Assessment of Successful Provision of Quality Education in ...€¦ · dissertation, Dr Robert Leurs, Senior Lecturer of the Department of International Development, University of

University of Birmingham

International Development Department

Assessment of Successful Provision of Quality Education

in Zambian Community Schools: A critical realist

systematic review

Bogata Bongya

Degree Programme: MSc. International Development (Poverty, Inequality and Development)

Student ID: 1721316

Supervisor: Dr Robert Leurs

Word Count: 11 992

September 2018

“It takes a village to raise a child.” African proverb

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ABSTRACT

Assessment of Successful Provision of Quality Education in Zambian Community

Schools: a critical realist review

Author: Bogata Bongya, International Development, University of Birmingham

Community schools are currently an important part of the Zambian education system,

however there are substantial differences in terms of performance and quality among them.

Therefore, the aim of this review was to critically assess the school factors to understand why

certain community schools can provide quality education for pupils to reveal how the quality

of education can be improved in other community schools.

A critical realist systematic review has been chosen as a methodology to identify underlying

mechanisms. Case studies and reports from the period of 1992 and 2018 in the topic of

primary education in Zambian community schools have been searched. Outcome was

measured by grade 7 national exam pass rates.

The search yielded 24 studies of reasonable quality, out of which 20 studies included

outcome information for comparison. The results provided high level evidence that

community schools in the reviewed studies were successful because they met all the three

components of education quality conceptualized by humanist, economist and organisational

approaches. This included Effective processes, Provision of inputs and Satisfaction of

stakeholders.

Three critical underlying mechanisms have been identified to achieve quality education:

Effective management due to external help and community involvement in educational

processes through active PCSCs; Effective pedagogy due to committed teachers; and

Satisfaction of teachers due to instructional supervision or training. Without these

mechanisms quality education could have not been achieved. Once these mechanisms were

provided to the schools, other mechanisms could further improve education quality. These

were satisfaction of parents/pupils due to extra services or relevant curriculum along with

provision of inputs due to qualified teachers or TLMs.

The researcher concluded that government should assist these schools to source partnerships

with donors or local businesses to supplement government support. Government-paid

qualified teachers should be continued to be deployed to remove financial burden from

parents and regular salaries should be paid to volunteer teachers.


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ACKNOWLEDGEMENT

I must first of all express gratitude for the guidance given me by the supervisor of this

dissertation, Dr Robert Leurs, Senior Lecturer of the Department of International

Development, University of Birmingham. The door to Prof. Leurs office was always open

whenever I had a question about my research. He consistently allowed this paper to be my

own work but steered me in the right direction with valuable suggestions whenever he

thought I needed it.

I would also like to thank my parents, Mr. Tibor Bongya and especially my Mum Mrs.

Terezia Zoltai Bongya to their endless support, love and encouragement. Without them, I

could never have reached this current level of success.

Special appreciation goes to all the professors and teachers at the University of Birmingham

who showed strong passion to teaching and gave massive inspiration academically and

personally.

Furthermore, I would also like to thank all my friends, especially Andras Kurucz and

Caroline Higgins for their patience and understanding particularly that I was always busy and

not available to them during the time of the research. Their contribution to keep me

harmonious and help me putting pieces together was very valuable for which I am grateful.


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ABBREVIATIONS AND ACRONYMS

PCSCs Parents Community School Committees

OVCs Orphans and Vulnerable Children

CSs Community Schools

CSTs Community School Teachers

CSHTs Community School Head Teachers

MoE Ministry of Education

DEBS District Education Board Secretary

EFA Education for All

HIV Human Immunodeficiency Virus

AIDS Acquired Immune Deficiency Syndrome

TLMs Teaching and Learning Materials

CMOCs Context-Mechanism-Outcome Configurations

ZCSS Zambia Community School Secretariat


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TABLE OF CONTENTS CHAPTER ONE: GENERAL INTRODUCTION ............................................................... 7

I. Introduction ....................................................................................................................... 7

Importance of Education Quality ....................................................................................... 7

Importance of Community schools ..................................................................................... 8

II. Problem statement .......................................................................................................... 10

History of community schools........................................................................................... 10

Community schools today ................................................................................................. 10

III. Significance of the study .............................................................................................. 11

IV. Purpose of the study ...................................................................................................... 11

V. Research Questions ........................................................................................................ 11

VI. Organisation of Masters thesis ..................................................................................... 11

CHAPTER TWO: METHODOLOGY ................................................................................ 14

I. Why systematic review? ................................................................................................... 14

II. Epistemological and Ontological framework ................................................................ 14

III. Methodology .................................................................................................................. 14

IV. Research strategy .......................................................................................................... 16

Initial Search .................................................................................................................... 16

Detailed Search ................................................................................................................ 17

V. Data Analysis and Synthesis Process ............................................................................. 18

VI. Quality Appraisal .......................................................................................................... 23

VII. Limitations ................................................................................................................... 24

CHAPTER THREE: LITERATURE REVIEW................................................................. 25

I. Conceptualisation of education quality .......................................................................... 25

II. What factors influence the education quality in community schools? ........................ 27

Provision of Inputs............................................................................................................ 27

Satisfaction of Relevant Stakeholders............................................................................... 28

Effective Processes ........................................................................................................... 29

Summary ........................................................................................................................... 31


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CHAPTER FOUR: RESULTS AND EVIDENCE ............................................................. 32

I. How factors influence the education quality in Zambian community schools? ........... 33

II. Why certain community schools are able to provide better quality education than

others? .................................................................................................................................. 41

Summary ........................................................................................................................... 48

CHAPTER FIVE: SUMMARY ............................................................................................ 49

I. Conclusions and Recommendations ............................................................................... 49

BIBLIOGRAPHY: ................................................................................................................. 51

I. Reviewed Studies .............................................................................................................. 51

II. Books............................................................................................................................... 53

III. Academic Journals ....................................................................................................... 54

IV. Electric Sources ............................................................................................................. 56

APPENDICES: ....................................................................................................................... 61

I. Key Definitions ................................................................................................................. 61

II. Visual Map ..................................................................................................................... 62

III. PRISMA Flow Diagram ............................................................................................... 63

IV. Flow Diagram of Synthesis ........................................................................................... 64

V. Theory of Change: Context-Mechanism-Outcome VI.Configurations Table ............. 65

VII. List of studies from University of Zambia .................................................................. 73


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CHAPTER ONE: GENERAL INTRODUCTION

I. Introduction

Importance of Education Quality:

The main goal of education is to provide everyone including the poor and vulnerable with

opportunities to gain relevant skills, knowledge and ability for a more fulfilling and

productive life (Bishop, 1989). Access to quality education is everyone’s inalienable human

right (Universal Declaration of Human Rights, 1948) recognized by several governments,

international organisations and NGOs. The Zambian Government has always been committed

to improvement of education since its independence in 1964. Several policy plans have been

implemented to increase access to primary education (UNESCO, 2016) including the

Educating our Future (1996), Education For All (2000-2015), Free Basic Education (2002),

the Education Act of 2011, the aggressive infrastructure development programme (NIF III)

(2011 to 2015) and the increase of the number of community schools (MoE, 2016b). This

resulted in the overall primary school enrolment of 3,215,723 pupils in 2015, representing

93% of the children of school age (MoE, 2015).

Although access to education is essential, solely it is not sufficient to ensure individual

educational development. The Zambian education system still continues to underperform in

comparison to other countries. In 2010, Zambia ranked regionally at the bottom in terms of

reading and maths skills (Hungi et al., 2010). Since 1999, the annual National Assessment

from the Ministry of Education (MoE) showed that pupils’ academic performance in primary

school national examinations remained very low (UNESCO, 2016). The grade 5 Survey in

2014 showed less than 40% of learners met minimum standards for English, Life Skills,

Mathematics, and Zambian Languages (MoE, 2015b). A reading assessment in 2012 showed

that approximately 90% of second graders were unable to read or recognise a single word

even in their mother tongue (Ministry of Finance, 2014). There is a growing concern that

Zambian children are drifting through the school system without actually learning. Therefore,

the development of education systems must concentrate also on the quality of education

(Kelly, 1999). The Zambian Government has declared improvement in education as its

primary goal to achieve increased education quality and enhanced efficiency of education

service delivery as part of the Education 2030 Agenda (UNESCO, 2016).


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Importance of community schools:

The 2011 Education Act officially recognized the essential role of community schools (CSs)

in the provision of alternative modes of education delivery for many school-aged children

(MoE, 2007). In Zambia currently, there are 3 education providers: government schools

(formal), private schools and community

schools (non-formal) (Government of the

Republic of Zambia, 2011), among which

community schools are the second largest

providers of primary education, accounting

for over 30% (MoE, 2015) (Figure 1). The

number of CSs offering primary education

has increased from only 38 in 1996 to 2851 in

2010 with an enrolment rate of 554, 408

students, among whom 25.5% were orphans

(MoE, 2010b). Due to the HIV/AIDS pandemic this number is constantly increasing. It is

estimated that 20% of Zambia’s children under the age of 17 are orphaned mainly due to the

pandemic (Takanayagi, 2010). The national unemployment rate is nearly 15%, the basic

income levels are extremely low and approximately 67% of the population lives below the

international poverty line (CIA 2017). Therefore, the actual need for CSs is constantly

increasing due to the social and economic issues in Zambia (MOE, 2016).

Community schools were developed to provide education for the most underprivileged

children, particularly for orphans and poor vulnerable children (OVCs) who are the most

deprived of educational opportunities (Carmody,2004; CARE Zambia, 2005; DeStefano, et

al.,2007; Fleming, 2015) (Figure 2). OVCs

cannot afford to study in government

schools and are usually unable to start on

time due to work or lack of payment ability.

The Zambian school system has an age limit

at 7 for entry into grade one, which prevents

OVCs from enrolling in formal education

because they are considered too old for the

grades (MoE, 2004). In community schools

there are no enrolment age limits or school fees, moreover the SPARK curriculum

specifically developed for CSs enables children to complete a seven-year primary education


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in four years. Community schools are often found to be more relevant to local needs,

adaptable, cost-effective and student-centric than government schools (DeStefano, et al.,

2007; Glassman, et al., 2007). They meet children’s needs by having flexible time schedules

so that they can divert from formal timetables to ones more suitable for pupils. Therefore, due

to lack of fees, age limits and adaptability, these schools give priority to OVCs and encourage

poor families to enrol their children in primary education.

A definition of community schools is difficult since this unique model varies across

countries. However, they all have some common characteristics. Community schools are

learning institutions founded by a community actor (religious or community leaders, parents,

non-governmental or civil society

organisations) locally or externally to meet

the basic educational needs of pupils

(DeStefano, et al., 2007). However, they

are owned, managed and operated by the

community through the Parent Community

School Committees (PCSCs) on a day-to-

day basis (Durston, 1996; Houghton and Treagear, 1969; MoE, 2007) (Figure 3). Compared

to government schools, they have alternative sources of funding and a high degree of

community involvement in management and different curricula. Since they are in connection

with the public education sector, community schools differ from regular non-formal

educational models (Miller-Grandvaux and Yoder, 2002). In Zambia, there is a uniquely

strong collaboration with the MoE. It is important to note that the management of these

schools differ greatly within and across nations. Zambian community schools are categorised

by being completely run and supported by the community, or community initiatives that now

receive support from NGOs, churches or the government (Mumba, 2002). A few community

schools use the SPARK curriculum, several use the government school curriculum and some

a combination of both (Chondoka, and Subulwa, 2004; MoE 2001). The majority of

community school teachers and headteachers are untrained volunteers hired from the

community by the PCSCs and are often unpaid or get only small in-kind contributions from

the parents or the community.


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II. Problem statement

History of Community schools:

After colonization, the ‘Village schools’ operated by missionaries were the colonial

precursors to modern community schools across Africa (Chondoka, and Subulwa, 2004,

Miller-Grandvaux and Yoder, 2002). After independence, the Zambian government began to

follow a centralised education policy with the provision of free primary schooling for the

majority of Zambians (Petrauskis and Nkunika, 2006; Kelly, 1999; Banda, 2007). As a result

of the economic decline in 1976 owing to the fall of copper prices, the poverty level of the

population increased, and the government failed to provide enough overall school places. The

structural adjustments in the 1980s further exacerbated the situation of poor people, who

could not afford to pay for government or private schools anymore.

Community schools re-appeared in 1982 as a response to the ineffectiveness and inability of

government to provide primary education for the underprivileged children in low-income

urban or isolated rural areas (Kelly, 1999; Banda, 2007; Chakufyali et al., 2008). Later in

1992, as a multi-party state, Zambia started a new education decentralisation policy based on

privatization and liberalisation that led to increased school fees (Petrauskis and Nkunika,

2006). In urban areas community schools started operating due to the need to offer additional

school places for vulnerable children, many of whom were orphans, female or impoverished

(Carmody, 2004; Gardsbane, et al., 2013). The first recognized community school by the

Dominican Sisters in 1992 taught 48 girls under a tree in a shanty town in Misisi, Lusaka for

free (Zambia Community School Secretariat, 1997). In rural areas particularly, they were

founded due to the long and unsafe journeys that children had to make to school (Gardsbane,

et al., 2013). Since community schools offered a low-cost or free alternative, they became

essential in education delivery and spread nationwide.

Community schools today:

In 1996 the Zambia Community School Secretariat (ZCSS) was founded by the government

to provide coordination and structure for community schools. In 1998 the MoE officially

recognized the importance of community schools which resulted in a drastic growth in their

number (DeStefano et al., 2007; Miller-Grandvaux and Yoder, 2002). However, the ZCSS

was dissolved in 2006 due to administrative problems as a result of this rapid increase. In


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addition, there were no clear guidelines or procedures on establishment, registration, grading

and status. Therefore, the number of community schools has grown substantially over the last

ten years without any clear minimum standards for quality, creating problems that led to wide

variety in education quality across community schools (MoE, 2016b).

Several community schools have inadequate learning environments, lack of qualified

teachers, teaching-learning materials and equipment (Chakufyali et al., 2008, Gardsbane et

al., 2013). Limited classroom space, prevalence of double or triple shifts among teachers,

multi-grade teaching, high teacher-pupil ratios, restricted number of instructional and contact

hours are well-known problems (UNESCO, 2016). Despite all of these challenges, many

community school pupils perform better than those in similar schools. Community schools

are currently an important part of the educational delivery systems across Africa and are held

up as successful educational interventions in providing basic quality education (Muskin,

1997). Moreover, evidence suggests that many of them produce better learner outcomes than

government schools in Zambia (Rhodwell, 2013; Examinations Council of Zambia, 2012;

Gardsbane et al., 2013; DeStefano et al., 2007). Nevertheless, the average school

performance does not reveal the substantial differences that exist among them in terms of

quality. Often similar programmes designed and delivered by the same organisation have

very different outcomes and rates of success. There is no clear literature or evidence about

how and why this is. Therefore, it is critical to look more deeply at the unique factors in

community schools and synthesize findings across studies and data sources about how and

why they affect pupils’ academic performance.

III. Significance of the study

The reasons why the researcher investigated this alternative mode of primary education

delivery in Zambia is because it aims to address the educational needs of the most

disadvantaged children. Primary education is essential in Zambia, because the country has a

large young population and families who cannot afford higher education, so this is their only

way of learning basic skills. According to WCEFA (1990), primary education is a

fundamental human right; every person needs to have educational opportunities to meet their

basic learning needs. In addition, there is a growing demand in policy and research for more

context-specific understandings of education quality in specific settings (Tikly, 2011; Tawil

et al., 2011). This study builds on the assumption that in order to make more significant

contributions to the Zambian education system and keep community schools part of the


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solution, they will require strategic support from the government and other relevant

stakeholders to enhance effective learning processes (MoE, 2010). The findings of this

review might be important in influencing policy makers and public opinion about a low-cost

alternative way of education for poor and vulnerable children. Furthermore, it might add a

new dimension to the already existing knowledge on the factors that might influence quality

education in community schools and how education can be improved.

IV. Purpose of the study

This study seeks to investigate why certain community schools can provide quality education

for pupils to reveal how the quality of education can be improved in other community

schools. The aim was to critically assess the factors and learning conditions in community

schools which affect education quality.

V. Research Questions

What factors influence the education quality in community schools?

How do these factors affect the quality of education in Zambian community schools?

Why do certain community schools provide better education quality?

VI. Limitations of the study

This study relies on secondary data collected by other researchers, therefore during data

analysis the researcher needed to consider the theoretical and conceptual background and

potential biases of other researchers who conducted those studies. Additionally, primary data

would have been useful to gain an accurate picture about the current situation. Finally, this

study focuses only on the school environment, it does not consider the socio-economic

background, household level or individual factors that might affect quality education.

VII. Organisation of the thesis

This thesis comprises of four chapters organized as follows; chapter one presents an

introduction which gives the general context for this study. A detailed rationale for

understanding why community schools are critical in education delivery and how they offer

poor and vulnerable children alternative primary education with different performance results

is given and key terms used in this study are defined (appendix 1). Chapter two discusses the


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methodology used to collect the data. All the data collection methods and techniques

discussed here relate to systematic review research including discussion on issues of

reliability, validity and data analysis approaches used. In chapter three, the literature review is

presented in which education quality is defined and factors from global literature which

influence education quality in community schools were explored. Chapter four includes the

results on how identified factors influence education quality in Zambian community schools

as well as the main findings of this thesis. Chapter five contains the summary of the key

findings and draws conclusions and recommendations to support the suggested topics for

further research.


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CHAPTER TWO: METHODOLOGY

Systematic reviews

Recently there has been an increased focus on evidence-based policy making in international

development. Systematic review has been chosen because it is an evidence-based analysis

which aims to collect and combine the results of several independent studies about a given

research issue (Gough et al., 2017). There is a lot of anecdotal evidence about the important

complementary role of community schools to formal education. However, there are no

existing systematic reviews which summarize evidence about how and why these schools are

able to provide quality. This method is suitable to bring together the available evidence and

reveal the gaps in existing research.

Epistemological and Ontological framework

Evidence-based research aims to establish cause and effect and is essential in knowledge-

generating activities to provide a more secure basis for decision-making. Similar to the

empiricists, critical realists’ understanding of science takes the view that certain types of

entities exist in the world, largely independent of human beings (Devitt, 2005). Although we

can have a reliable, objective knowledge of the world, similar to a constructivist argument,

this is always relative to our time period and culture (Bhaskar, 1978). Although it is essential

to observe that an effect has occurred, critical realists also must understand why it has

occurred in a certain situation to be able to reveal that the findings can be applied in that

specific context again. Therefore, I build my review on a critical realist approach which suits

my research objective in understanding why and how successful community schools unfold.

Methodology

Critical realism has been long a dominant approach in social sciences, mainly associated with

the work of Bhaskar’s theory (1978) which perceives social science as a critical process of

enquiry with the aim to uncover underlying mechanisms in the world to help people change

their conditions (Neuman, 1994). Since realists argue that alternative perspectives of any

phenomenon exist due to different mechanisms and context (Maxwell, 2011), the concept of

“mechanism” becomes central to the explanation and thus the focus of this review (Putnam,

1990). These mechanisms are defined as underlying entities, processes, power relations or

structures which operate in a particular context to generate outcomes of interest (Astbury and


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Leeuw, 2010). Realist systematic reviews are theory building and theory testing approaches.

Therefore, they first identify causative mechanisms to reveal a causal logic model and then

test interventions to reveal the mechanisms (Hawe et al., 2004). However, the identification

is also part of the review process instead of a priori hypothesis because of the iterative nature

of the examination which requires constant refinement of the logic model. Therefore, an

iterative causal exploratory approach which explores the links between context, mechanism

and outcome (Wong et al., 2013) was used.

First the reviewer identified and examined the range of underlying mechanisms that affected

community schools in providing quality education to develop a hypothesis as part of the

review process. Then she investigated the different pieces of evidence that connects them and

the contexts in which the relationship occurs. The test included the search for empirical data

to map when and where the mechanisms have their effect and to reveal inconsistencies to

determine the boundaries of such an effect (Gough, 2013). The aim was to identify and

explain the range of mechanisms due to different contexts (school factors) which result in the

intervention (community school) producing different outcomes (improved academic

results). These CMO components are inextricably linked and thus intended to be read as a

sentence: ‘In this context, these outcomes for these groups were generated because of this

underlying mechanism.’ Thus, this review can refine interventions for different contexts

(Gough et al., 2017).

Critical realism is also related to critical social philosophy, which argues that social theories

cannot be purely descriptive, it must be explanatory and thus facts and values cannot be

separated (Habermas, 1974). Hancock et al. (2007) explain that qualitative research studies

help our understanding of how things came to be the way they are. The realist Barth (1987)

also argues that in social research it is essential to consider how people’s behaviour is

influenced to cope with a phenomenon. Therefore, the researcher included qualitative studies

in the review because they allowed an exploration of the views, attitudes, and experiences of

the relevant stakeholders so that an in-depth understanding of the topic was achieved.


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Search Strategy: A structured, systematic search has been applied which can be seen in detail in Figure 5. The

search strategy included three phases: Initial, relatively unstructured scan (Appendix 2) to

identify evidence gaps and literature for use in developing initial theories; a Detailed search

(Appendix 3) to identify all outcome studies of direct relevance to the research question that

could be used to test and refine those initial theories; and On-going reference tracking to

identify the most theory-relevant studies.

Initial Search

A systematic map has been used during the initial search to identify evidence gaps and

understand the extent of the review study. The aim of visual mapping was to narrow the

review questions based on the necessary evidence (Appendix 2). This mapping enabled the

reviewer to notice that much literature is available about the important complementary role of


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community schools in providing access to education. However, literature about their

education quality was scarce and grouped together with various underpinning theories of

change from different research traditions. This mixing of different traditions might explain

some of the lack of evidence of education quality in community schools.

Detailed Search:

Studies were selected for the review based on providing information about education quality

in Zambian community schools and their relevance to the review question including any data

about un/successful community. Inclusion criteria were applied successively to titles and

abstracts and full texts (Figure 6).


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A detailed PRISMA flow diagram was used to provide a summary of steps taken to exclude

studies (Appendix 3.) After the application of criteria, included studies were categorized into

two groups: core studies and other documents. Studies that had statistical or narrative

evidence of educational outcomes, namely grade 7 exam pass rates or numeracy-literacy test

results constitute the core studies. Other documents provide evidence in relation to context or

interpretation for certain mechanisms such as stakeholders’ attitudes, education policies,

service delivery issues, etc.

Data Analysis and Synthesis

In a realist synthesis, data extraction assists both analysis and synthesis, which occurs

iteratively and may be in parallel (Wong et al., 2013). A realist synthesis begins with an

initial rough theory: articulating the theory of change (Configuring), testing (aggregating it)

(Gough, 2013) and finally concludes with a more refined theory (Figure 7). A flow diagram

of the synthesis process showing the tools and techniques used in different stages is provided

(Appendix 2).

LeCompte (2000) argues that for data analysis, researchers need to first determine how to

organise their data and use it to reconstruct the original phenomenon. Therefore, from the

initial stages, the reviewer has produced textual descriptions of each individual study

systematically using coding and tabulation methods to capture the meanings and key

components of the studies reviewed. Coding is a systematic application of words or short

phrases which represent and summarise key features of studies included in a review (Gough

et al., 2017). A categorical coding framework has been used for keeping track of studies to

increase reliability of the review and also for analysis and synthesis. Each study assessment


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included bibliographic details (how the study was found, title, abstract, etc.) and substantive

codes about the nature of studies (research design, settings, research tradition, etc). (Figure 8)

For the analysis, the data was sorted and coded according to identified themes. The goal of

coding was to produce a coherent set of questions and answers that helped reviewers describe

a set of studies (Gough, et al., 2017). These questions were:

- What were the outcomes (successful or unsuccessful)? (Final outcomes)

- What factors influenced education quality? (Context)

- How do they influence education quality (positive or negative)? (Intermediate

Outcomes)

- Why do these factors have this effect? (Mechanism)

The reviewer chose this method because it is a useful way to become familiar with the

included studies and later compare findings across them. Once the data was coded, initial

themes were identified (Figure 9). By identifying a theme, we firstly isolate something that

happens a number of times and secondly, if it happens in a specific way (Bless and Achola,

1988). Inductive open coding is an iterative process between the studies and the review

question to determine codes and themes that are relevant to the review question (Gough, et

al., 2017). This approach has been applied to identify the subtle differences between

community schools by building up categories of community school factors and mapping their


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presence and absence. Significant concepts that required coding emerged from within the

included studies. Some of these concepts were also identified during the identification of

school factors in the literature review. Therefore, the reliability of the emerged concepts from

the reviewed studies was reinforced by the transparent process of the development of themes

and codes in the literature review.

The table of Contexts-Mechanisms-Outcomes (CMO) configurations was used as a

framework for development of more detailed theories about community schools including the

context in which they worked (or failed to), the mechanisms that affected how they worked,

and the outcomes that they generated (Appendix 5). This was used as a starting point for


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evaluation. The codes based on what was provided (positive) to community schools and what

they lacked (negative) was aggregated, tabulated into groups under key themes within the

final configuration of the emergent framework to reveal different patterns across studies

(Figure 10 and 11). Conclusions across studies have been made with the help of the CMO

configuration table and the non-core studies (Figure 12).


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In order to reveal and compare the underlying mechanisms across studies, student academic

performance has been chosen as a basis for comparison. Studies individually were also

categorized based on type of success (Figure 13) and strengths of their quality. Successful

community schools were defined by grade 7 examination pass rates above 60%1 (MoE 2018)

which is based on literacy and numeracy tests.

In addition, community schools which

achieved improvements in pupils’ academic

performance in literacy (EGRA, UWEZO) or

numeracy tests (EGMA) were also included in

successful community schools to better

understand which factors led to this

development. However, they were treated with

caution in terms of their weight if in absolute

terms their performance was below average.

The intermediate education-outcome indicators were identified during the review process

which included enrolments, attendance, retention and repetition, etc. A preliminary synthesis

1 At grade 7 examinations the successful passing grades for pupils are always changing regionally based on the available places in schools. Usually the percentage that pupils need to achieve to pass the exam is 60%.


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was developed in the literature review and refined by reviewed studies to create a logic model

for success. The CMO configurations were then tested in the synthesis of the included

studies. Data collected from the reviewed studies was critically interpreted to understand the

similarities and differences across studies in relation to the review questions (Figure 14). The

main objective of synthesis was to reveal which underlying mechanisms due to what contexts

are essential in successful provision of quality education in community schools and why.

Inferential claims have been made based on the similarities across studies and concepts found

in many studies were more important than the ones in fewer studies (Gough et al., 2017).

Quality appraisal

Quality of research in a realist synthesis is a broader concept, because even research with a

questionable reliability might still have value in informing the emerging theory about CMO

configurations (Pawson, 2006). Realist synthesis does not require whole studies to be

included, evidence within a study can be included, provided that the methods used to generate

the particular data are sufficiently robust to substantiate the judgement based upon it. The

reviewer made judgements about the trustworthiness of data within reports based on the

criteria shown below (Figure 15).


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10 out of 14 highly successful studies have been appraised as strong evidence, 4 as medium.

Out of 3 medium successful studies, 1 has been appraised as strong, 1 medium and 1 as weak

evidence. In the weak evidence, the author reported inability to collect data about

stakeholders’ views and only had narrative outcomes. Out of 3 unsuccessful schools, 2 have

been appraised as medium and 1 as strong evidence. Since many qualitative studies have

been used for this synthesis, the reviewer cross-checked her work with the literature review in

the evidence. In order to minimize limited cultural awareness and bias to western research

perspectives, the reviewer included several studies which met the inclusion criteria conducted

by Zambian researchers at the University of Zambia (Appendix 6).

Limitations

This systematic review is in itself limited to the publicly available literature. Several studies

included in the review are qualitative research, therefore the information of the schools’

performances were often narratives about high grade 7 pass rates or improved exam results,

but not always exact numbers. This has also been considered in the quality appraisal and

during the analysis. During the detailed search, the use of keywords led to very few results

due to the tightly defined inclusion criteria, the scarce availability of studies in the topic and

lack of disseminated data about community schools’ performance. Therefore, similar to the

Cochrane Systematic Reviews, the researcher used a relatively small number of studies from

various research traditions (Higgins, and Green, 2011).


25

CHAPTER THREE: LITERATURE REVIEW

This chapter outlines the definitions which guided this study. A mixed approach to quality

education is discussed here as one of the purposes of this study was to capture education

quality in a Zambian context. The second part of this chapter discussing the concepts of

influencing factors in community schools gives the analytical framework on which the data

analysis for this study was based. The combined parts serve to explain the findings for this

study. Finally, a conclusion summarises the chapter by giving highlights of what was

addressed.

Conceptualisation of quality education

The quantitative expansion of schools was the primary focus for a long time in international

development discourse, including Zambia, at the expense of education quality. Yet it is

argued that the social rate of return of improved education quality is much higher (Bishop,

1989). Due to the 2015 SDGs, a renewed focus on quality arose in global and Zambian

education policy. In order to meet the educational needs of poor and vulnerable children,

policy measures started to include how well pupils learn and whether they achieve

educational objectives (Kelly, 1996).

The definition of quality education determined by the economist approach is a contribution

to human productivity and economic development (Spoelder, 2010). This framework

concentrates on the educational inputs (educational resources) and outputs (educational

outcomes) as well as on the relationship between them. But solely providing more resources

has resulted in very little achievement in Zambia (Hanushek and Wößmann, 2007). Several

studies argued that contextual factors also need to be considered, including the importance of

the ability of schools to accommodate to local context and expectations of students, parents

and teachers (Jerrard, 2016; Sayed and Rashid, 2015; Hanushek, E.A. and Wößmann, L.,

2007). This model however, excludes the experience which affects the learning of individuals

(Tikly and Barrett, 2011). Therefore, the Zambian MoE adopted UNESCO’s humanist

framework which considers quality education as a driver of human development and process

of social practice (UNESCO, 2000). It emphasizes the central role of pedagogy in quality in

relation to students’ educational experience, thus teachers are more facilitators than

instructors and pupils’ assessments are used in order to put the actual learning of pupils at the

centre of quality improvement (Spoelder, 2010; UNESCO, 2000). However, a Zambian study


26

revealed that this UNESCO concept is used mainly in supranational dialogues, inconsistent

with the national and local definitions (Soudien, 2002). Nationally, the economic and

organisational approaches are dominant. Quality education improves quality of life by

providing a strong and relevant academic and practical foundation, preparing pupils for work

or continuation of education and enabling them to meet their social needs gaining

knowledge, social skills and moral values (MoE, 1996). It is defined by efficient use of

educational resources, capacity enhancement and training of school staff (Lee and

Zuilkowski, 2017). At the local level, quality education can be provided if educational goals

are achieved, effective pedagogical processes are in place and teachers are satisfied. Since the

concept of education has changed due to community involvement, this requires different

approaches towards education (Wood, 2007). Based on Lee and Zuilkowksi’s (2017)

suggestion, the researcher has chosen the concept and factors which were used on at least two

levels in Zambia to best capture education quality. Thus, the adopted framework is a mixture

of economic, organisational and humanist approaches (Figure 16).


27

What factors influence education quality in community schools?

The factors influencing pupil’s academic performance can be classified into two groups:

school environment and individual environment. There are various studies on the effects of

individual factors such as family, personality, nutrition and health on education quality

(Bishop, 1989), however very few explore and explain the impacts of school environment.

Therefore, in this chapter the researcher is focusing on reviewing the global and Zambian

literature2 to establish the school environment factors influencing education quality in

community schools.

Provision of Inputs:

An Indian study revealed that in community schools the lack of infrastructure and sanitary

facilities contributed to low attendance, especially for girls (Sujata, 2000). School attendance

is an important element of students’ learning because persistent absenteeism has a significant

negative effect on their learning achievements (Tyerman, 1968). Community schools often

lack furniture of any kind and children sit on the floor, blocks or mounds of earth, making it

hard for children to concentrate. In addition, the MoE (2007) explained that poor architectural

structures often led to the collapse of the building and thus the suspension of education.

Therefore, good infrastructure is likely to improve students’ academic performance.

Intermediate school outcomes such as this have the potential to influence learning outcomes,

but success depends on other factors too, namely how effectively they tried to achieve it

(Nielson, 2007).

The availability of adequate teaching and learning materials (TLMs) is one of the most

essential factors. These can improve teachers’ dedication to work and pupils’ performance,

significantly affecting education quality (Preedy, 1993). Based on a world bank report

(1979), pupils who do not have their own textbooks perform worse in academic tests than

those who do. Textbook and instructional guide shortages are common issues in the majority

of Zambian community schools. TLMs are essential because they guide teachers in

effectively while providing more opportunities for students to learn in schools or at home,

2 Those literatures which include information about Zambian community schools however did not meet inclusion/exclusion criteria


28

improving their literacy and numeracy skills (Lee and Zuilkowski, 2017). Based on the

operational guidelines, (2007, 2016) the MoE is responsible for the provision and

dissemination of TLMs to CSs. The problem with government provision is that it is irregular,

insufficient and often fails to supply the materials or payments on time (Miller-Grandvaux

and Yoder, 2002). NGO-supported community schools are more likely to have TLMs. Others

argue that the simple provision of TLMs will not result in improved pupils’ academic

performance (Glewwe, 2002; Banerjee et al., 2007).

Therefore, trained and qualified teachers, especially headteachers, becomes essential in

determining education quality (Tounkara et al., 2000). In Zambian community schools, the

minimum expectation of teacher qualifications is at least Zambia Primary Course, Zambia

Basic Education Course or a degree in secondary school education (MoE, 2015c). However,

in many community schools, the teachers are untrained volunteers who lack qualifications

and training, they are assessed by communities for qualification based on their commitment

to teach underprivileged children (Lee and Zuilkowski, 2017).

Satisfaction of relevant stakeholders:

Another influencing factor, therefore, is teachers’ motivation and support. In developing

countries, dedication to teaching depends on various motivational factors such as level and

frequency of teachers’ payment, permanent or temporary contracts and the distance to

schools (Masino and Nino-Zarazua, 2015). In some cases, financial incentives such as regular

salary, in other cases enforcement processes such as monitoring can be efficient, however the

most effective way is the combination of the two (Masino and Nino-Zarazua, 2015). In

community schools, the burden of the entire financial payment of volunteer teachers is

usually placed on the parents of students which is dangerous, not equitable or sustainable.

This can result in irregular and low payment of teachers, significantly demotivating them and

leading to an unsustainable teacher supply (Miller-Grandvaux and Yoder, 2002; World

Education/Mali, 2000). In 2012 the MoE started to deploy government teachers in

community schools, however many trained teachers were unwilling to teach there if adequate

housing was not provided. When teachers are adequately supported by parents through being

integrated into the community or provided with housing, it results in better pupils’

performance (Tounkara et al., 2000). Empowered and committed teachers can promote

quality learning, keep students at school and create a conducive learning environment

(UNESCO Bangkok, 2016). The human capital development approach argues that the


29

provision of employee training to advance their skills and knowledge can improve

employees’ morale and the efficiency of the organisation (Vanstaden, 2000). With the

availability of pre-service training, the mastery of materials that teachers gain and the skills to

transfer that knowledge to the students can be developed (MoE, 1996). Nevertheless,

teachers’ learning is a continuing process therefore constant training should be provided. In-

service training can improve teachers’ competence and performance (MoE, 1996). Therefore,

the Zambian government is now required to include community school teachers in

professional development activities. Similarly, instructional supervision of teachers is

important in quality education. It maintains education standards which affect the actual

learning of pupils and contributes to teachers’ development both administratively and

professionally (Hyde et al., 1997).

Quality education can be achieved only if relevant curriculum meets the real needs of

Zambian students and expectation of parents (ZESM, 2005). Relevant curriculum can

facilitate the role of education in assisting students to develop life skills and coping strategies

to become socially resilient (UNESCO, 2005). Relevant education is based on government

curriculum that focuses on developing skills such as literacy and numeracy for grade 7

national examinations. However, it also incorporates valuable social and life skills that equip

pupils with acceptable social behaviour and is tailored to local needs by reflecting the socio-

economic problems (MoE, 1996; Lee and Zuilkowski, 2017). Introduction of local languages

as a medium of instruction and flexible school calendars negotiated with local people’s

lifestyles has improved education quality in community schools across Africa (Miller-

Grandvaux and Yoder, 2002). Parents can withdraw their children from the school if they

assume that the child has not improved academically or developed useful skills. Therefore,

integrating local knowledge and vocational skills considered important and practical by the

parents such as carpentry and sewing, can influence education quality (Lee and Zuilkowski,

2017; Tounkara et al., 2000).

Effective pedagogy and management processes:

Community schools have made teachers more accountable to communities and thus brought

pedagogical innovation to the classrooms. The definition of effective pedagogy has been

transformed from knowledge transmission to knowledge creation. Traditional teaching

methods are commonly teacher-centred where students play a passive role in the learning

process. Many successful community schools have modified their curriculum to more


30

learner-centred pedagogy in which pupils are more responsible for their learning and teachers

play a facilitating role (MoE, 2001). A Kenyan study revealed that unpaid teachers improved

their learners’ outcomes due to improved pedagogy because teachers were more committed

due to motivation (Duflo et al., 2015). One of the strengths of community schools is the

commitment of their volunteer teachers who teach for the sake of learners, enjoyment or

passion. Internal motivation is much stronger than external since it involves individual

interest to succeed for its own sake. When other teachers went on strike in government

schools in Mali, community school teachers protected their students from interrupting their

education and continued teaching (Welmond, 2000). Committed teachers can increase

effective teaching by finding alternative teaching materials in the case of textbook shortages

and by putting more effort into planning sessions (Lee and Zuilkowski, 2015). The variety of

teaching methods that teachers use and the individual interaction time with pupils affect

learners’ performance. Child-centred teaching methods led to more instructional time being

spent on core subjects and the incorporation of participatory activities such as games and

discussions which developed essential learning skills such as problem-solving and critical

thinking improved learning outcomes (Odonokor, 2000; Muskin, 1997). On the individual

level, continuous assessment of students’ academic performance can influence education

quality in a school environment by showing how much students’ knowledge has developed. It

can also improve instructional quality by assisting teachers in identifying learners’ strengths

and areas for improvement. (MoE, 2001). It can also contribute to effective management by

evaluating the school’s academic performance and educational trends. If students are

motivated in class and provided with guidance for improvement, their learning performance

can improve (Hackney and Reavis, 1968). The Examinations Council of Zambia recognizes

its value as a valid instructional strategy to improve students’ performance (MoE, 2007).

Due to the decentralisation policy of the government, Parents Committees (PCSCs) became

the governing bodies of community schools responsible for decision-making and

enhancement of collaboration between the community and the school (Miller-Grandvaux and

Yoder, 2002). Some researchers argue that it is essential to involve communities and

parents in school management because it affects education quality (Altshuler, 2013;

Ginsburg et al., 2014). The direct parental participation through active PCSCs with the power

to hire, fire and monitor their own teachers makes teachers more accountable to the local

communities and incentivizes them to attend school regularly, leading to better student

learning (World Bank, 2003; Di Gropello, 2006; Barrera-Osorio et al., 2009; Jimenez and


31

Sawada, 1999; Nielson, 2007; Miller-Grandvaux and Yoder, 2002). However, this role can

be limited if teachers reject advice and judgement from non-professionals (Di Gropello,

2006). Therefore, the managerial improvement of PCSCs is essential because it can lead to

increased community participation. Improved PCSCs have the potential to establish good

relationships and disseminate information between parents and teachers, discuss children’s

academic progression and advocate for developments (Masino and Nino-Zarazua, 2015). This

regular school communication can positively influence students’ achievements (Tounkara et

al., 2000). In addition, parental participation in management has reduced students’ repetition

and improved their attendance rate (Jimenez and Sawada, 1999). Furthermore, active PCSCs

can mobilize TLMs and finances for operational costs and teachers’ in-service trainings or

acquire assistance from local authorities. However, their most common role is often to

mobilize material support in cash or casual labour for construction or infrastructure

development.

The involvement of external help in community school management and development has

the potential to increase program success. Government support can include infrastructure

development, material or transport support, educational support such as deployment of

government teachers, textbooks, small grants or conflict mediation between PCSCs and the

community (Odonokor, 2000). NGOs can offer funding for building new classrooms,

libraries or storerooms and are key to the overall success, since communities and government

do not have sufficient resources to support community schools alone (Miller-Grandvaux and

Yoder, 2002). However, PCSCs are not effective in reaching out to external authorities or

partners who are not locally available.

Summary

This chapter discussed how the mixed approach to defining quality education is relevant to

this thesis as it claims to apply economic, organisational and humanist theories that are more

beneficial in meeting the educational needs of disadvantaged Zambian pupils. Within this

mixed approach, factors affecting the inputs, managerial-pedagogical processes and

satisfaction of stakeholders guided the data analysis. In the following chapter, results and key

findings are presented.


32

CHAPTER FOUR: RESULTS AND EVIDENCE

After the application of inclusion/exclusion criteria, the researcher identified 24 studies, of

which 17 included information about un/successful community schools in Zambia and 7

contributed to interpretation. Three case studies: studies 3, 7 and 17, examined two different

schools, where outcomes and school factors were identified separately, therefore these

studies’ results were treated as different case studies, A and B. Consequently, instead of 17,

the researcher identified 20 case studies with measurable and comparable results. 14 of 20

had success rates above 60%. Three studies had medium success rates, 2 of which improved

their performance to higher than other schools, however still below national standards. One

had high pass rates but with equally high drop-out rates. 3 studies have been identified as

unsuccessful, 1 due to low reading levels and high drop-out rates, 1 due to a low number of

pupils passing grade 7 exams and another due to low literacy performance at EGRA exams.

In the beginning of this chapter, the researcher refined the theories of change from the

literature review based on all 24 reviewed studies, which met inclusion criteria to explain

how community school factors affect education quality in Zambia and to identify “What

outcomes – are caused by what Contexts- because of which Mechanisms”. For example:

Community involvement (context) resulted in increased pupil attendance (outcome) because

effective management (mechanism) of community schools was ensured. A theory of change

CMO configuration table is provided (Appendix 5) to further aid the interpretation with the

provision of direct quotations from studies.

Secondly, the researcher will provide evidence from the 20 case studies to reveal how often

these phenomena (CMO configurations) have appeared and to establish why pupils achieved

better academic performance than those in unsuccessful community schools. Additionally,

how the different school factors affected each other has been also investigated.


33

How do community school factors affect education quality in Zambian

community schools?

All 20 case studies explained that active PCSCs/school managers played an essential role in

community/parental involvement in education. They mentioned a wide range of active

PCSC roles including mobilization of community resources, sensitization of parents about the

importance of education, management of school funds, identification of OVCs for enrolment,

etc. However, three roles were outstanding: the promotion of good relationships between

teachers and parents, the monitoring of pupil-teacher performance and management of school

staff. When parents were regularly consulted, they felt part of the schools and encouraged

their children to attend. Teachers felt more accepted by the community which increased their

commitment. Therefore, active PCSCs created strong community cohesion, good working

environments, decreased conflicts between teachers and parents and increased access to

community resources. The regular monitoring of pupil-teacher performance by PCSCs and

the community increased pupils-teachers morale, attendance and improved educational

outcomes. When PCSC meetings were dominated by a group of powerful, educated people

such as government headteachers, DEBS officials or educated PCSC chairmen, it resulted in

parents’ inability to express their opinions and to be involved in recruitment processes or

value education. These pupils were often forced to get married or to work by their parents

instead of sending them to school. When parents were excluded from decision-making, they

became reluctant to pay PCSC funds due to lack of transparency, trust and inability to fire

inadequate teachers, which led to decreased access to community resources, low pupil

motivation and teachers’ payments. The lack of teacher support resulted in low teacher


34

attendance, learning hours and thus low education quality. Data collected from 14 out of 20

studies mentioned that the lack of or irregular teacher allowances from parents led teachers to

leave the schools. The teacher shortages sometimes resulted in lower comprehension and

reading skills, demotivation of pupils, decreased lesson preparation time, low pedagogical

quality and ineffective learning. Without parental/community involvement, the management

of community schools became ineffective and without external help resulted in lack of

teacher support and led to uncommitted volunteer teachers.

19 out of 20 studies mentioned external help, of which 17 reported lack of financial

resources due to insufficient donor and government support. Based on government policy,

CSs should be provided by TLMs, small grants, teacher training, instructional supervision or

construction support. There is only a 30% allocation of financial resources for CSs from MoE

budget compared to 70% for government schools, showing the discriminatory nature of

government support. Out of the 14 studies which

mentioned government support, 9 argued that it

was minimal, irregular and always insufficient.

This indirectly had a negative effect on

education quality for two reasons: lack of TLMs

reduced motivation and opportunities for pupils to learn and school fees increased school

absenteeism and parents’ dissatisfaction. The strong collaboration and division of labour

among stakeholders made education free, motivated pupils and teachers to attend schools,

improved commitment and pedagogy thus achieving 80-100% grade 7 pass rates. Active

PCSCs played an essential part in this division through finding alternative sources for support


35

from local businesses, donors and government and by involving the community. Each

stakeholder contributed individually to the provision of quality education: schools received

infrastructure support from local businesses, PCSCs involved the community/parents in

income-generating activities and pupil monitoring, inputs were provided by donors and small

grants and teacher training from the government. Since 2012, the Zambian government has

significantly increased the number of deployed government teachers to community schools to

remove the financial burden of teachers’

allowances from parents, leading to increased

parental involvement in education. However,

PCSCs felt it beyond their authority to monitor

educated government teachers and to report

misconduct to the MoE due to their own low level of education and fear of losing support.

Therefore, government played an essential role in assisting PCSCs to hold government

teachers accountable, which resulted in improved pedagogy, increased teachers’ commitment,

free education and encouragement of communities to collaborate with government. In

addition, government-seconded teachers often used their personal relationships with district

and zonal officials to receive increased MoE support, resulting in increased access to TLMs,

government training and DEBS pedagogical assistance for volunteer teachers. Owing to the

provision of construction materials, digital/regular TLMs, teacher and management training,

donor support was critical in complementing government help, leading to increased learning

opportunities for pupils, improved learning environments, teaching methods and increased

willingness of volunteer teachers to work for little or no remuneration. In cases of inadequate

parental contributions, the only way of recruiting and retaining sufficiently educated

volunteer teachers was from donor support.


36

In every reviewed study, the importance of community school teachers’ attitude in

effective pedagogy and quality education was mentioned by parents, headteachers and pupils.

Committed teachers cared for their students more thoroughly because they felt obliged to

contribute to their own communities’ development. They paid extra attention to slow learners

and they did not leave behind children who failed to complete academic exercises. This

increased the motivation of pupils to learn, their school attendance and performance.

Committed teachers and headteachers monitored pupil performance, conducted home visits,

identified OVCs for enrolment, sensitized parents to send their children to school, which

increased their enrolment and attendance rates. They also encouraged pupils who dropped out

of school to continue their education and provided them financial support by reaching out to

NGOs to register them.

The commitment, creativity and flexibility of volunteer teachers was said to be the key reason

why pupils performed so well. Some dedicated volunteer teachers overcame a lack of funding

for shelves by using locally available materials such as maize sacks and staples to display

books which led to conducive learning environment. Although in many schools there were

not sufficient and age-appropriate TLMs for pupils to

learn effectively, these committed teachers requested

used books from government schools or improvised

alternative learning materials such as worksheets or flash

cards for reading activities. They never went on full

holiday or strike and were willing to stay longer to

prepare lessons. This resulted in improved teaching methods, better planned sessions, longer

learning hours and more exciting, child-centred pedagogy. They used a variety of

pedagogical approaches with more time spent on active learning methods such as group


37

problem-solving activities, demonstrations, debates, visual and storytelling methods, regular

reading activities or competitions. This teaching method significantly improved literacy and

comprehension and led to effective learning. Low-stake continuous assessment was also

mentioned by committed teachers and headteachers, which helped to monitor/assess both

their own and student performance leading to improved literacy instruction and educational

achievements. These advanced teaching methods were possible only due to the instructional

supervision or training of committed volunteer teachers.

Since teachers’ commitment was pivotal in providing quality education, their motivation and

support financially and pedagogically was indispensable. Volunteer teachers’ regular

payments provided by NGOs/donors or government improved teachers commitment and

motivation even if they were not being paid as much as government teachers. However, most

of the time they were either paid nothing, paid by

communities in-kind or in cash which was not enough

to meet their families’ basic needs. The lack of support

from the government and parents significantly

demotivated committed teachers which resulted in high

teacher turnover and lack of qualified teachers. Trained teachers were often unwilling to be

deployed to schools without adequate facilities and housings. Therefore, it was difficult for

community schools to find qualified teachers willing to teach, especially from a limited

supply of educated people. This hindered PCSCs power to recruit adequate teachers and fire

low-performing ones which negatively impacted education quality.

Despite the lack of salary, access to teacher training motivated teachers, increased their

attendance, improved their teaching skills, confidence and attitude. It also improved literacy


38

instruction, classroom practices and lesson

preparation leading to child centred pedagogy

and improved comprehension skills. In contrast,

volunteer teachers usually had limited access to

government training due to lack of

qualifications or financial resources, which further discouraged them to teach.

Despite being untrained and underpaid, instructional supervision and monitoring by

PPCSCs/Headteachers/ Zone Coordinators improved education quality. Their main task

was to regularly assist volunteer teachers, observe their lesson preparation and provide them

with constructive feedback which resulted in increased commitment, school attendance and

improved child-centred pedagogy. Regular instructional monitoring of teachers also

improved the management by evaluating the school’s academic performance and giving

headteachers advice on how to improve timetable scheduling or efficient use of teachers.

Although monitoring was effective in enforcing teachers’ attendance and motivational

training was provided, the lack of regular salaries drove some teachers to be absent or leave

to pursue other livelihood activities or find better paid employment. This caused teacher

shortages which negatively affected education quality.

In some studies, donor support or committed teachers meant schools were able to provide

extra free services to pupils including medical treatment, shelter from abuse, feeding

programs, counselling and referrals for OVCs, sports, remedial afternoon lessons, school gifts

for well-performing pupils and sponsorship for secondary school. This holistic education

concept which went beyond solely academic support was essential in the satisfaction of


39

parents/pupils because it compensated for school fees, improved concentration during

lessons, increased school attendance and enrolment rates and enhanced parents’ involvement

in education. Some community schools tailored their

curriculum to local needs and socio-economic

problems. Some schools provided vocational or life

skills which taught pupils practical subjects such as

mechanics and carpentry owing to community or local business support. This motivated

parents and pupils to earn relevant skills for employment. The new national literacy

curriculum introduced by the government in 2013 also positively affected education quality

because it improved pupils’ comprehension and access to education for younger pupils due to

teaching in local languages in grades 1-5. Many CSs also changed to the national curriculum

because of its relevance to grade 7 examinations.

Teacher shortages were common problems in community schools. Inadequate payment and

housing led to high teacher turnover and lack of qualified teachers. Those who had higher

qualifications were less likely to stay in community schools. Therefore teacher-pupil ratios

were high with an average of 1:60, and teachers had to teach 3-4 classes alone or teach multi-

grade classes which hindered effective learning. Despite the lack of qualified teachers, pupils

still performed well academically due to teachers’

commitment and motivation from training or

instructional supervision by headteachers.

Deployment of committed government teachers as

headteachers was an important school factor because they were more likely to observe their

untrained teachers’ and supervise them. This improved teachers’ morale, lesson preparations,


40

schedules, administration, assessment techniques and teaching methods and increased

comprehensive and effective learning. However, inappropriate government teachers with a

lack of commitment or knowledge of local languages discouraged pupils and hindered

learning of literacy and comprehension skills.

Although headteachers ensured that teachers prepared their lessons, untrained teachers often

rather followed textbooks in teaching. They preferred MOGE-provided TLMs because they

included specific steps to guide the teachers and

learners through the lessons, provided details for

each activity and a weekly schedule to follow. This

improved classroom management, lesson plans,

teachers’ ability to handle multi-grade classes and literacy skills. However, in most

community schools, lack of TLMs was a common problem, leading to a high pupil-textbook

ratio and impeded effective pedagogy, comprehension and literacy learning. Committed

teachers found locally sourced materials to supplement the limited number of resources.

Digital TLMs provided by donors such as phones, tablets, projectors and radios uploaded

with basic curriculum, lesson preparation plans, methods of creating alternative TLMs and

video demonstrations of literacy lessons were important factors in assisting teachers

irrespective of their level of training. They were useful especially in cases of a lack of regular

TLMs, in deployment of government teachers who used them to teach in local languages or

in the quick training of new teachers due to high teacher turnover without having to wait for

annual workshops. This also increased teacher-pupil motivation and encouraged creative

teaching and participatory pedagogy. Despite the use of technology, all these studies reported

fewer costs than regular TLMs education.

Provision of school structures improved education quality by creating a conducive learning

environment, attracting better qualified teachers and encouraging pupils/teachers to attend

schools. Many community schools however had a lack of infrastructure. Smaller class sizes

improved teaching methods because they allowed a more active participation of pupils and

increased the active learning hours in schools. Construction support from donors, NGOs or

government usually assisted communities to provide permanent school structures, however,

without other school factors given, this factor alone was not sufficient to improve quality

education.


41

Why are certain community schools more successful in providing quality

education than other community schools?

The parental and community support through active PCSCs had a complementary role

for teachers and school managers in education delivery which was found to be essential in

effective management of community schools in all 17 successful reviewed studies. This

promotes Altshuler (2013) and Ginsburg et al.’s (2014) findings that it is essential to involve

the communities and parents in the school management. Only 2 out of these 17 studies

reported limited parental involvement, but both were successful because the accompanying

low teachers’ payment were compensated by other forms of teacher support such as

supervision of untrained teachers by active headteachers and teacher training by donors. All

of these successful studies mentioned the importance of active PCSCs/school managers in

the effective involvement of parents. 12 reported both strong community cohesion and

regular monitoring of pupil-teacher attendance and performance by active PCSCs/school

managers, which motivated teachers, increased their commitment, attendance and

accountability. This also relates to World Bank (2003), Di Gropello (2006), Barrera-Osorio et

al. (2009), Jimenez and Sawada (1999), Nielson (2007) and Miller-Grandvaux and Yoder

(2002) statement that the direct parental participation through active PCSCs makes teachers

more accountable to the local communities and incentivizes them to attend school regularly

leading to better student learning. PCSCs’ monitoring of teachers’ attendance was well

received by volunteer teachers in contrast with Di Gropello’s (2006) theory that teachers

reject advice from non-professionals.

Although 9 of these 12 struggled with a lack of qualified teachers, all 12 were successful due

to their support of untrained teachers through instructional supervision. However, none of the

unsuccessful studies mentioned regular monitoring, supervision or community cohesion

which resulted in high absenteeism and drop-out rates. They also all reported inadequate or


42

lack of active PCSCs. All 3 led to lack of community support for teachers’ payments

resulting in low commitment, low pupil-teacher attendance and teacher shortages.

16 of 17 successful studies demonstrated external help and 1 lacked data. 14 of them

reported insufficient external support. 2 successful studies reported adequate external help,

out of which one still charged school fees as the support they had was only construction. The

other one was the only study providing free education due to the unique, strong collaboration

of all stakeholders and sufficient external help. There were 3 studies which reported the same

division of labour and were all highly successful schools due to compensation of the lack of

government support by either donor and community help through income-generating

activities or local business partnerships. All 3 reported school fees collected from parents, but

here pupils were allowed to attend in case of non-payment owing to donor support. In all 17

successful studies, irregular and insufficient government support was supplemented by

donor/NGOs, local business or community contributions which were critical in effective

management of CSs and led to high educational results. This supports Miller-Grandvaux and

Yoder’s (2002) findings that NGOs are key to overall success, since communities and

government alone do not have sufficient resources to support community schools. One

medium successful study charged school fees due to lack of government support which led to

high absenteeism and drop-out rates for disadvantaged children despite the high grade 7 pass

rates. One unsuccessful study received only constructional external help but struggled to

maintain the school and pay the teachers because of a lack of community support and the

school eventually closed. Once the school received adequate government support, in the form

of a qualified, government-paid headteacher, it re-opened. 8 out of 14 studies which received

government support reported deployment of government teachers, of which 4 became free of

school fees while the other 4 had no data. Therefore government-seconded teachers were

important in the provision of free quality education.

Effective management due to community involvement through active PCSCs and

external help was found to be the essential underlying mechanism in quality education

which led to improved school structures, provision of TLMs, extra services for OVCs and

teacher support.


43

17 of 17 successful studies reported teachers’ committed attitude and they all mentioned

how teachers spent extra time finding solutions to challenges and the poor working

environment so that they could teach effectively. 11 studies reported a lack of TLMs, 9 of

which reported high commitment of teachers, all of them successful studies. The other 2

studies stated lack of TLMs and teacher commitment and both were unsuccessful. Therefore,

volunteer teachers played a critical role in providing effective pedagogy despite lack of

TLMs, due to their commitment to prepare lessons and find alternative resources. This is

consistent with Lee and Zuilkowski’s (2015) results that committed teachers can increase

effective teaching by finding alternative teaching materials in the case of textbook shortages

and by putting more effort into planning sessions.

There were 7 highly successful studies which reported essential key instructional methods

such as child-centred pedagogy and continuous assessment, of which all 7 reported

committed teachers. 6 of these studies also received teacher support, 5 in the form of

instructional supervision or training, 1 received digital TLMs for instructional support and 1

had qualified government teachers who did not require support. All 3 unsuccessful studies

reported a lack of teachers’ commitment as a reason for low school performance and lack of

teacher support. Therefore, a careful assumption has been made that in these schools, pupils’

performance improved because of developed pedagogical methods as a result of committed

qualified teachers or committed volunteer teachers with support. This is supported by Duflo,

Dupas, and Kremer’s (2015) study that revealed that non-paid teachers improved their

learners’ outcomes due to their improved pedagogy because teachers were more committed.

However, this conclusion is not supported by strong empirical evidence.

Effective pedagogy due to teachers’ commitment was found to be an important

underlying mechanism in quality education which led to improved teaching methods,


44

literacy and comprehension skills, increased effective learning time and opportunity for

pupils to learn. However, the use of key instructional methods was influenced by the level of

teachers’ qualifications or support for untrained teachers.

15 of 17 successful studies mentioned teacher support, 10 of them reported teacher training,

13 instructional supervision and 2 reported teachers’ adequate payment. These 2 studies

could provide sufficient payment from external help and strong community cohesion. All the

other studies reported low, irregular or missing payments from parents which caused teacher

dissatisfaction and led to high turnover. This correlates with Miller-Grandvaux and Yoder

(2002) and World Education/Mali’s (2000) argument that irregular and low parental payment

can significantly demotivate teachers and lead to an unsustainable teacher supply. This

hindered both instructional supervision and teacher training because usually less than 2 years

after training, teachers sought better-paid employment. This supports Masino and Nino-

Zarazua’s (2015) findings that enforcement processes are an effective way of teachers’

motivation, but it would be most efficient with regular salaries.

12 of 17 successful studies reported good performance despite having untrained and

unqualified volunteer teachers. This resulted in high pupil-teacher ratios which is why

adequate teacher support was so essential. 10 of them received support in the form of training

or instructional supervision which resulted in committed teachers, more time spent on lesson

preparation and improved pedagogy despite lack of payments. This is consistent with the

Ministry of Education (1996) statement that in-service training can improve teachers’

competence and performance and relates to Lucio (1967) and Hyde et al.’s (1997) findings

that instructional supervision of teachers contributes to teachers’ development. 2 of 3

unsuccessful studies lacked any kind of teacher support. 1 had monitoring and teacher


45

training, however completely lacked community involvement which demotivated teachers

and led them to leave afterwards.

Therefore, satisfaction of teachers due to teachers training and instructional supervision

was found to be another essential underlying mechanism in quality education. However,

the effectiveness of teacher support was affected by teacher payment, community

involvement and donor support.

17 of 20 studies reported school fees despite the Free Primary Education policy, 14 of which

were successful. Of the remaining 3, 2 had no data and 1 was free. Aggregated data did not

show that satisfaction of pupils/parents due to free education was an important underlying

mechanism in quality education since only this study mentioned it. However, qualitative data

revealed that 19 of 20 studies reported parents expressing their wish that the government

would manage teachers’ payments because it was a huge financial burden for them. In 3

studies, pupils were suspended when payments were missing, in 3 different studies OVCs

were allowed to continue but their attendance fell from the social shame. School fees

discouraged poor pupils and parents from engaging in education processes leading to high

drop-out rates even in successful schools. Available data did not show that free education led

to higher attendance, therefore it was critical only in the provision of equal access to primary

education but not in quality.

13 of 17 successful studies mentioned the provision of holistic education and none of the

unsuccessful schools mentioned this. 4 studies reported extra services, 4 relevant curriculum

and 5 both. 5 of 9 studies mentioned OVC support, while 4 mentioned school feeding

programs, extracurricular activities or sponsorship as essential extra services which

encouraged pupils’ attendance. Out of the 9 studies, 7 reported basic national and social life

skills curricula which increased parents’ and pupils’ willingness to participate in education.


46

This is consistent with ZESM’s (2005) statement that quality education can be achieved only

if basic and life skills curriculum meets the real needs of students and expectations of parents.

10 of the 14 successful studies which charged school fees provided holistic education. 2 of

the remaining 4 received government teachers who followed basic curriculum and removed

the parental financial burden, 1 reported the lowest school fees (8 cents/term compared to 20-

75USD/month elsewhere) and 1 reported a lack of parental involvement. However, active

school managers and committed teachers monitored pupils’ performance, cared for them and

conducted home visits which enhanced pupil attendance. All 13 studies mentioned committed

teachers which is consistent with UNESCO Bangkok’s (2016) argument that committed

teachers can keep students at school and create a conducive learning environment.

Satisfaction of pupils/parents due to relevant curriculum and extra services was found

to be an essential underlying mechanism in quality education as a compensation of school

fees which led to increased school attendance and motivation of pupils. These factors became

important to quality education once other mechanisms such as effective pedagogy,

management and satisfaction of teachers were provided.

9 of 17 successful studies reported provision of committed qualified teachers, 6 of them had

adequately trained headteachers and 3 had only secondary school certificates (grade 12).

However, these 3 received instructional supervision by qualified headteachers or training,

contributing to their success. 1 unsuccessful study reported unsupervised grade 12 teachers as

well as 1 fully qualified but uncommitted headteacher. The other 2 unsuccessful studies

lacked qualified teachers and did not receive any teacher support, resulting in low quality

education. Therefore, in provision of inputs, qualifications and commitment of headteachers

were essential because they managed the schools and supervised untrained teachers leading to


47

improved pedagogy, active learning and better planned lessons. This correlates with

Tounkara et al.’s (2000) findings that academic and professional qualifications of

headmasters can influence education quality.

There were 2 successful studies which lacked every form of teacher support, however they

received inputs such as government teachers or digital TLMs by donors/NGOs. There were 5

studies which lacked qualified teachers but were provided with TLMs and were all highly

successful studies. 2 of them received digital TLMs which were found to be useful in case of

insufficient regular TLMs. This is consistent with Lee and Zuilkowski’s (2017) argument that

instructional materials guide teachers in effective teaching. They assisted teachers preparing

and delivering lessons, managing classes with high numbers of pupils. This is essential since

the majority of teachers in community schools are untrained/unqualified and they require

guidance. Provision of inputs due to qualified headteachers or TLMs were found to be

important underlying mechanisms in quality education when one of them or teacher

support was absent. Provision of qualified teachers was successful only if teachers were

committed or grade 12 teachers were supervised. Nevertheless, TLMs alone were insufficient

in providing quality education. This is supported by Glewwe (2002) and Banerjee et al.’s

(2007) findings that simple provision of TLMs will not result in improved academic

performance.

3 unsuccessful studies discussed school structure, 2 out of them also provision of TLMs but

still had low education quality. 8 of 11 successful studies reported school structure but also

information on its insignificance to education quality. For example, community schools both

with and without school structures performed the same, or schools with the same structures

performed differently. There were 2 successful and 2 unsuccessful studies which reported

provision of infrastructure. Therefore, school structure and infrastructure were not essential

factors in provision of inputs. This correlates with Nielson’s (2007) findings that intermediate

school outcomes such as good infrastructure have the potential to influence learning

outcomes, but success depends on other factors too. Provision of inputs became effective in

improvement of education quality once other mechanisms such as effective management and

satisfied teachers were provided.


48

15 of 17 successful studies met all three components of the quality education concept

outlined in the literature review: Processes, Inputs, Satisfaction, of which 14 were highly

successful studies. Based on the definition of quality education defined above these

community schools contributed to human productivity measured by the educational outcome

of more than 60% pass rates at grade 7 exams, enabling pupils to continue their education or

find better employment. They also contributed to human development by improved student

experience owing to committed teachers and teacher support that led to improved child-

centred pedagogy. Additionally, they could also accommodate local needs by either

providing relevant curriculum such as vocational, social or life skills and extra services such

as those mentioned earlier. There were 3 studies which met only two components: Processes

and Satisfaction. They either reported academic performance below national standards or

high success, but with sustainability issues. All unsuccessful studies met only one or no

components. Therefore, to achieve quality education in community schools, all three must be

met otherwise education quality will be hindered or below national standards.

Summary In this chapter, how community school factors affected education quality in Zambia has been

explained and compared across studies. The mechanisms and contexts of why certain

community schools performed better than others were revealed and supported by evidence

and compared to other researchers’ findings. In the next chapter conclusions and

recommendations are presented.


49

CHAPTER FIVE: SUMMARY

Conclusions and Recommendations

Community schools included in the reviewed studies were highly successful because they

met all three components of the concept of quality education based on Lee and Zuilkowksi’s

(2017) theory. This included Effective processes, Provision of inputs and Satisfaction of

stakeholders. To meet these components three critical underlying mechanisms have been

identified.

The first was effective management from external help and community involvement through

active PCSCs because it affected all the other mechanisms. Without this, community schools

lacked learning materials, committed teachers and free education. Due to school fees, pupils

either had to work to afford their education or were suspended. Placing a financial burden on

already deprived pupils raises moral questions and contradicts the original purpose of

community schools to provide equal access to education. The government should assist

community schools to source partnerships with donors/NGOs or local businesses to

supplement their support. However, without research specifically focusing on what division

of labour among stakeholders can best improve education quality, further investigation is

required.

The second and third most mentioned mechanisms were effective pedagogy from

committed teachers and satisfaction of teachers from instructional supervision or training,

which were interlinked. Satisfaction of teachers improved pedagogy, affecting satisfaction of

pupils/parents and provision of inputs such as TLMs or qualified teachers. Parents satisfied

with the relevance and quality of education were more willing to make teachers’ payments or

send their children to school. When teachers were paid, or community was involved,

teachers’ satisfaction increased. Therefore government-paid teachers should continue to be

deployed in community schools to remove the financial burden from parents which

encourages them to be involved in education. They can also provide instructional supervision

for volunteer teachers which improves their commitment and pedagogy. However, the impact

of government teachers on community dynamics should be investigated because it can

undermine parental monitoring power. In addition, regular payment, even if it is lower than

other teachers, should be provided by government to keep trained volunteer teachers in

community schools. This is also important in order to avoid poor people working for free.


50

Satisfaction of parents/pupils due to extra services, and relevant curriculum along with

provision of inputs due to qualified teachers and TLMs became important mechanisms in

quality education, once the previously mentioned factors and mechanisms were provided.

Local vocational skills should be integrated in curriculum to encourage parents to send their

children to school to gain employability skills. Digital resources were reported to be

alternative solutions to lack of TLMs and teacher training, therefore further research is

required on how they can influence quality education.


51

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APPENDICES

I.KEY DEFINITIONS

Education: Is the action exercised by the adult generations on those who are not yet ready for

social life.

Primary education: In Zambia, the education system is divided into three stages. The first 7

years of formal schooling are for primary education, the next 5 years for secondary school

while the last 4 to 5 years are for tertiary education.

The concept „”community‟: In this study community refers to the students’ immediate

living environment, a group of people who share common features, interests, needs or

geographical location. such as people living in a defined locality and/or other people or

organizations outside the local community who share common interests with the local people.

Community School: It is a central meeting place which usually has a physical structure, for

example, buildings for organising and executing educational programmes and activities but in

some cases, there are no physical structures


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II.VISUAL MAP shows the process of identifying evidence gaps and understanding the

breadth and purpose of the study.


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III.PRISMA FLOW DIAGRAM

displays the searching and screening stages of the review. A flow diagram provides an

accessible summary of the sequence of steps and gives an indication of the volume of data

included and excluded at each step.


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IV.FLOW DIAGRAM OF SYNTHESIS: shows what tools have been used at what stage of

the synthesis.


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V.THEORY OF CHANGE: CONTEXT- MECHANISM- OUTCOME

CONFIGURATION TABLE

A theory of change shows how a sequence of inputs, activities and outputs for which a

project is directly responsible interacts with behaviour to establish pathways through which

impacts are achieved. It links program inputs and activities to expected program outcomes.


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67


68


69


70


71


72


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I. LIST OF STUDIES FROM UNIVERSITY OF ZAMBIA: these studies have been

used to reduce western cultural bias.

Chilobe, C. (2012). The factors that affect the running of rural Community Schools in Gwembe District, University of Zambia: Lusaka. Available at: http://dspace.unza.zm:8080/xmlui/bitstream/handle/123456789/1086/Chilobe%20Preliminary%20Pages.pdf?sequence=1&isAllowed=y (Accessed: 15 March 2018) Dickson, P. (2016). Factors affecting the provision of quality education in some selected community school in Mumbwa district, University of Zambia: Lusaka. Available at: http://dspace.unza.zm:8080/xmlui/handle/123456789/1869 (Accessed: 12 July 2018) Kalumba, E. (2012). The Challenges of Pupil retention in Community Schools in the light of the universal access to Basic Education Policy: A study of selected Schools of Lusaka District, University of Zambia: Lusaka. Available at: http://dspace.unza.zm:8080/xmlui/handle/123456789/1869 (Accessed: 29 May 2018) Mulenga, M. (2011). The Perceptions and Attitudes of Stakeholders Towards Community Schools: A case of Kasempa District, University of Zambia: Lusaka. Available at: http://dspace.unza.zm:8080/xmlui/handle/123456789/926 (Accessed: 29 May 2018) Mwansa, A. (2006). An assessment of the quality and relevancy of educational provision in community schools of Mkushi district. Unpublished masters dissertation, University of Zambia. Available at: http://dspace.unza.zm:8080/xmlui/handle/123456789/224 (Accessed: 15 June 2018) Nkosha, D.C. and Mwanza, P. (2009). Quality of Basic Education Provided by Rural Community and Regular Schools in the Northern Province of Zambia, University of Zambia: Lusaka. Available at: http://home.hiroshima-u.ac.jp/cice/wp-content/uploads/publications/Journal12-1/12-1-3.pdf (Accessed: 13 March 2018) Siakalima, S. (2011). Factors that motivate parents to enrol their children in Community schools in selected schools of Lusaka District, University of Zambia: Lusaka. Available at: http://dspace.unza.zm:8080/xmlui/handle/123456789/941 (Accessed: 21 June 2018)

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