ASSESSMENTASSESSMENT OF LITERACY SKILLS

Assessment vs Evaluation

Suggested Reading Evaluation Tools

General Assessment Strategies for Students with Disabilities

Profiles of Beginning and Novice Readers and Writers

Profiles of Experimenting Readers and Writers

Assessment Strategies for Experimenting Readers and Writers

Profiles of Conventional Readers and Writers

Assessment Strategies for Conventional readers and Writers

REFERENCES FOR ASSESSMENT

Company References

Product References

RESOURCES FOR ASSESSMENT

Concepts of Print Checklist

Concepts of Print Checklist: Class Profile

Writing Profile Checklist (Adapted)

Dolch Word Lists

Example Words for Adapted Qualitative Reading Inventory

Assisting Developmental spelling

Three Categorizations of Developmental Spelling Stages

Dictation Sentences

Early Literacy Checklists

iii

ASSESSMENT OF LITERACY SKILLS

Assessment must be an integral part of teaching. In the Language Arts module of the F.A.C.E.S.curriculum, the authors have provided a means for assessing specific literacy levels, as wells as activitiescorresponding with those levels. When selecting activities from the Language Arts module to use withspecific students, it is imperative that assessment of each student’s literacy skills has taken place. Theportfolios within the module can be useful for determining a starting place for instruction at the first ofeach school year and periodic reviews of student’s progress throughout the year. In addition to theportfolios, this section of the module is focused on specific and practical strategies which will assist inassessing skills at each of the targeted literacy levels addressed.

Assessment is defined as the on-going process of gathering information to identify student strengthsand/or skills. Assessment is more informal than evaluation and provides a collage of the student’s workover a period of time. The goal of assessment is to observe and record positive outcomes. Assessment isa dynamic, continuous process leading to appropriate instructional goals.

In this program, the teacher will be an active intervener who monitors and modifies the interaction withthe students for successful learning to take place. This intervention is accomplished through observationof students as they read, write, or work in a group to accomplish an assigned task. By carefully observingstudents, teachers will identify what students know and support students’ continued learning in functionaland meaningful ways.

Evaluation is defined as a more formal process than assessment and gives the teacher a snapshot pictureof that student’s skills at a specific point in time. The results are often reported in percentiles, age orgrade levels and/or performance scales. Formal evaluation instruments identify specific skills that willassist teachers to integrate students into general education curriculum. A list of current reading evaluationinstruments is included as a reference for teachers and diagnosticians.

Suggested Reading Evaluation Tools:Flynt & Cooter. (1995). Reading inventory for the classroom, third edition. Columbus, Ohio, MerrillPublishing Company.

Johns, Jerry L. (1997). Basic reading inventory: Pre-primer through grade twelve andearly literacy assessments, seventh edition, Dubuque, Iowa: Kendall/Hunt PublishingCompany.

Leslie, L. & Caldwell, J. (1995). Qualitative reading inventory - II. Harper Collins College Publishers.

Michigan Literacy Progress Profile (MLPP). (2000). Lansing, MI: Michigan Department of Education.

Miller, Wilma. (1993). Complete reading disabilities handbook. West Nyack, NY: The Center forApplied Research in Education.

Texas Primary Reading Inventory (TPRI). (1998). Austin, TX: Texas Education Agency.

Assessment - 1

General Assessment Strategies for Students with Disabilities

• Assessment should focus on the “process”, not the product and be used for formativepurposes. In other words, the purpose for assessment should be to formulate or plan futureteaching activities and to monitor progress.

• Documentation of assessment can be represented in a variety of formats:o Anecdotal records, multiple measures on multiple occasionso Audio or videotape of book interactionso Writing folders showing progress over timeo Drawings incorporated into writing attemptso Spelling testso Dictation sampleso Various writing samples

Profiles of Beginning and Novice Readers and Writers

• Beginning Readers (Pre-Emergent and Emergent Literacy Level)Beginning readers refers to individuals who are in the process of understanding thatbooks are pleasurable and involve interaction between a reader and a listener. Theseindividuals are also in the process of understanding that books are handled in particularways (e.g., right-side-up and left to right), and most importantly, that pictures aresymbols that convey information about objects and actions.

• Novice Readers (Novice Literacy Level)Novice readers are individuals who are in the process of learning that printed text carriesa message and conveys information. Novices are also beginning to attend to words intext and pay more attention to identifying individual letters, especially those in theirnames. They may string letters together to signify words, but have not yet masteredphonemic principles of sound-symbol correspondence. Novices are aware ofenvironmental print and can identify signs and labels in and out of context.

Assessment Strategies for Beginning and Novice Readers and Writers

• Reading Assessment Strategieso Concepts of Print

• See Concepts of Print Checklists (ASSESSMENT – 9 & 10)o Shared book reading is a way to assess a student’s awareness of concepts of print. Use a

predictable, repetitive phrase book.o Additional strategies for reading assessment and teaching reading to beginners and

novices may include:

Assessment - 2

• Communication boards• Daily Schedules• Weekly messages home• Adapted books using Boardmaker• Adapting texts with picture symbols• Environmental print books and albums• KidPix slideshow stories• IntelliPics stories

• Writing Assessment Strategieso Letter name and phoneme knowledgeo Knowledge of common literacy termso Keep an on-going record/ measure of literacy growth (See Writing Profile Checklist-

(ASSESSMENT – 11)o Additional strategies for writing assessment and teaching writing strategies to beginners

and novices may include:• Protowriting activities-

• Writing centers with typewriters, envelopes, rubber stamp letters,magnetic letters, to do lists, etc.

• Writing for different purposes encouraged by providing stationary andenvelopes, shopping list pads, note pads, prescription pads, restaurantorder pads, sales pads, or phone message pads.

• Picture dictionaries, picture communication symbols, word banks andenvironmental print albums may be used to encourage writing.

• Labeling pictures and drawings• Students who rely on eye gaze can eye point to their name or the

individual letters of their name written on post-it-notes, positionedaround an eye gaze board or frame. As the student gazes at the wholename or letters in sequence, the post-it is removed from the frame andpositioned on the sign up chart, etc.

• Whole thoughts may be represented by PCS symbols• Overlay Maker may be used with Intellikeys to write lists, plan an event,

write about a trip, to write a letter, compose a daily report, etc.

Assessment - 3

Profiles of Experimenting Readers and Writers

• Experimenting readers (Experimenting Literacy Level)Experimenting readers are beginning to recognize letters and associate letter nameswith their corresponding sounds. The objective at this stage is not to drill students onphonetic decoding or sound blending, but to call their attention to how initial letters havesounds that say their names.

Assessment Strategies for Experimenting Readers and Writers• Reading Assessment Strategies

o Word Recognition• Automatic and mediated

• Dolch or other high frequency word lists• See: (Dolch Word Lists (ASSESSMENT – 12); Adapted Qualitative Reading

Inventory Word Lists (ASSESSMENT – 13 & 14))o Letter nameso Phonemic awareness

• Letter sounds• Rhyming, blending, segmenting

o Additional strategies for reading assessment and teaching reading to experimenters mayinclude:

• Language experience approach• Choral reading• Adapted books (using Boardmaker)• Daily messages• Adapted text• Adapting books using commercial software (Picture It; ULTimate Kidbooks,

IntelliPics, BuildAbility)• CD ROM books• Books on tape• Reading machines

• Writing Assessment Strategieso Developmental spelling test

• See Assessing Developmental Spelling, D. Koppenhaver, 1988 (ASSESSMENT – 15& 16); Three Categorizations of Developmental Spelling Stages, DeCoste & Jacobs,1998 (ASSESSMENT – 17)

• Developmental spelling levels are highly correlated with early reading levels and canpredict reading achievement (Morris and Perney, 1984; Zutell, J., & Rasinski, T.,1989)

• Since individuals who rely on AAC often cannot read aloud sothat an evaluator can easily determine a reading level, developmental spelling testresults can provide a point at which to start with reading activities, as well as writingactivities.

o Dictation sentences• See Dictation sentences, Clay, 1990; Kemp, 1987 (ASSESSMENT – 18)• Dictation sentence tests are another good method for demonstrating spelling

improvement over time.

Assessment - 4

• Read the sentence to the student and then ask him/her to try to spell each word on thecomputer. The evaluator should speak slowly, speaking one word at a time, but notstretching or over-articulating so that the word becomes phonetically disassembled.

• An adapted way to encourage students to use inventive spelling is to provide limitedletter sets from which the student can use to construct single words. Overlay Makermay be used to design overlays with limited letter sets.

Profiles of Conventional Readers and Writers

• Conventional readers and writers are able to move to more conventional types of texts(Wright group, Rigby, etc.). Conventional readers learn to read for comprehension in orderto gain information, make predictions, and make inferences.

• It is at this stage that traditional approaches to reading instruction can be utilized, such as theuse of grade level books, expanding sight word vocabulary, and more emphasis on wordstudy to learn decoding skills.

• Conventional readers and writers often over generalize spelling rules.

Assessment Strategies for Conventional Readers and Writers• Reading Assessment Strategies

o Standardized, graded reading passages• Basic Reading Inventory, (7th ed., J.L. Johns) uses equivalent passages to evaluate

listening comprehension and independent reading comprehension, as well as wordrecognition.

• On-going recordso Additional strategies for reading assessment and teaching reading to conventional readers

may include using:• Basal readers, narratives and fiction• Phonics activities and software (Simon Sounds It Out)

• Writing Assessment Strategieso Analyze writing samples for strengths and weaknesses in spelling, syntax, semantics,

punctuation, and capitalization.o Examine skill levels using high frequency spelling wordso Additional strategies for writing assessment and teaching writing to conventional writers

may include:• Using a word wall or dictionary for conventional spellings• Onset-rhyme activities• Transitioning from writing one or two sentences on a topic, to writing a short

paragraph• Writing for a variety of purposes, including writing friendly letters, postcards, letters of

complaint, email messages, etc.

Assessment - 5

• When assessing nonspeaking conventional readers and writers, modify text by deletingapproximately every fifth word in a story. For every word deleted, three choices areprovided including two alternate words and the one correct word. The alternate wordsshould include an incorrect word that is the same part of speech as the correct word(e.g., after), and an incorrect word that is a different part of speech (e.g., only).

onlyExample: The brown bear went over the mountain.

after

Assessment - 6

REFERENCES FOR ASSESSMENT SECTION

Clay, M.M (1985). The early detection of reading difficulties (rev. ed.). Portsmouth, NH:Heinemann.

Cunningham, P.M. & Allington, R.L. (1998). Classrooms that work: They can all read and write.Reading, MA: Addison-Wesley.

DeCoste, D.C. & Jacobs, M.K. (1998). Assistive technology and the literacy continuum:Assessment, reading and writing strategies for children and adolescents with cognitiveimpairments. Presented at Closing the Gap Conference: Minneapolis, MN.

Ferroli, M. & Elkins, J. (1995). Literacy for all? The case of Down Syndrome. Journal ofReading, 38(4), p. 270-280.

Flynt, E.S., & Cooter, R.B., (1995). Reading inventory for the classroom, third edition.Columbus, OH: Merrill Publishing Company.

Gentry, J.R. (1982). An analysis of developmental spelling in GNYS AT WRK. The ReadingTeacher, 36, 192-200.

Johns, J.L., (1997). Basic reading inventory: Pre-primer through grade twelve and early literacyassessments, seventh edition. Dubuque, IA: Kendall/Hunt Publishing Company.

Kemp, M. (1987). Watching children read and write. Portsmouth, NH: Heinemann.

Koppenhaver, D. & Erickson, K. (1994). Literacy strategies and materials for adolescents andyoung adults with developmental disabilities. Workshop sponsored by New HampshireDepartment of Education and Institute on disability/UAP, University of New Hampshire, inManchester, NH, October 27-28, 1994.

Koppenhaver, D.A., & Yoder, D.E. (1992). Literacy issues in persons with severe speech andphysical impairments. In R. Gaylord-Ross (Ed.), Issues and research in special education (pp.156-201). NY: Teachers College Press.

Leslie, L. & Caldwell, J. (1995). Qualitative reading inventory - II. Harper Collins College Publishers.

Miller, Wilma. (1993). Complete reading disabilities handbook. West Nyack, NY: TheCenter for Applied Research in Education.

Morris, D., & Perney, J. (1984). Developmental spelling as a predictor of first-grade reading achievement. TheElementary School Journal, 84, 441-457.

Paris, S. (2001). How do you know they understand the text? Presented at the 2001MRA/CIERA Conference: Ann Arbor, MI.

Assessment - 7

Temple, C.A., Nathan, R.G., & Burris, N.A. (1988). The beginnings of writing (2nd ed.). Boston:Allyn & Bacon.

Texas Primary Reading Inventory (TPRI). (1998). Austin, TX: Texas Education Agency.

The Story Box: Level 1 Teacher Guide. (1990). Bothell, WA: The Wright Group Publishers.

Zutell, J., & Rasinski, T. (1989). Reading and spelling connections in third and fifth gradstudents. Reading Psychology, 10, 137-155.

Company References:

Rigby EducationP.O. Box 797Crystal Lake, IL 60010888-677-7357www.rigby.com

Wright Group/McGraw-Hill19201 120th Avenue NE, Suite 100Bothell, WA 98011800-523-2371www.wrightgroup.com

Product References: (refer to Company Resources in Reference Section of module for contactinformation)

Boardmaker software (PCS symbols) – Mayer-Johnson, Inc.BuildAbility software – Don Johnston, Inc.IntelliPics software– IntelliTools, Inc.IntelliKeys – IntelliTools, Inc.KidPix Studio software – Broderbund SoftwareOverlay Maker software – IntelliTools, Inc.Picture It software – Slater Software, Inc.Simon Sounds It Out software – Don Johnston, Inc.ULTimate Kidbooks software - www.cast.org/udl/index.cfm?i=486

Assessment - 8

Concepts of Print ChecklistIndividual Profile of:Teacher Questions ++++ −−−− ConceptBefore reading, ask the child:

Show me the front of the book. Book concepts – front cover

Show me the back of the book.. Book concepts – back cover

Point to the title. Book concepts – title

Point to the title page. Book concepts – title page

Which page do we read first? Directionality – beginning of text

Where does it tell the story? Reading concepts – print carries the message

Which way do we go when we’re reading? Directionality – left-to-right in a sentence

Where do we go when we get to the end of theline?

Directionality – return sweep

During reading, ask yourself:As the child reads and points to the text, isthere an exact match between number ofwords spoken and number or words printed?

Reading concepts – one-to-one correspondence

After reading, ask the child:

Can you put your fingers around a word? Word concept

Can you find two words that are the same? Word concept

Show me the first word on this page. First word

Show me the last word on this page. Last word

Can you put your fingers around aletter / word?

Letter / word concept

Can you tell me the names of some letters onthe page?

Letter concept

Can you find a capital letter? Capital letter

Can you find a small letter? Small letter

What’s this: . (period)

, (comma)

? (question mark)

“ ” (quotation marks)

Punctuation marks

Notes:

Permission is given to teachers to reproduce this page for classroom use 1992 The Wright Group

Assessment - 9

Concepts of Print Checklist: Class Profile

Directionality (demonstrates)Left-to-right page sequence

Left-to-right in sentence

Return sweep

Top to bottom

Beginning of book

End of book

Reading Concepts (points to)Print tells the story

One-to-one correspondence

Book Concepts (can identify)Cover of book

Title

Title page

Words/letters (can find)A letter

A word

The first word on a page

The last word on a page

A first letter

A last letter

A capital letter

A small letter

Can name some letters

Knows key words in isolation

Punctuation (can identify)Question mark (?)

Period (.)

Comma (,)

Quotation marks (“ “)

Strategies UsedRelies on memory for reading

Uses pictures to tell story in own words

Uses pictures to help with words

Uses own language patterns

Uses beginning letter sounds

Uses many letter sounds

Uses background experience

Date__________________

Stud

entN

ames

Assessment - 10

Writing Profile Checklist (Adapted)

NAME: AGE: DATE:

Concepts of Print

Directional Rules

Letter / Word

Sound / Symbol

Starts left

Moves right

Starts top

Moves to the bottom

Returns to left at end of line

Clear space between words

Letter sequences used effectively

GrammarPunctuation . (period)

, (comma)

! (exclamation point)

? (question mark)

Permission is given to teachers to reproduce this page for classroom use 1992 The Wright Group

Assessment - 11

DOLCH WORD LISTS

Pre-Primer List

a and away big blue can come down find forfunny go help here I in is it jump littlelook make me my not one play red run saidsee the three to two up we where yellow you

Primer List

all am are at ate be black brown but camedid do eat four get good have he into likemust new no now on our out please pretty ranride saw say she so soon that there they thistoo under want was well went what white who willwith yes

First Grade List

after again an any as ask by could every flyfrom give giving had has her him his how justknow let live may of old once open over putround some stop take thank them then think walk werewhen

Second Grade List

always around becausebeen before best both buy call colddoes don’t fast first five found gave goes green itsmade many off or pull read right sing sit sleeptell their these those upon us use very wash whichwhy wish work would write your

Assessment - 12

Example Words for Adapted Qualitative Reading Inventory

PrePrimer Word List*Find the target words in the qualitative Reading Inventory III by Lesley & CaldwellTarget Word

Can Cat Car CaneWhat Who How WonA I O EWhat Walk Work WantWrite White Wrought Won’tAn At Ant AteWant Well With WhatMe My May MenHer Hen Him HeTie Too Tune TowThe Them That TheyOn In It IsShe Sat Shed ShareOpen Often Onto OtherMike Must Mask MakePlus Place Plane PleaseGoes Get Go GoneTo Tan Tow TuneSend Saw See SewDone Did Dead Do

Primer Word List*Find the target words in the Qualitative Reading Inventory III by Lesley & CaldwellTarget Word

Kept Keep Kind KiteNest Name Need NodNote Nut Nail NotWhat Walk Work WantComfort Church Chicken ChildrenThong These Thing Thought

Ways Was Want Won’tAnything Against Always AnimalThem They Those ThatWas Were Wear WhereSaw Seem Sew SeeWhat Wont Went WantEvery Easy Each EvenWhat Watch Won’t WentLike Look Lake LeadFarm From Farmer FrameSeem Stud Said SledLive Lake Love LeaveCame Comes Cover ClaimsHelp Heap Heart Hop

Adapted QRI, Erickson & Koppenhaver

Assessment – 13

First Grade Word List*Find the target words in the Qualitative Reading Inventory III by Lesley & CaldwellTarget Word

Born Bear Been BarnFather Faster Further FeatherFund Fine Finish FindSound Sowed Seemed SurroundFried Friend Fired FinedSing Swing Song SoundThreat Thank Throng ThoughtThere Them These TearRain Run Ruin RuseThan That Then ThemeMauve Maze More MoveKnot Know Know KnewEat Each Even EastArt Air Arm AimBrake Brave Bread BeamedAfford After Affair AfraidWind Wound Won’t WantHurt Herd Head HandPot Pit Put PatLeaked Locked Liked Looked

Second Word List*Find the target words in the Qualitative Reading Inventory III by Lesley & CaldwellTarget Word

Mapping Moaning Morning MovingTired Tied Tripped TriedSkinny Shine Shiny ShareOrder Odd Owed OldTrade Trap Tread TroopPrimes Posses Prose PromisePieces Places Peace PleasesPlucked Picked Packed PocketPlush Posh Push PoursThanked Theme Through ThoughBegins Beings Bearings BeggingFade Food Flood FourLike Lied Light LeaptEarned Evil Evens EndsClue Clove Claw CuteBrother Breathe Brother BreadInstruct Instep Insects InstillWorried Where Weather WorthNoticed Noted Nasty NoddedMany Money Monkey Monday

Adapted QRI, Erickson & Koppenhaver

Assessment – 14

NCACA should be proud of its proactive stance indevoting an entire issue of AUG-Communique to thetopic of writing aids, assessments, and software.Despite the fact that most AAC users communicate bycomposing, writing remains the single most neglectedaspect of literacy instruction, research, and experiencein the lives of most AAC users, especially those whoalso have physical impairments.

While much of this newsletter is devoted toinnovative ways of facilitating the physical act ofwriting, it is equally important to consider ways ofhelping AAC users improve the quality of their writing.Few aspects of writing are more important to the AACusers than spelling, because of its power to expandcommunication potential.

What follows is a description of an easy-to-administer developmental spelling test, representativespellings at five different stages, and suggestions forfacilitating further growth toward conventional spellingfor children at each state. Spelling is a developmentalcognitive process that reflects a child’s basic knowledgeof word elements (Henderson, 1985). In this sense,young children’s nonconventional, or emergent,spellings should not be seen as errors, but rather as awritten record of the child’s current understanding ofthe English spelling system.

The AAC user to be tested requires access to theletters of the alphabet and a reliable response mode.The list is administered in traditional Friday morningtest format. That is the teacher says, “Back After thesemessages, we’ll be right back. Back.” Children shouldbe encouraged to spell the word to the best of theirability, to spell any sounds they can hear, even if theycan’t spell the word in its entirety. The test has beenused with nondisabled kindergartners (Ferroli &Shanahan, 1987) and first graders

(Morris & Perney, 1984) and has been found to be agood predictor of end-of-first-grade readingachievement.

You should not expect children to scoreconsistently at any one level. Look for overall patternsand examine their writing samples for confirmation.Following are some brief guidelines for facilitatinggrowth in spelling at each stage.

Preliterate. Children at this stage have learnedthat letters represent language, but have yet to learnmuch about the spelling system. Spellings are fairlyrandom letter strings, often include numbers, and mayactually relate quantitatively to the item spelled. Forexample, children may spell feet with two letters,because they have two feet.

Children at this level need to discover thesystematic relationship between written and oralEnglish. Read aloud to them in positions where theycan see the print. Take dictation from children and letthem observe you writing their words. You may alsoneed to teach some or all of the letter names to thesechildren.

Initial consonant and consonant frame. Each ofthese two levels represent early stages of phoneticspelling. Once children have discovered phoneticprinciples of spelling, they begin to spell wordsaccording to their sounds. Self-reports (Koppenhaver,Evans, & Yoder, in press) and descriptive evidence(Foley, 1989) suggest that even congenital nonspeakersare able to do this, although they typically presentcontinuing spelling difficulties into adulthood.

Encouraging children at this stage spell unknownwords according to their sounds will help the childrenfurther develop their sense of letter-soundcorrespondences. Provide spellings only when pressedby the child. Do not emphasize conventional spellings at

Assessing Developmental Spelling

David A. Koppenhaver

Correct PreliterateInitialConsonant

ConsonantFrame Phonetic Transitional

BACKSINKMAILDRESSLAKEPEEKEDLIGHTDRAGONSTICKSIDEFEETTEST

REEASAHTTTIEIXATJAFTCVABT

BETCMMDNLPFLSIEJKSSTFTS

BCSEMOLJSLAEPTLATGANSTCCIFTTST

BAKSEKMALGASLAKPECTLITDAGNSEKSIDFETTAST

BAQSINCKMAELDRESLACEPEKEDLIETDRAGINSTIKCIDEFEATTEEST

Aug-Communique

Assessment - 15

and praise children’s efforts. Continue reading aloudand allowing children to follow along in the text. Runyour hand under the text as you read.

Phonetic. Children reach a stage in theirphonetic spelling when they represent every sound by aletter. These children often rely on letter names torepresent sounds (e.g., spelling peeked aspect or moneyas mane).

The more independent reading you canfacilitate for children at this stage, the better. You mightdo this with preprimers in the basal series, alphabetbooks, predictable books, or books-on-tape. Drawchildren’s attention to the conventions of print, but becautious not to overwhelm them with too much newinformation at the time. Praise the use of spellingconventions whenever they occur.

Transitional. At the transitional stage,children begin incorporating standard English spellingconventions (e.g., -ed for the past tense, or silent –e).Often they overgeneralize, however, and their spellingstill is distinctive from conventional spelling.

Encourage these children to self-edit theirwriting. Begin developing an extensive sight vocabularyof frequently used words, frequently misspelled words,and words of high interest (e.g., children’s names,holiday-specific vocabulary). Dictate short, interestingpassages (e.g., jokes, blurbs from the Enquirer) thatrequire attention to a particular convention the child islearning.

For additional ideas on child-centered spellinginstruction, read Henderson (1985), Rhodes & Dudley-Marling (1988), or McCracken and McCracken (1986).

ReferencesFerroli, L, & Shanahan, T. (1987). Kindergarten

spelling:Explaining its relationship to first-gradereading. In J.E. Readence and R.S. Baldwin (Eds).Research in literacy: Merging perspectives (36th

Yearbook of the National Reading Conference).Rochester, NY: NRC.

Foley, B.E. (1989). Phonological recoding and congenitaldysarthria. Unpublished doctoral dissertation,University of Massachusetts.

Henderson, E.H. (1985). Teaching spelling. Boston:Houghton Mifflin.

Koppenhaver, D.A., Evans, D.A., & Yoder, D.E. (in press).Childhood reading and writing experiences of literateadults with severe speech and motor impairments. AAC.6(3).

McCracken, R.A., & McCracken, J.J. (1986). Stories, songs,and poetry to teach reading and writing. Chicago:American Library Association.

Morris, D., & Perney, J. (1984). Developmental spelling as apredictor of first grade reading achievement.Elementary School Journal, 84, 441-457.

Rhodes, L.K., & Dudley-Marling, C. (1988). Readers andwriters with a difference. Portsmouth, NH: Heinemann.

Assessment - 16

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Assessment - 17

Dictation Sentences (Clay, 1990; Kemp, 1987)

Clay’s Dictation Sentences:

I have a big dog at home. Today I am going to take him to school.

I can see the red boat that we are going to have a ride in.

The bus is coming. It will stop here to let me get on.

The boy is riding his bike. He can go very fast on it.

Kemp’s Dictation Sentences:

My name is student’s name). I’m going to be a _________________.(Choose a word with the student for sentence two andrehearse before the dictation task.)

My mom goes to work. She brings me to school in the car.

I’m going to get ______________for my birthday. I’m going to be ______.

Assessment – 18

Early Literacy Checklists

Student’s Name:_____________________________________ Date:______________

School:_________________________________ Evaluator:_______________________

Interest in Reading Always Sometimes Not currentlyVoluntarily looks at or tries to read books Indicates a desire to be read to Knows books by their names Listens attentively while being read to Examines pictures when being read to Responds with questions or comments on stories Enjoys taking books home to reread Reads or requests to be read to at home Fills in words as adult reads

Concepts about Books Always Sometimes Not currently Opens a book to look at it Rights a book which is upside down Turns pages right to left Reading is related to pictures not text Identifies the front, back, top and bottom of a book Indicates the difference between words and pictures Associates a word with its picture Indicates that it is the text that is read Knows what a title is Knows what an author is

Concepts about Print Always Sometimes Not currently Reads the left page before the right Indicates the first word in sentence is the startingplace for reading

Indicates print is read from left to right Recognizes environmental print in context Differentiates letters from words Knows what a letter is and can identify one Knows what a word is and can identify one Indicates that there are spaces between words Identifies environmental print out of context Can identify most uppercase letters Can identify most lowercase letters Adapted from Harp (1996), Mc Gee & Richgels (1996), Morrow (1997), MD Content Standards (1999) MCPS/99

Assessment - 19

Word Reading Abilities Always Sometimes Not currently Pretend reading is governed by pictures; story notformed

Uses memory to read text Attempts reading by attending to picture clues andprint; uses memory and pictures to read text

Demonstrates speech to text correspondence bypointing to words when reading

Uses context, syntax and semantics to help identifywords in the text

Identifies words out of text Guesses and predicts words based on knowledge ofsound-symbol correspondence

Recognizes some words by sight Uses word families to decode unfamiliar words

Comprehension of Symbols Always Sometimes Not currently Understands pictures have names and represent realobjects

Comments about pictures though the story is not yetformed

Retells stories through dramatization and props;simple story line formed

Understands that pictures represent characters andactions

Able to retell stories Can explain connections between pictures and text Can recall major points in text. Story retellings mayinclude characters, setting, theme, resolution

Asks questions or makes comments in response totext after reading:

Literal comments or questionsInterpretive comments or questionsCritical comments or questions

Can provide information from text to support ideas Can provide main idea and supporting details Can make and confirm predictions about text Can draw inferences, conclusions or generalizationsabout text

Can compare or contrast information from text Adapted from Harp (1996), Mc Gee & Richgels (1996), Morrow (1997), MD Content Standards (1999) MCPS/99

Assessment - 20

Phonemic Awareness Always Sometimes Not currently Auditory discrimination of environmental sounds Can blend syllables (pan….cake) Can name or identify rhyming words Can blend phonemes ( c…a…t) Can segment words in sentences Can segment syllables in words Can segment phonemes Can manipulate phonemes (deletion= “say pinktake away [p]”; substitution= “say pan, change [an]to [in])”

Associates consonants and their initial sounds Uses word families and initial consonants to buildwords

Associates consonants and their final sounds Associates vowels and their long sounds Identifies consonant digraph sounds(ch,ph,sh,th,wh)

Associates vowels and their short sounds Can identify vowel digraphs (ai,ea,oa,oe,ee) Can identify dipthongs (ou,oi,ow,oy)

Writing Development Always Sometimes Not currently Relies primarily on pictures to convey meaning Makes marks on paper to imitate adult writing Labels drawings and writing attempts (dots, circles,wavy lines)

Protowriting to intentionally convey a message Scribble-like letters or letter-like forms for writing Letter strings to represent words Adds labels or words to picture drawings Differentiates between writing and drawing Talks about own writing attempts Writes name and familiar words Uses pictures and print to convey meaning Attempts to read own writing Takes risks with writing Printing is from left to right, top to bottom Uses upper and lower case letters Uses spaces between words

Adapted from Harp (1996), Mc Gee & Richgels (1996), Morrow (1997), MD Content Standards (1999) MCPS/99

Assessment- 21

Prints or types to inventively spell Uses initial consonant to make words (InitialConsonant level)

Uses initial and final consonants to make words(Consonant Frame level)

Demonstrates CVC words (Phonetic level) Begins to read own writing Demonstrates transitional spellings (Transitionallevel)

Writes single words from memory Writes noun verb phrases Writes short sentences to convey an idea Begins to use capitals and punctuation Uses more conventional spellings Uses descriptive words Can write a topic sentence and supporting sentences Revises to add more description and detail Spells many common words correctly Begins to organize ideas in a logical sequence Uses strategies to spell difficult words Uses more complex sentence structures

Adapted from Harp (1996), Mc Gee & Richgels (1996), Morrow (1997), MD Content Standards (1999) MCPS/99

Assessment - 22