowledgeandaction’
(Wyatt)thatevolveswithchangeinand
aroundus.10
the role of the natur al world
In2013thenaturalworldisemphasizedasameanstopeaceontheplanet,becauseineffectnomatterwhattheageandstageoflife,fromnewborntoseniorcitizen,naturehasaroletoplay.
Thecriticalfunctionofthenaturalworldisthatitprovidescontinuityinthepreparedenvironmentateachplaneofeducation;asthechildgetsolder,nature’sroletakesonawiderscopeasamaterialfordevelopment.Natureistheultimatepsychodiscipline—anetworkofsystemsthatintegratesknowl-edgeandtransformsthepersonalityatthesametime.ThefollowingisborrowedfromtheGuided by Nature exhibitinPortland,2013,summarizingitsintenttoshowingtheunfoldingintegrationofnatureandlearningacrosstheplanesofeducationleadingtoMontessori’sbroadestconceptofpeace.(exhibitpresentationonpage_____)
Attheprimarylevel,theabsorbentmind
reachesnaturethroughthephysicalindoor
andoutdoorspaceforenrichedexperiencein
theChildren’sHouse.
Attheelementarylevel,afternaturearouses
theimagination,classificationorganizesthe
child’sknowledge,introducingabstractprin-
ciplesthatexplainnaturalphenomena.Nature
alsoprovidesanevolutionarysequencethat
pointstoone’splaceintheworld.Realexperi-
enceinnatureisstillafundamentaland
essentialrequirement.
Attheadolescentlevel,natureisacollabora-
tor.Theadolescentproducesinpartnership
withnature.Whilecooperatingwithplants
andanimals,adolescentsalsoneedtocooper-
atewitheachother.TheErdkinderprovidesa
basisforsociallifeandcommerce,anditcre-
atesanewkindofsocialknowledgebasedon
farmexperiencesduringtheformativeyears
oftwelvetofifteen.
WhileitistheadolescentwhobringsdownthefinalcurtainonourstageofMontessoridevelopmentalreform,itisthesweepfromearlychildhoodtoadolescenceinaMontes-sorischoolthatactualizesreform.Iftheadolescentprogrammesbydesignaresmallcommunitiesinschoolandoutsideschool,eitherurbanorrural,thenwenolongerhaveplacescalledschoolsthatareanythinglikethetraditionalschoolsofthepast.Instead,theschoolreshapesitselftobecometheorganiccultureenvisionedintheutopianannalsof“HumanSolidarityinTimeandSpace”:
Thisisthegreattaskofeducation:tomake
thechildconsciousoftherealityanddepthof
humanunity.…Aboveall,wemustmakethe
childrenunderstandhowextraordinarilymov-
ingitisthatmenarenotunitedbytheirinter-
extremecontrasts,butithasnowcometoa
crisisinwhichthepeaceoftheworldandcivi-
lizationitselfarethreatened.9
NeverintheMontessoriliteraturehasthecallfor“reform”beensointenseandsovig-orouslyaimedattheproblemsofourtimesaswiththeadolescent.Theimportanceofadolescenceisthatitisasecondformativeperiod,andMontessorilookstoadolescencetogivethefinalpersonalitypiece—oreventhefinalmissingpersonalitypiece—toequiptheadolescentasafreeagentofsocialreformandpeace-buildingefforts.
Thefarmassliceofreallifeiscriticaltoearlyadolescence.Toexperiencethehardrealityofeconomics,productionandexchange,tocareforoneselfandforothers,tounderstandtheharsh,clashingrealitybetweennature’sbalancingsystemsandthehuman-builtworld—thesearesomeoftherealoutcomesofMontessorieducationontheland.TheMontessoriadolescentis“called”tobedifferent,tohaveacertainseriousnessaboutwhatone’slifeneedstoincludetobeapositiveandcontributingciti-zen.Inthisjournal,Laurie-EwertKrockerwritesaboutthesocializationoffarm-basedyoungadolescents.
Adolescentsdohaveuniversaldevelopmental
needsandcharacteristics,andthoseneeds
andcharacteristicshavemostlytodowith
socialization,socialidentity,andestablishing
socialorganizationinagroup.Thedevelop-
mentoftheindividual’spotential,freedomto
choose,independenceinskillandthought,
andindividualidentityareallimportant—but
emerge only in the context of the social group. The
qualityoftheenvironmentinwhichthis
socialbeingisnurturedandtheculturethey
adoptwithinthesocialgrouparecrucial
shapingforcesatthistimeoflife.Wecannot
supportadolescentdevelopmentwithoutseri-
ousconsiderationoftheconfigurationofthe
environmentifweareconcernedaboutthe
shapingofmorallyconscientioushuman
beingsforwhomtheinterdependentwebof
lifeisrealandnecessary.(p._____)
the montessori high school: ado-lescent becoming adult
ThefinalbridgetoagreatersocietyistheMontessorihighschool,wherethereisanintensificationofthecalltoactionimplicittobecominganadult.Sociallifemusttran-sitionfromtheelementarycooperativecos-micstudiestotheadolescentfarmcommu-nitytoanew,largercontextofalimitedbutrealcommunity.Thiscommunityissquarelyplacedinanadultworldthatisurban,sociallyandculturallydiverse,creative,andimmersedinbusinessandservicetoothers.ElizabethHenkewritesinthisjournal,
Thedevelopmentalneedsoftheadolescent,
particularlyastheyrelatetotheacademicdis-
ciplines,revolvearounddeeplyunderstanding
thetimesinwhichtheyliveanddiscovering
howtheyarecapableofpositiveactionwithin
theworld.Ihavecometobelievetheolder
adolescentinsearchofaroletoplayinsoci-
ety,seeks,atanevendeeperlevel,tounder-
standtheuniverseandhisplacewithinit.
Adolescentsareconstantlyaskingtheinternal
questions,‘WhoamIinrelationtohuman
society?WheredoIfitintothissociety?and
HowcanIserveotherswithinsociety?’(Davis,
2008).Thesequestionsareexploredthrough
theshiftinglensesoftheacademicdisciplines
andthedevelopmentofsociallifewiththe
helpofteacher-experts.(seep.145)
Theadolescentbecominganadultrevealstheessentialcharacteristicsofthekindofhumanthatwilltakeonanengagedcom-mitmentforpeace.Asthesecondaryschool
AMI Journal Special December 2013 “Preview” 14AMI Journal 2013/1-2 page 12 AMI Journal 2013/1-2 page 13
reconstructionthroughtheirMontessorischools.TheindigenouscommunityleadersthemselvestakechargeoftheMontessorischools,formingcouncilsorboards,andtheyoftenbecomeorganizersofcommunityservicesaswellasMontessorieducation.Montessorimethodsandmaterials,basedastheyareinuniversals,containnoculturalbias.Theemphasisonpracticallifespecifictotheculture;theuseofsensorymaterialsbasedoncolour,shape,smell,andtouch;thegeometricvisualizationofmathandgrammarsymbols;andthebeginningfocusofcreationtalesareallaneducationthatisaccessibletomainstreammajorityandindigenousminorityculturesalike.
In1999,emergingfromtheinspirationalcollaborationofRenildeMontessoriandCamilloGrazzini,AMIestablishedtheEdu-cateurssansFrontières(EsF):
TheEducateurssansFrontièresaretobecome
anewcorpsofworkersintheMontessori
movement,cattedraambulanteofMariaMon-
tessori'seducationalreformwithitsvisionof
adeepecologywhich,inevolutionaryterms,
issuddenlyandrapidlypermeatinghuman
consciousness.14
Theeducateur“workers”mayorganizearoundanykindofsocialchallengeandpro-videMontessoriexpertisesuchasfortheelderly,therefugee,theenvironment,etc.,withageneralfocusbeyondthatofschool-ing.Mostimportantly,theadolescentcanworkasajunioreducateuralongsidetheadult.
Boththeeducateurandadolescentexperi-mentsrequireus‘torevisitMontessoriprin-ciplesandpracticesfromtheperspectiveofsocietyatlarge’.15Bothprojectsinvolveactivitiesbeyondschoolandhome.Bothpsychologiesrepresentanaugmentedviewofahumanitywithoutborders:humanityas
awhole.Theexperienceofsocialvaloriza-tion(strongsocialvalidation)experiencedbyboththeadolescentsandtheeducateursintheirownseminarsduringandaftertheircommunityendeavours,providesa“noble”sentimenttoservethewholeofcivilization.
TheEsFinitiativecyclecomesbacktoMontessori’sdoubleconsciousnessofsocialandeducationalreformatSanLorenzo.ItpresentstotheMontessoritrainerandprac-titionerafuturelookattheintersectionbetweenMontessorieducationandsocialreality:
WhenMontessoriprinciplesareappliedinthe
widercontextofsociety,theirpossibilitiesare
vastandall-encompassing.Theycanbeof
incalculablehelptoparents,socialworkers,
child-careworkers,familycounsellors,in
short,toanypersoninvolvedwiththedevel-
opinghumanbeing;theycanbe,andhave
beenappliedwithchildrenundergoing
lengthyhospitalisation,maladjustedchildren,
physicallyimpairedchildren,childrenvictims
ofviolence,childrenabandoned,childrenat
risk.16
WecanlookatEsFasasymbolofconver-gencewhereMontessoripedagogyreturnstomattersofsocialrelevance.Academicdis-ciplinesinMontessorischoolsaretrans-formedintomaterialsfordevelopmentofspiritualaimsandworldpeace,wherethehistoryofouridealsisimmersedintheimportanceofuniversalsocialrelationshipsthroughconcretecommunityexperiencesinMontessorischools,andultimatelybeyondMontessorischools.
In2013theadolescentispoisedforaction,theMontessorieducatoriswaitingtoenterintothehighercallingofworldser-vice.TheSanLorenzopastishurtlingtowardthefuture,butthereisoneaspectofMontessorithatisunknown,anaspectthat
estsalone,butthatadeeperbondexistsatthe
veryrootoftheirbrotherhood.…
Icannotinsistenough,therefore,onthe
importanceofhistory,inanyandallits
details,ifwearetoeducatethechildrentoan
awarenessofuniversalsolidarity.11
the essential present: the montes-sori child in nature
Giventhefocusonnature’sevolutionandimpactonhumancultureatboththeele-mentaryandadolescentlevels,Montessori’semphasisontheroleofthenaturalworldintheMontessorischoolapproximatestheviewsofE.O.Wilson,whowrote,‘Biophilia,ifitexists,istheinnatelyemotionalaffilia-tionofhumanbeingstootherlivingorgan-isms’.12 Innatelymeansthatloveofnatureisafundamentalhumancharacteristicofdevelopment,integraltovariouslevelsofhowthehumanlearns,feels,bonds,under-standshisorherplace,andgrowsupinhar-monywithallofnature.Montessoridevelop-mentaltheoryimplicitlysupportsbiophilia,providingthepsychologicalbasisforwhattodayisconsideredthegreenrevolution,anotheravenueofreform.‘Itisnotenoughtostudyinbooksaboutnature;onemustencountertheforest,thetreesandalllifewhichemanatesfromthenaturalworld.’13
ThisinnerattractionhumanshavefornatureispartofwhatMontessoricalledthe“loveoftheenvironment”.Theselfispro-pelledbythispowerfuldesiretotouch,feel,smell,see,hear,andabsorbthesurroundingnaturalworld.Fortheprimarychild,thehomeandschoolgroundsofferthoseexpe-riences.Fortheelementarychild,“goingout”intonatureforshortperiodsawakensbiophilia.Finally,fortheadolescent,thefarmcommunityprovidesavarietyofnatureexperiencesforstudyandwork.Withthe
lossofemphasisontheimportanceofnatu-ralplacestochilddevelopmenthavingrecentlycometotheattentionofthemedia,thispartofMontessoriisespeciallyrelevanttooverallschoolreforminourtime.Forthefuture,ifthehuman-natureencounterdoesnotimprove,thereisofcourseanimminentcollapseoftheecosystemswedependonforlifeitself.
conclusion: educateurs sans fron-tières—a symbolic retelling of reform going from past to future
LookingatthealtruisticmotivationsofMontessori’ssocialapplicationsaswellasherinternationaloutreachprovidesinsightintoreformeffortstoonumeroustodetailinthiswriting:Montessoriforchildrenwithphysicalhandicaps,Montessoriforearth-quakeandwarorphans,Montessoriforchil-drenofunwedmothers,Montessoriforchil-drenwithmentalandemotionalhandicaps,Montessoriforthesupportofoppressedwomen,andMontessoriasachampionforpeace.Montessori’slifewasoneofsocialreformanditwaslivedasapedagogyfortheoppressed.
Therearealsotherecentprojectsoftoday’sdevelopingcommunities:MontessoriinRomania,MontessoriinChina,Montes-soriinSouthAfrica,MontessoriinTanza-nia,MontessoriinThailand,MontessoriintheTibetanChildren’sVillages,Montessoriinurbancentres,MontessorifortheruralpoorofMexico,MontessoriinNicaragua,MontessorifortheAboriginalpeoplesofAustralia,MontessoriforNativeAmericans.Theseearlychildhoodinitiativesmakesocialwavesbyempoweringthedisenfran-chised,poor,ordamagedcommunitiesoftheworld.
Manyoftheabove-mentionedprojectsdemonstrateauniversalformofcommunity
AMI Journal Special December 2013 “Preview” 15AMI Journal 2013/1-2 page 12 AMI Journal 2013/1-2 page 13
reconstructionthroughtheirMontessorischools.TheindigenouscommunityleadersthemselvestakechargeoftheMontessorischools,formingcouncilsorboards,andtheyoftenbecomeorganizersofcommunityservicesaswellasMontessorieducation.Montessorimethodsandmaterials,basedastheyareinuniversals,containnoculturalbias.Theemphasisonpracticallifespecifictotheculture;theuseofsensorymaterialsbasedoncolour,shape,smell,andtouch;thegeometricvisualizationofmathandgrammarsymbols;andthebeginningfocusofcreationtalesareallaneducationthatisaccessibletomainstreammajorityandindigenousminorityculturesalike.
In1999,emergingfromtheinspirationalcollaborationofRenildeMontessoriandCamilloGrazzini,AMIestablishedtheEdu-cateurssansFrontières(EsF):
TheEducateurssansFrontièresaretobecome
anewcorpsofworkersintheMontessori
movement,cattedraambulanteofMariaMon-
tessori'seducationalreformwithitsvisionof
adeepecologywhich,inevolutionaryterms,
issuddenlyandrapidlypermeatinghuman
consciousness.14
Theeducateur“workers”mayorganizearoundanykindofsocialchallengeandpro-videMontessoriexpertisesuchasfortheelderly,therefugee,theenvironment,etc.,withageneralfocusbeyondthatofschool-ing.Mostimportantly,theadolescentcanworkasajunioreducateuralongsidetheadult.
Boththeeducateurandadolescentexperi-mentsrequireus‘torevisitMontessoriprin-ciplesandpracticesfromtheperspectiveofsocietyatlarge’.15Bothprojectsinvolveactivitiesbeyondschoolandhome.Bothpsychologiesrepresentanaugmentedviewofahumanitywithoutborders:humanityas
awhole.Theexperienceofsocialvaloriza-tion(strongsocialvalidation)experiencedbyboththeadolescentsandtheeducateursintheirownseminarsduringandaftertheircommunityendeavours,providesa“noble”sentimenttoservethewholeofcivilization.
TheEsFinitiativecyclecomesbacktoMontessori’sdoubleconsciousnessofsocialandeducationalreformatSanLorenzo.ItpresentstotheMontessoritrainerandprac-titionerafuturelookattheintersectionbetweenMontessorieducationandsocialreality:
WhenMontessoriprinciplesareappliedinthe
widercontextofsociety,theirpossibilitiesare
vastandall-encompassing.Theycanbeof
incalculablehelptoparents,socialworkers,
child-careworkers,familycounsellors,in
short,toanypersoninvolvedwiththedevel-
opinghumanbeing;theycanbe,andhave
beenappliedwithchildrenundergoing
lengthyhospitalisation,maladjustedchildren,
physicallyimpairedchildren,childrenvictims
ofviolence,childrenabandoned,childrenat
risk.16
WecanlookatEsFasasymbolofconver-gencewhereMontessoripedagogyreturnstomattersofsocialrelevance.Academicdis-ciplinesinMontessorischoolsaretrans-formedintomaterialsfordevelopmentofspiritualaimsandworldpeace,wherethehistoryofouridealsisimmersedintheimportanceofuniversalsocialrelationshipsthroughconcretecommunityexperiencesinMontessorischools,andultimatelybeyondMontessorischools.
In2013theadolescentispoisedforaction,theMontessorieducatoriswaitingtoenterintothehighercallingofworldser-vice.TheSanLorenzopastishurtlingtowardthefuture,butthereisoneaspectofMontessorithatisunknown,anaspectthat
estsalone,butthatadeeperbondexistsatthe
veryrootoftheirbrotherhood.…
Icannotinsistenough,therefore,onthe
importanceofhistory,inanyandallits
details,ifwearetoeducatethechildrentoan
awarenessofuniversalsolidarity.11
the essential present: the montes-sori child in nature
Giventhefocusonnature’sevolutionandimpactonhumancultureatboththeele-mentaryandadolescentlevels,Montessori’semphasisontheroleofthenaturalworldintheMontessorischoolapproximatestheviewsofE.O.Wilson,whowrote,‘Biophilia,ifitexists,istheinnatelyemotionalaffilia-tionofhumanbeingstootherlivingorgan-isms’.12 Innatelymeansthatloveofnatureisafundamentalhumancharacteristicofdevelopment,integraltovariouslevelsofhowthehumanlearns,feels,bonds,under-standshisorherplace,andgrowsupinhar-monywithallofnature.Montessoridevelop-mentaltheoryimplicitlysupportsbiophilia,providingthepsychologicalbasisforwhattodayisconsideredthegreenrevolution,anotheravenueofreform.‘Itisnotenoughtostudyinbooksaboutnature;onemustencountertheforest,thetreesandalllifewhichemanatesfromthenaturalworld.’13
ThisinnerattractionhumanshavefornatureispartofwhatMontessoricalledthe“loveoftheenvironment”.Theselfispro-pelledbythispowerfuldesiretotouch,feel,smell,see,hear,andabsorbthesurroundingnaturalworld.Fortheprimarychild,thehomeandschoolgroundsofferthoseexpe-riences.Fortheelementarychild,“goingout”intonatureforshortperiodsawakensbiophilia.Finally,fortheadolescent,thefarmcommunityprovidesavarietyofnatureexperiencesforstudyandwork.Withthe
lossofemphasisontheimportanceofnatu-ralplacestochilddevelopmenthavingrecentlycometotheattentionofthemedia,thispartofMontessoriisespeciallyrelevanttooverallschoolreforminourtime.Forthefuture,ifthehuman-natureencounterdoesnotimprove,thereisofcourseanimminentcollapseoftheecosystemswedependonforlifeitself.
conclusion: educateurs sans fron-tières—a symbolic retelling of reform going from past to future
LookingatthealtruisticmotivationsofMontessori’ssocialapplicationsaswellasherinternationaloutreachprovidesinsightintoreformeffortstoonumeroustodetailinthiswriting:Montessoriforchildrenwithphysicalhandicaps,Montessoriforearth-quakeandwarorphans,Montessoriforchil-drenofunwedmothers,Montessoriforchil-drenwithmentalandemotionalhandicaps,Montessoriforthesupportofoppressedwomen,andMontessoriasachampionforpeace.Montessori’slifewasoneofsocialreformanditwaslivedasapedagogyfortheoppressed.
Therearealsotherecentprojectsoftoday’sdevelopingcommunities:MontessoriinRomania,MontessoriinChina,Montes-soriinSouthAfrica,MontessoriinTanza-nia,MontessoriinThailand,MontessoriintheTibetanChildren’sVillages,Montessoriinurbancentres,MontessorifortheruralpoorofMexico,MontessoriinNicaragua,MontessorifortheAboriginalpeoplesofAustralia,MontessoriforNativeAmericans.Theseearlychildhoodinitiativesmakesocialwavesbyempoweringthedisenfran-chised,poor,ordamagedcommunitiesoftheworld.
Manyoftheabove-mentionedprojectsdemonstrateauniversalformofcommunity
AMI Journal 2013/1-2 page 14 AMI Journal 2013/1-2 page 15
appendixReferencestopeaceandpeace-relatedtopicsinMontessori’s“EducationandPeace”
Term/Concept PageNumbers
Actuationofman’svalue,awarenessofhisowngreatness(valorization) xiii-xiv,26,54,64,68-69,99
Battlebetweenadultandchild 14-20,31,38,55
Beginnings/originsofthings 85,101
Boredom,functionof 51
Childasmessiah 14
Cultureasameans,notend 82
Desert,adolescenceasperiodof 70
Disorganizationofhumanity 29-30
Enslavementofthechild,Forgottencitizen 17,38,73
“GreatWork(s)” Xiii,17
Handicrafts,craftsmanship 70
Hygiene/health 11-13,18
Individuality 55-56,57,100-103,108
Individualsasgrainsofsand 30,38,46
Instinct(s) 90,92-93,95,96,98,105
Interest 80-81
Joy 107
Lawsofnature 16
Loveofenvironment 89-90,96
Man’sunawarenessofownnature,achievements,virtues 24,26,27,30,42,44,61-62,86,96,98,115-116
Manners 90
Missionofmankind,socialmission 24,32,38,57,66-68,70
Morality/moralvalues/moralenergies xiii-xiv,13-14,15,20,60-61
Organizationofmankind;“moralorganization” xi-xiv,32,60,102-104
PartyoftheChild 74-75
Peace,negativedefinitionof 6-8,15,29,60
Progress:social,human xi-xii,9,13,43-44,46,54,103
Reason 13-14
Reconstructionofhumanity 39,53
Rousseau 14
Science/disciplineofpeace 5-6,8,32,62
Scouting(boyscouts) 69
Singlenation,manascitizenoftheworld/universe 25-26,62-64,68,98-99,111,117
Socialconditions(existing;recentchangein) 24-25,42,44,62-64,85
Socialquestionofthechild/Socialreform;reformofhumanity xi-xiv,24,48-50,54,71,74,82
Thirddimension(conquestofskiesandspace) 22,25,42,46
Wealth,widespread;“theageoftherich” 43
War,natureofcontemporaryversushistorical 25,41-42
Wholemen 109-110
Womaninsociety(comparedtoroleofchild) 49,73
TablecompiledbyReneePendleton
onlytheghostofMontessorifutureknowsforsure.Canwemakeourreformcompleteandbestowalivingrealitytothelinesandslogansthatpointtohumansolidarity,peace,andunity?
Theseareelevatingthoughts,butatthelevelofday-to-dayreality,theyremainmorevisionthansustainableaction.Montessorireformmustbedirectlylinkedtothehighestlevelofadultcontributionfromourgradu-
atesandfuturecolleagues.Thesecontribu-tionsmustbeintheformofrealandfocusedservicetoimprovespiritual,ecologi-cal,social,andeconomicrealitiesforpres-entandfuturepeaceonearth.
David Kahn
AMI Journal Special December 2013 “Preview” 17
AMI Journal 2013/1-2 page 14 AMI Journal 2013/1-2 page 15
appendixReferencestopeaceandpeace-relatedtopicsinMontessori’s“EducationandPeace”
Term/Concept PageNumbers
Actuationofman’svalue,awarenessofhisowngreatness(valorization) xiii-xiv,26,54,64,68-69,99
Battlebetweenadultandchild 14-20,31,38,55
Beginnings/originsofthings 85,101
Boredom,functionof 51
Childasmessiah 14
Cultureasameans,notend 82
Desert,adolescenceasperiodof 70
Disorganizationofhumanity 29-30
Enslavementofthechild,Forgottencitizen 17,38,73
“GreatWork(s)” Xiii,17
Handicrafts,craftsmanship 70
Hygiene/health 11-13,18
Individuality 55-56,57,100-103,108
Individualsasgrainsofsand 30,38,46
Instinct(s) 90,92-93,95,96,98,105
Interest 80-81
Joy 107
Lawsofnature 16
Loveofenvironment 89-90,96
Man’sunawarenessofownnature,achievements,virtues 24,26,27,30,42,44,61-62,86,96,98,115-116
Manners 90
Missionofmankind,socialmission 24,32,38,57,66-68,70
Morality/moralvalues/moralenergies xiii-xiv,13-14,15,20,60-61
Organizationofmankind;“moralorganization” xi-xiv,32,60,102-104
PartyoftheChild 74-75
Peace,negativedefinitionof 6-8,15,29,60
Progress:social,human xi-xii,9,13,43-44,46,54,103
Reason 13-14
Reconstructionofhumanity 39,53
Rousseau 14
Science/disciplineofpeace 5-6,8,32,62
Scouting(boyscouts) 69
Singlenation,manascitizenoftheworld/universe 25-26,62-64,68,98-99,111,117
Socialconditions(existing;recentchangein) 24-25,42,44,62-64,85
Socialquestionofthechild/Socialreform;reformofhumanity xi-xiv,24,48-50,54,71,74,82
Thirddimension(conquestofskiesandspace) 22,25,42,46
Wealth,widespread;“theageoftherich” 43
War,natureofcontemporaryversushistorical 25,41-42
Wholemen 109-110
Womaninsociety(comparedtoroleofchild) 49,73
TablecompiledbyReneePendleton
onlytheghostofMontessorifutureknowsforsure.Canwemakeourreformcompleteandbestowalivingrealitytothelinesandslogansthatpointtohumansolidarity,peace,andunity?
Theseareelevatingthoughts,butatthelevelofday-to-dayreality,theyremainmorevisionthansustainableaction.Montessorireformmustbedirectlylinkedtothehighestlevelofadultcontributionfromourgradu-
atesandfuturecolleagues.Thesecontribu-tionsmustbeintheformofrealandfocusedservicetoimprovespiritual,ecologi-cal,social,andeconomicrealitiesforpres-entandfuturepeaceonearth.
David Kahn
AMI Journal Special December 2013 “Preview” 18
AMI Journal Special December 2013 “Preview” 19AMI Journal 2013/1-2 page 50
notes
1 TheSocietàUmanitariawasacentreforwork-
ingclassfamiliesinMilan,whichprovided
modernhousingandsuchsocialservicesas
occupationaltraininginmodelworkshops,
employmentreferralandadulteducationfacil-
ities.TheSocietàalsoproducedtheMontes-
sorimaterials.In1908,theirfirstCasadei
BambiniopenedtobedirectedbyAnnaMaria
Maccheroni,wholivedonthepremises.
2 WilliamJames(1842-1910)wasanAmerican
philosopherandpsychologistwhohadtrained
asaphysician.Hewasthefirsteducatorto
offerapsychologycourseintheUnitedStates.
Jameswroteinfluentialbooksonpragmatism,
psychology,educationalpsychology,thepsy-
chologyofreligiousexperience,andmysti-
cism.HewasthebrotherofnovelistHenry
James.http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/William_
James,accessed6June2013.
3 GiulioCesareFerrari(1867-1932)wasapsychi-
atristandoneofthemostimportantItalian
psychologistsofthelate19thandearly20th
century.Hegraduatedinmedicinein1892and
becameanassistantatthePsychiatricInsti-
tuteofReggioEmilia,atthattimethemost
famousmentalhospital.Heobtainedagrant
tostudyattheSorbonneinParisinthelabof
AlfredBinet,butreturnedtoItalyuponthe
deathofhisfatherandwentontobecomethe
directorofthementalhospital,wherehehad
previouslyworkedasanassistant.In1898he
cameintocontactwithWilliamJames,and
wasresponsibleforhavinghisPrinciples of Psy-
chologytranslatedandpublishedintoItalian.
Untilhisdeathhewasamemberoftheexecu-
tiveboardoftheLegaMondialediIgiene
Mentale,whichhehadhelpedfound.Ferrari
taughtpsychologyonMontessoricourses
organizedbyUmanitariainMilan.
4 On4February1918,AugustoOsimo,President
ofUmanitaria,publishedthearticle"Salviamo
ibambini"inLa Coltura Popolare,amagazine
publishedbyUmanitaria.Thearticlegavenew
impetustoMontessori'sappealfortheWhite
Cross.Theappealwassupportedbymany
Italiannamesofrepute—physicianssuchas
GiulioCesarini,anexpertonsanitaryeduca-
tion;LorenzoEllero,psychiatrist;Camillo
Hajech,paediatrician;GiuseppeSergi,anthro-
pologist;andsupportersoftheMontessori
methodsuchasthemarchionessMariaMara-
iniGuerrieriGonzagaandthewriterGemma
MuggianiGriffini.
PeacethroughEducation
Two years before the outbreak of World War II, in 1937, the Sixth International Montessori Congress on Peace was held in Copenhagen. During one of the lectures the Congress participants were addressed by Maria and Mario Montessori who pleaded that humankind must come to terms with themselves and the environment. They recognized that increasing efforts were being made all over the world to understand the elusive concept of peace, as more and more groups of people were organizing peace efforts in their communities.
Inorganizingits6thInternationalCon-gress—onthetheme Educate for Peace—theAssociationMontessoriInternationaledidnotintendtodepartfromitsaimofprotect-ingandillustratingthepersonalityofthechild,joininginsteadthepoliticalstruggle.Onthecontrary,manysocietiesarefightinginthefieldofpoliticstostemtheimmediatedangerofanoverwhelmingandgeneralcon-flict.Butwewanttodrawattentionawayfromtheblindingandpassion-raisingactu-alitiesandtofixitupontheneedforacon-structiveeffort,showingwhatcontributionsthechildandeducationcanbringtothiseffort.
Theeffortforpeacemustnotbelimitedtolast-minuteendeavourstoremedypoliti-calerrors,norcanpeacebesecuredbyjustlyorunjustlyblamingoneoranotherformofgovernment.Eveniftheseareconsideredtobethecauseofthepresentdanger,theblamecannotbelaiduponthembutratheruponSocietywhichallowedconditionstodevelopthatmadetheseformsofgovern-mentnecessary.Peaceisacomplex,many-sidedconstructionthathasneveryetexisted.Atpresent,itsnamemerelyimpliestheces-sationofwar.Inordertoattainpeacesome-thingmustbedonebesidespreachingvagueidealisms.
Todeterminetheconditionsforestablish-ingpeaceintheworld,indirectandcomplex
factorsmustbestudiedandorganizedintoastructuredscience.Themostimportantofthesefactorsisthehumanone.Peaceisessentiallyahumanproblem.Therefore,thehumanelementshouldbeourfirstconsider-ation.Todate,itisgivenalmostnoattentionatall.
InManadualpersonalityexists:thefar-sightedconqueroroftheexternalenviron-mentandtheblindslave,ignorantofhisowninnerenergies.ManhassolvedmanyoftheriddlesoftheUniverse.Mankindhasbecomeunitedbymaterialandintellectualintereststoformonenation.Manhascon-queredhiddenforcesandherulestheearth,yet,thisruleroftheouterworldhasnotsuc-ceededinconqueringhisowninnerener-gies.Amongtheinnumerableideasdeter-miningtheconceptofpeace,theseenergiesremainconspicuouslyabsent.
Theplaceeducationholdsinthegreatinterestsofhumanityissecondary—itisconsideredaluxuryratherthananecessity.Intimesofstress,ifanycutsaretobemade,itisthebudgetforeducationwhichusuallysuffers.Thisisbecause,especiallyindemo-craticcountries,educationplaysthemini-malroleofimpartinginanabstractwaycer-tainideascontainedinastandardsyllabus.
Theroleofeducationshouldbeaverydif-ferentone.Itshouldholdfirstplaceamonghumaninterestsand,evenifitretainsthe
AMI Journal 2013/1-2 page 51
AMI Journal Special December 2013 “Preview” 20AMI Journal 2013/1-2 page 52 AMI Journal 2013/1-2 page 53
samename,itsscopemustbemuchwider.Itmustplacethehumanpersonalityatitsverycentre.Increatingitsprogrammesitmustbeguidedbythelawsofpsychicdevelop-ment.Thesehaveneveryetbeenconsideredineducation.Norhasthefactbeentakenintoconsiderationthatifanadultisstrongorweakincharacter,ifheisbalancedorunbalanced,itisduetotheconditionshemetwithduringhispsychicgrowth.ThestructureofeducationshouldnotonlyhaveasitsbasistheprotectionofManduringhisphysicaldevelopmentandtheresponsetothevitalneedsofthegrowingchildbutalsotheknowledgeandvalorizationofthemoralattributesinherentinMan.
MuchissaidtodayagainstunitaryformsofgovernmentwhicharecriticizedforrestrictingthelibertiesandtherightsofMan.Few,however,realizethat,nomatterhowhardtheirdisciplinemaybetowardstheadult,theunitariansvalorizebyeverymeansthepersonalityofManintheprocessofdevelopment.Althoughthisvalorizationisbuiltaroundtheidealsoftheirrespectiveregime,itisneverthelessavalorizationanditstartsfromaveryearlyage.Eachindivid-ualismadetofeelthatheformsanecessaryandimportantpartofanorganizationwithaimssoloftyastoseemalmostunattain-able.Byallowingthemtotakepartofficiallyinthenationalactivities,theindividualsaremadetofeelthattheirhelpandcollabora-
tionistrulynecessaryiftheseaimsaretobereached.Whatanimmenseimpulsetotheformationoftheircharacter!Whatatremen-dousenhancementofthedignity,oftheinnervaluesoftheindividual,tofeeltheimportanceofbeingaconstructiveunitinadisciplinedorganizationwithaltruisticaimsandtohavethisimportancerecognizedoffi-cially,evenatfouryearsofage,whenpass-inginfrontofaGeneralthelatterrendershimthesamemilitarysalutewiththesamedignityasherenderstotheadultsoldier.Isittobemarvelledatthat,inindividualssovalorized,constructiveenthusiasmformspartofthepsychicconstitution,sacrificeappearsasapleasantmeanstoachieveanaimanddisciplineandobediencearesoughtwithjoy?
No,norisittobemarvelledatthatalleffortsofdemocraciestoinfuseaspiritofpeaceintheiryouthmeetwithalukewarmresponse.Itisnot—asmanybelieve—thathumannatureisbadorwarlike,farfromit.Itisonlythatdemocracytreatsitsyouthinabenightedfashion.
Democraciesvalorizeindividualitywhenithasreachedtheadultstagebuttheadultswhohavehadnoactivepreparationtowardsanydefiniteaimaredividedintoclassesgroupswhichareinastateofcontinuousconflict.Theseoftendestroy—andalwayshinder—themethodofprogressadvancedorelaboratedbyaclasswithviewsdifferent
Montessori Congress Denmark, from a Danish newspaper clipping
fromtheirown.Yet,democraciesvalorizefreedomoftheindividual'spersonalvaluesnomatterwhatclasshebelongstonortowhatrace.Democraciesprotectandcultivateindividualityandpersonalityfortheirownsakes.Bylaw,anycitizenbornintheUnitedStatescanbecomePresident.Anyattackon,orattempttorestrict,personallibertyisstronglyresentedindividuallyandcollec-tively.Sothedemocraticstateisconsideredbythemajorityasthebest,astheonemostcorrespondingtoourcivilization,asthecarefulprotectorandcultivatoroftheinde-pendenthumanpersonality.Andsoitis.Butonlyforthoseindividualswhohavereachedtheadultstage.ForManinthecourseofdevelopment,democracieshaveadictatorialregime,worsethananywitnessedinthepastorInthepresent,amongadults.Thedevelopingindividualisnotgivenanycon-siderationwhatsoever.Hisneeds,thenatu-rallawsgoverningthegrowthofhisintelli-genceandofspiritualandmoralvalues,arenotevenremotelytakenintoaccount.Theonlyrealinterestineducationisthedevelop-mentofprogrammesintheschoolsandthe-oreticalinculcationofmoralorreligiousprinciplesoutsidetheschools.Thusisimposedonthedevelopingindividualalifeinwhich,hourbyhour,hedepends—bothinactionandinthought—entirelyontheactionsandthethoughtsoftheadultfromwhoseauthorityhehasnoappeal.Thisweakensthewilloftheindividualwhoremainsapathetic,depressed,unconsciouslyhumiliated,dissatisfiedandunabletoactwithoutcontinualguidance.So,onreachingadulthood,inordertoliveandtotakepartinthelifeofthenation,hethrowshimselfintothegroupwhichseemstoembodyideasthatexpresshisinnerdissatisfactions.Isitawonderthattheseyoungpeoplewillrespondwithlittleenthusiasmtothetheoriesofpeacewhichdemandfromthemstillfurther
passivity,stillgreaterresignationtovio-lence?Isitnotmuchmorenaturaltorebel,tofindexpressionintheoriesandtheprac-ticeofmeasuringstrengthagainststrength?
AmongthemeansadvocatedforattainingthePsychology of Peacetheonesmorefre-quentlymentionedarethereformofteach-inghistory,theteachingoftheCovenantoftheLeagueofNationsandtheteachingofacommonlanguage.Thateducationoughttobereformed,ifwewishtoachieveamental-ityofpeace,isself-evident.Everypeacemovementisconvincedofthisandhasaneducationalcommission.Butwemustbeverycarefulastothepathwetakeforthewrongpathwillbringwrongresultsand,throughthese,discouragementandthecon-victionthathumannatureisnotmadeforpeace.
Ifeducationforpeaceistobeattained,anotherpathmustbetaken.Theproposedreformswouldleaveunalteredallthecondi-tionswhichlowerandoftendestroytheval-uesofthegrowingindividualbutthecrush-ingtyrannywouldremainunchanged.Theonlydifferencewouldbethatcertainsub-jects,insteadofothers,wouldbeimposeduponmindsoftenrebellious.Thefutilityofthesereformsbythemselvesisshownbythefollowingfacts.Inlearninghistory,nothingissotiringtothepupilashavingtoremem-beraseriesofdatesandnamesofwarsorbattles.Itiscertainlynotthisboredomwhichwillevokeenthusiasmforwarinthepupil,ratherthecontrary.Theuseofacom-monlanguageisrecommendedundertheillusionthat,ifonlyonelanguagewereused,humanitywouldreachauniversalunder-standingandsolveconflictsbydiscussioninsteadofviolence.ButdotheynotspeakthesamelanguageinSpain?(Thiswaswrit-tenduringtheSpanishCivilWar).DidtheynotspeakthesamelanguageinSouthAmer-icaduringtheParaguayan-Bolivianwar?
AMI Journal Special December 2013 “Preview” 21AMI Journal 2013/1-2 page 52 AMI Journal 2013/1-2 page 53
samename,itsscopemustbemuchwider.Itmustplacethehumanpersonalityatitsverycentre.Increatingitsprogrammesitmustbeguidedbythelawsofpsychicdevelop-ment.Thesehaveneveryetbeenconsideredineducation.Norhasthefactbeentakenintoconsiderationthatifanadultisstrongorweakincharacter,ifheisbalancedorunbalanced,itisduetotheconditionshemetwithduringhispsychicgrowth.ThestructureofeducationshouldnotonlyhaveasitsbasistheprotectionofManduringhisphysicaldevelopmentandtheresponsetothevitalneedsofthegrowingchildbutalsotheknowledgeandvalorizationofthemoralattributesinherentinMan.
MuchissaidtodayagainstunitaryformsofgovernmentwhicharecriticizedforrestrictingthelibertiesandtherightsofMan.Few,however,realizethat,nomatterhowhardtheirdisciplinemaybetowardstheadult,theunitariansvalorizebyeverymeansthepersonalityofManintheprocessofdevelopment.Althoughthisvalorizationisbuiltaroundtheidealsoftheirrespectiveregime,itisneverthelessavalorizationanditstartsfromaveryearlyage.Eachindivid-ualismadetofeelthatheformsanecessaryandimportantpartofanorganizationwithaimssoloftyastoseemalmostunattain-able.Byallowingthemtotakepartofficiallyinthenationalactivities,theindividualsaremadetofeelthattheirhelpandcollabora-
tionistrulynecessaryiftheseaimsaretobereached.Whatanimmenseimpulsetotheformationoftheircharacter!Whatatremen-dousenhancementofthedignity,oftheinnervaluesoftheindividual,tofeeltheimportanceofbeingaconstructiveunitinadisciplinedorganizationwithaltruisticaimsandtohavethisimportancerecognizedoffi-cially,evenatfouryearsofage,whenpass-inginfrontofaGeneralthelatterrendershimthesamemilitarysalutewiththesamedignityasherenderstotheadultsoldier.Isittobemarvelledatthat,inindividualssovalorized,constructiveenthusiasmformspartofthepsychicconstitution,sacrificeappearsasapleasantmeanstoachieveanaimanddisciplineandobediencearesoughtwithjoy?
No,norisittobemarvelledatthatalleffortsofdemocraciestoinfuseaspiritofpeaceintheiryouthmeetwithalukewarmresponse.Itisnot—asmanybelieve—thathumannatureisbadorwarlike,farfromit.Itisonlythatdemocracytreatsitsyouthinabenightedfashion.
Democraciesvalorizeindividualitywhenithasreachedtheadultstagebuttheadultswhohavehadnoactivepreparationtowardsanydefiniteaimaredividedintoclassesgroupswhichareinastateofcontinuousconflict.Theseoftendestroy—andalwayshinder—themethodofprogressadvancedorelaboratedbyaclasswithviewsdifferent
Montessori Congress Denmark, from a Danish newspaper clipping
fromtheirown.Yet,democraciesvalorizefreedomoftheindividual'spersonalvaluesnomatterwhatclasshebelongstonortowhatrace.Democraciesprotectandcultivateindividualityandpersonalityfortheirownsakes.Bylaw,anycitizenbornintheUnitedStatescanbecomePresident.Anyattackon,orattempttorestrict,personallibertyisstronglyresentedindividuallyandcollec-tively.Sothedemocraticstateisconsideredbythemajorityasthebest,astheonemostcorrespondingtoourcivilization,asthecarefulprotectorandcultivatoroftheinde-pendenthumanpersonality.Andsoitis.Butonlyforthoseindividualswhohavereachedtheadultstage.ForManinthecourseofdevelopment,democracieshaveadictatorialregime,worsethananywitnessedinthepastorInthepresent,amongadults.Thedevelopingindividualisnotgivenanycon-siderationwhatsoever.Hisneeds,thenatu-rallawsgoverningthegrowthofhisintelli-genceandofspiritualandmoralvalues,arenotevenremotelytakenintoaccount.Theonlyrealinterestineducationisthedevelop-mentofprogrammesintheschoolsandthe-oreticalinculcationofmoralorreligiousprinciplesoutsidetheschools.Thusisimposedonthedevelopingindividualalifeinwhich,hourbyhour,hedepends—bothinactionandinthought—entirelyontheactionsandthethoughtsoftheadultfromwhoseauthorityhehasnoappeal.Thisweakensthewilloftheindividualwhoremainsapathetic,depressed,unconsciouslyhumiliated,dissatisfiedandunabletoactwithoutcontinualguidance.So,onreachingadulthood,inordertoliveandtotakepartinthelifeofthenation,hethrowshimselfintothegroupwhichseemstoembodyideasthatexpresshisinnerdissatisfactions.Isitawonderthattheseyoungpeoplewillrespondwithlittleenthusiasmtothetheoriesofpeacewhichdemandfromthemstillfurther
passivity,stillgreaterresignationtovio-lence?Isitnotmuchmorenaturaltorebel,tofindexpressionintheoriesandtheprac-ticeofmeasuringstrengthagainststrength?
AmongthemeansadvocatedforattainingthePsychology of Peacetheonesmorefre-quentlymentionedarethereformofteach-inghistory,theteachingoftheCovenantoftheLeagueofNationsandtheteachingofacommonlanguage.Thateducationoughttobereformed,ifwewishtoachieveamental-ityofpeace,isself-evident.Everypeacemovementisconvincedofthisandhasaneducationalcommission.Butwemustbeverycarefulastothepathwetakeforthewrongpathwillbringwrongresultsand,throughthese,discouragementandthecon-victionthathumannatureisnotmadeforpeace.
Ifeducationforpeaceistobeattained,anotherpathmustbetaken.Theproposedreformswouldleaveunalteredallthecondi-tionswhichlowerandoftendestroytheval-uesofthegrowingindividualbutthecrush-ingtyrannywouldremainunchanged.Theonlydifferencewouldbethatcertainsub-jects,insteadofothers,wouldbeimposeduponmindsoftenrebellious.Thefutilityofthesereformsbythemselvesisshownbythefollowingfacts.Inlearninghistory,nothingissotiringtothepupilashavingtoremem-beraseriesofdatesandnamesofwarsorbattles.Itiscertainlynotthisboredomwhichwillevokeenthusiasmforwarinthepupil,ratherthecontrary.Theuseofacom-monlanguageisrecommendedundertheillusionthat,ifonlyonelanguagewereused,humanitywouldreachauniversalunder-standingandsolveconflictsbydiscussioninsteadofviolence.ButdotheynotspeakthesamelanguageinSpain?(Thiswaswrit-tenduringtheSpanishCivilWar).DidtheynotspeakthesamelanguageinSouthAmer-icaduringtheParaguayan-Bolivianwar?
AMI Journal Special December 2013 “Preview” 22AMI Journal 2013/1-2 page 54 AMI Journal 2013/1-2 page 55
Theseareonlytwoofthehundredsofcasesthatmightbementioned.AsforteachingtheCovenantoftheLeagueofNations,iftheoreticalteachingweresufficienttopro-moteamoralconstructionwhichwouldrespondtotheaimwearetryingtoachieve,allwarswouldhaveceasedinChristiannationssome2000yearsago.TheGospelissomethingmuchmoreinspiring,muchmoreprofoundanddivinethananyCove-nantsince,accordingtoChristianbelief,Godisitsauthor.Itistaughtminutelyandprofoundlytopeopleofallages.Yet,ifwelookbackuponhistory,weseethatevenChristians'warsdidnotcease.Educationalreformcannotbeachievedwithouttakingintoaccountthelawsofpsychicgrowth.
Longexperiencehasshowntheextentofthechild'scontributiontosolvingtheprob-lemofachievingpeace.Thechildhasrevealedthelawsofhumangrowthandtheneedspeculiartoeachofitsdifferentstagesofdevelopment.Theinnatetendencyofhumannatureistoachieveanincreasinglyrefinedformofindependencegrowingfrombasicfunctionalindependencetomentalabstractionandsocialacquisitions.Thesedifferentacquisitionsareconqueredindif-ferentepochsoflifethroughaspecialsensi-bilityplacedbynatureintoeachindividual,asensibilitythatlastsonlythroughthetimeinwhichtheacquisitionismadeleavingtheperfectedmechanismfortheindividualtousethroughtheexerciseofhiswill.
Usuallynoconsiderationwhateverisgiventothevitalneedsofthedevelopinghumanbeing:thebasisofeducationisacul-turalandmoralprogrammewhichtheexpe-rienceofcenturieshasdictatedasnecessary:thisisimposedandtothistheindividualmustadapthimself.Humannaturerebels,notagainsttheprogramme,butagainstthewayitisimposed.Theimpulsesofgrowthcompeltheindividualinonedirection,the
impositionoftheadultsforcehimintoanotherpath.Thusworkbecomeshateful,andanaturaldefencearisesintheindivid-ual.Theresultisapermanentconflictbothinthehomeandtheschoolwhere‘thehealthyhatebetweenpupilandteacher’,asamodernwriterhasexpressedit,hasbecomehistorical.Tocurbrebellionandencouragechildrentowardsthepath,indicatedbytheadult,punishmentsandprizesareused.Col-lectivedisciplineisachievedbutonlyexternaldiscipline,whichlastsaslongasfearlasts,butwhichturnsintothewildestdisorderassoonastherestraininghandistakenaway.Resentment,hateofwork,cruelty,loveofpossession,competitionandfacilitytobeinfluencedbysuggestionbecomepartofthepersonality.Andthisissoprevalent,andsogeneralastobeconsiderednaturaltoman-kind.
Childrenintheirschoolcommunities—intheoldsystemsofeducation—gaveapic-ture,inminiature,ofthemasseswhichformsociety.Ifateacherlefttheclasspandemo-niumbrokelooseassoonashisstepsdiedaway.Objectswerethrown,inkwassplat-teredabout,thewallsoftheroomweresoiledwithballsofchewedpaper,childrenscreamedatthetopoftheirlungs.When,forsomereason,thegovernmentandthecom-mandersofthearmylosecontrolthesamephenomenon—butwithmoretragicconse-quences—happensinthecountry.Arsonandmurderarecommitted,conventsareburned,priestsandinnocentcitizensaretorturedbypeoplewho,untilsomedaysbefore,hadledpeacefulandrespectfullives.
Themastercomesbacktomeetwithsul-lenanddefiantlytriumphantsilenceonthepartofthepupilstowhichherespondswithscathingwords,punishmentandsharpeneddiscipline.Repression,punishmentandsterndisciplinaryactionaretheresultsofanyoutbreakintheadultworld:‘foronly
disciplinewillkeepanarchyaway,theworldcannotfunctionwithoutlawandorder’.
True,verytrue!Evenanarchy,whentri-umphant,mustanddoesresorttolawandorder.Butthereisagoodandbetterworld!Anarchyneednotexistandimposeddisci-plinemaybecomeunnecessary.Whenchil-drenweregivenwhatcorrespondedtotheirneedstheyshowedsomethingfundamen-tal—therealnatureofMan—heretoforehid-denunderthecloakofpsychologicaldefences.Theynotonlyadaptedtothemoralandculturalprogrammeconsideredneces-sarybyourcivilizationbuttheysoughtitwithenthusiasmandaspontaneousdisci-plinedeveloped.Itwasacalminnerdisci-plinecausedbyactivityandcollaboration.Also,suchaloveforworkdevelopedastoclearlyprovethatinchildhoodworkisanat-uralnecessity.Possessivenessdisappearedbecauseobjectswereonlymeanstoanendandhadnoothervalueinthemselves.Thechildrenshowedlovefortheircompanionsandfortheirteachers.Theywentoutoftheirwaytoassistthosewhoneededhelpandtheydiditwithsimplicityandenthusiasm,notasasacrifice,butasapleasure.
Thechildren,undertheoldconditions,reflectedthemasspsychologyofsocietyevenasitexiststoday.Letusprovidenewconditionsthatwillallowthemtogiveusatruepictureofthesocietyofthefuture.
Maria MontessoriMario M. Montessori
© 1937, Montessori-Pierson Publishing Companypreviously published in Communications,
1986/2-3
A poster symbolizing women of the world protecting life against the aggressions of war.
AMI Journal Special December 2013 “Preview” 23AMI Journal 2013/1-2 page 54 AMI Journal 2013/1-2 page 55
Theseareonlytwoofthehundredsofcasesthatmightbementioned.AsforteachingtheCovenantoftheLeagueofNations,iftheoreticalteachingweresufficienttopro-moteamoralconstructionwhichwouldrespondtotheaimwearetryingtoachieve,allwarswouldhaveceasedinChristiannationssome2000yearsago.TheGospelissomethingmuchmoreinspiring,muchmoreprofoundanddivinethananyCove-nantsince,accordingtoChristianbelief,Godisitsauthor.Itistaughtminutelyandprofoundlytopeopleofallages.Yet,ifwelookbackuponhistory,weseethatevenChristians'warsdidnotcease.Educationalreformcannotbeachievedwithouttakingintoaccountthelawsofpsychicgrowth.
Longexperiencehasshowntheextentofthechild'scontributiontosolvingtheprob-lemofachievingpeace.Thechildhasrevealedthelawsofhumangrowthandtheneedspeculiartoeachofitsdifferentstagesofdevelopment.Theinnatetendencyofhumannatureistoachieveanincreasinglyrefinedformofindependencegrowingfrombasicfunctionalindependencetomentalabstractionandsocialacquisitions.Thesedifferentacquisitionsareconqueredindif-ferentepochsoflifethroughaspecialsensi-bilityplacedbynatureintoeachindividual,asensibilitythatlastsonlythroughthetimeinwhichtheacquisitionismadeleavingtheperfectedmechanismfortheindividualtousethroughtheexerciseofhiswill.
Usuallynoconsiderationwhateverisgiventothevitalneedsofthedevelopinghumanbeing:thebasisofeducationisacul-turalandmoralprogrammewhichtheexpe-rienceofcenturieshasdictatedasnecessary:thisisimposedandtothistheindividualmustadapthimself.Humannaturerebels,notagainsttheprogramme,butagainstthewayitisimposed.Theimpulsesofgrowthcompeltheindividualinonedirection,the
impositionoftheadultsforcehimintoanotherpath.Thusworkbecomeshateful,andanaturaldefencearisesintheindivid-ual.Theresultisapermanentconflictbothinthehomeandtheschoolwhere‘thehealthyhatebetweenpupilandteacher’,asamodernwriterhasexpressedit,hasbecomehistorical.Tocurbrebellionandencouragechildrentowardsthepath,indicatedbytheadult,punishmentsandprizesareused.Col-lectivedisciplineisachievedbutonlyexternaldiscipline,whichlastsaslongasfearlasts,butwhichturnsintothewildestdisorderassoonastherestraininghandistakenaway.Resentment,hateofwork,cruelty,loveofpossession,competitionandfacilitytobeinfluencedbysuggestionbecomepartofthepersonality.Andthisissoprevalent,andsogeneralastobeconsiderednaturaltoman-kind.
Childrenintheirschoolcommunities—intheoldsystemsofeducation—gaveapic-ture,inminiature,ofthemasseswhichformsociety.Ifateacherlefttheclasspandemo-niumbrokelooseassoonashisstepsdiedaway.Objectswerethrown,inkwassplat-teredabout,thewallsoftheroomweresoiledwithballsofchewedpaper,childrenscreamedatthetopoftheirlungs.When,forsomereason,thegovernmentandthecom-mandersofthearmylosecontrolthesamephenomenon—butwithmoretragicconse-quences—happensinthecountry.Arsonandmurderarecommitted,conventsareburned,priestsandinnocentcitizensaretorturedbypeoplewho,untilsomedaysbefore,hadledpeacefulandrespectfullives.
Themastercomesbacktomeetwithsul-lenanddefiantlytriumphantsilenceonthepartofthepupilstowhichherespondswithscathingwords,punishmentandsharpeneddiscipline.Repression,punishmentandsterndisciplinaryactionaretheresultsofanyoutbreakintheadultworld:‘foronly
disciplinewillkeepanarchyaway,theworldcannotfunctionwithoutlawandorder’.
True,verytrue!Evenanarchy,whentri-umphant,mustanddoesresorttolawandorder.Butthereisagoodandbetterworld!Anarchyneednotexistandimposeddisci-plinemaybecomeunnecessary.Whenchil-drenweregivenwhatcorrespondedtotheirneedstheyshowedsomethingfundamen-tal—therealnatureofMan—heretoforehid-denunderthecloakofpsychologicaldefences.Theynotonlyadaptedtothemoralandculturalprogrammeconsideredneces-sarybyourcivilizationbuttheysoughtitwithenthusiasmandaspontaneousdisci-plinedeveloped.Itwasacalminnerdisci-plinecausedbyactivityandcollaboration.Also,suchaloveforworkdevelopedastoclearlyprovethatinchildhoodworkisanat-uralnecessity.Possessivenessdisappearedbecauseobjectswereonlymeanstoanendandhadnoothervalueinthemselves.Thechildrenshowedlovefortheircompanionsandfortheirteachers.Theywentoutoftheirwaytoassistthosewhoneededhelpandtheydiditwithsimplicityandenthusiasm,notasasacrifice,butasapleasure.
Thechildren,undertheoldconditions,reflectedthemasspsychologyofsocietyevenasitexiststoday.Letusprovidenewconditionsthatwillallowthemtogiveusatruepictureofthesocietyofthefuture.
Maria MontessoriMario M. Montessori
© 1937, Montessori-Pierson Publishing Companypreviously published in Communications,
1986/2-3
A poster symbolizing women of the world protecting life against the aggressions of war.