Assessment by: Pietersen, D., Jansen, R. & Connelly, E....Animalia Chordata Mammalia Pholidota Manidae Taxon Name: Smutsia temminckii (Smuts, 1832) Synonym(s): • Manis temminckii

The IUCN Red List of Threatened Species™ISSN 2307-8235 (online)IUCN 2019: T12765A123585768Scope: GlobalLanguage: English

Smutsia temminckii, Temminck's Pangolin

Assessment by: Pietersen, D., Jansen, R. & Connelly, E.

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Citation: Pietersen, D., Jansen, R. & Connelly, E. 2019. Smutsia temminckii. The IUCN Red List ofThreatened Species 2019: e.T12765A123585768. http://dx.doi.org/10.2305/IUCN.UK.2019-3.RLTS.T12765A123585768.en

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Taxonomy

Kingdom Phylum Class Order Family

Animalia Chordata Mammalia Pholidota Manidae

Taxon Name: Smutsia temminckii (Smuts, 1832)

Synonym(s):

• Manis temminckii Smuts, 1832

Common Name(s):

• English: Temminck's Pangolin, Cape Pangolin, Ground Pangolin, Steppe Pangolin• French: Pangolin de Temminck, Pangolin terrestre du Cap• Spanish: Pangolín del Cabo

Taxonomic Notes:

Included in Manis by most authors (with Smutsia usually considered a subgenus) and referred to

Phataginus by Grubb et al. (1998), but here included in the genus Smutsia, along with the Giant Pangolin

(S. gigantea) following Gaudin et al. (2009). The preferred common name (as accepted by the African

Pangolin Working Group and the IUCN Species Survival Commission Pangolin Specialist Group) is

Temminck’s Pangolin. No subspecies are recognised.

Assessment Information

Red List Category & Criteria: Vulnerable A4cd ver 3.1

Year Published: 2019

Date Assessed: May 1, 2019

Justification:

Temminck's Pangolin is listed as Vulnerable under criteria A4cd because there is an inferred

past/ongoing and future population reduction of 30–40% over a 45 year period (15 years past, 30 years

future; generation length estimated at 15 years) based primarily on ongoing exploitation for traditional

medicine and bushmeat throughout the species' range and evidence of increased intercontinental trade

to Asia. True rates of decline are imperfectly known but are unlikely to exceed 50%. The assessors have

chosen to take a precautionary approach in listing the species as Vulnerable, especially considering the

burgeoning demand for pangolins in the Asian markets, the resultant severe declines in some Asian

pangolin populations and more recently plausible declines in at least two African pangolin species and

the unquantified levels of both local and international trade (although both are known to be increasing).

The growing human population is also increasingly restricting this species to protected areas through a

combination of direct persecution and habitat transformation, with a simultaneous decrease in the Area

of Occupancy. Further research into the levels of trade and status of this species is urgently required.

Previously Published Red List Assessments

2014 – Vulnerable (VU)http://dx.doi.org/10.2305/IUCN.UK.2014-2.RLTS.T12765A45222717.en

© The IUCN Red List of Threatened Species: Smutsia temminckii – published in 2019.http://dx.doi.org/10.2305/IUCN.UK.2019-3.RLTS.T12765A123585768.en

1

http://www.iucnredlist.org/technical-documents/categories-and-criteria

2008 – Least Concern (LC)

1996 – Lower Risk/near threatened (LR/nt)

Geographic Range

Range Description:

The most widespread African pangolin species, recorded from southeastern Chad, through South Sudan,

much of East Africa and southern Africa as far south as the Northern Cape, North-West and northeast

KwaZulu-Natal Provinces of South Africa (Swart 2013, Pietersen et al. 2016), with the western limits of

its range being reached in Namibia and southern Angola. The northern limits of the distribution are not

well defined, although the species has been recorded from extreme northeastern Central African

Republic, southeastern Chad and South Sudan (Swart 2013, APWG unpubl. data). They are also

confirmed from the Omo River basin region of southwest Ethiopia and so probably do occur, marginally,

in the western border regions of Ethiopia (Swart 2013). Their presence in Somalia is doubtful (Swart

2013). Records from West Africa undoubtedly refer to the Giant Pangolin (Smutsia gigantea; see Grubb

et al. 1998). The species may have been extirpated in eSwatini (Pietersen et al. 2016)

Country Occurrence:

Native: Angola; Botswana; Burundi; Central African Republic; Chad; Ethiopia; Kenya; Malawi;Mozambique; Namibia; Rwanda; South Africa; South Sudan; Sudan; Tanzania, United Republic of;Uganda; Zambia; Zimbabwe

Possibly extinct: Eswatini


2

Distribution MapSmutsia temminckii


3

PopulationIn the eastern Lowveld of South Africa Temminck's Pangolins have an estimated breeding density of 0.12

individuals/km² and an estimated total density of 0.24 individuals/km² (Swart 2013). In the Northern

Cape Province of South Africa, densities have been calculated at 0.16 reproductively active

individuals/km² and overall densities at 0.23 individuals/km² (Pietersen et al. 2014). In the Gokwe

district of Zimbabwe they had an estimated overall density of 0.11 individuals/km² (Heath and Coulson

1997, Pietersen et al. 2014); however populations in Zimbabwe are thought to have decreased since this

time (L. Hywood and E. Connelly, unpubl. data). South Africa is estimated to have 16,329–24,102 mature

individuals (Pietersen et al. 2016) but abundances in other regions of Africa are unknown.

Current Population Trend: Decreasing

Habitat and Ecology (see Appendix for additional information)

This is a predominantly solitary, terrestrial species that inhabits mainly savannas and woodlands in low-

lying regions with moderate to dense scrub where average annual rainfall is between 250 mm and 1,400

mm. Also occurs in floodplain grassland, rocky slopes and sandveld up to 1,700 m asl (Coulson 1989,

Pietersen 2013, Swart 2013), but does not inhabit forest or true desert. It occurs widely on well-

managed livestock farms where it is afforded protection from human persecution, but is absent from

croplands and human settlements.

Temminck's Pangolins are largely water independent but will drink from free-standing water when it is

available (Stuart 1980, D. Pietersen, unpubl. data). The most important habitat requirements are

believed to be a sufficient population of the various ant and termite prey species and the availability of

dens or above-ground debris in which to shelter. Ambient temperatures and annual temperature

fluctuations are likely also important governing factors as these directly affect the prey species, while

pangolins also have poor thermoregulatory capabilities and appear to rely on environmental conditions

for thermoregulation (Pietersen 2013).

The female gives birth to a single young (rarely twins) after a gestation period of 105–140 days (van Ee

1966, D.W. Pietersen unpubl. data, R, Jansen, unpubl. data). Based on the gestation period, the observed

time that it takes the female to regain her pre-parturition condition and field observations on the

frequency of births, it is suspected that females may only give birth every second year. Adults come

together briefly to mate and the offspring typically remains with the mother for 3–6 months, though

this appears to vary somewhat with region (Pietersen et al. 2014, W. Panaino unpubl. data). Young start

dispersing when about one year old (Pietersen et al. 2014).

There are very few data on the longevity of any pangolin species in the wild, making estimates of

generation length difficult. Two Indian Pangolins (Manis crassicaudata), which have a similar ecology

and are of a similar size to Temminck’s Pangolin, lived for 12 and 19 years, respectively, in captivity (Hoyt

1987; Weigl, 2005). Considering that captive pangolins usually show a greatly attenuated lifespan (Hoyt

1987, Hua et al. 2015), these lifespans are probably minimum estimates. Based on available growth

rates, the relative late onset of the start of reproduction, the slow reproductive rate (on average one

young per year, perhaps only every second year), and longevity of the sympatric Aardvark (Orycteropus

afer), which has a similar ecology and life history, Temminck’s Pangolins are expected to be relatively

long-lived, probably surviving for 20 years or more in the wild (D.W. Pietersen and L. Hywood, unpubl.


4

data).

Systems: Terrestrial

Use and TradeThe species is eaten as bushmeat to various extents across its range (for example in South Africa,

Zimbabwe, Namibia, Mozambique and Tanzania), although its use as bushmeat appears to be limited. Of

greater threat is overexploitation for body parts and scales which have superstitious and spiritual value

and which are extensively used for medicinal purposes (Cunningham and Zondi 1991, Bräutigam et al.

2004, Setlalekgomo 2014, Baiyewu et al. 2018).

In Tanzania, Temminck’s Pangolins are sometimes referred to as Bwana mganga ('the doctor') because

every part is believed to have some medicinal value (Wright 1954). Many East African people believe

that burning pangolin scales keeps lions away (Kingdon 1971). Across their range the scales are widely

believed to bring good luck and to bring rain, while smoke from burning scales is said to improve the

health of cattle and cure persistent nose-bleeds. The amaZulu believe that seeing a pangolin indicates

that there will be a drought, and the only way to prevent the drought is by killing the animal (Kyle 2000).

Scales are also used as talismans and in traditional dress (Kyle 2000, Manwa and Ndamba 2011).

In Zimbabwe it is traditionally a good omen to catch and present a pangolin to a superior such as a local

chief (Coulson 1985) and 25 individuals were reportedly captured and presented to the Zimbabwean

president and other authority figures at the onset of majority rule in Zimbabwe.

Between 2008 and 2018 more than 100 Temminck’s Pangolins were seized in Africa, each comprising

one individual (Challender et al. 2019). In South Africa, trade has increased dramatically with 10

individuals seized in 2016, 16 in 2017 and 43 in 2018 (APWG unpubl. data). In addition to local use,

there is increasing evidence that at least some of the trade is destined for international markets

(Challender and Hywood 2012, Xu et al. 2016).

Threats (see Appendix for additional information)

Although present in a number of protected areas across their range and protected by law in all range

states (though not included as a protected species in all range states), it is inferred that Temminck's

Pangolin numbers are declining due to an increasing demand for their body parts, including scales, for

local and international use for medicinal purposes and superstitious value (Coulson 1985, Cunningham

and Zondi 1991, Bräutigam et al. 1994, Whiting et al. 2011, Swart 2013, Xu et al. 2016, Baiyewu et al.

2018). Over-exploitation of Temminck's Pangolin for medicinal use is occurring in South Africa and

elsewhere throughout its range, and is increasingly focused on core conservation areas (Cunningham

and Zondi 1991, Baiyewu et al. 2018).

There has been a sharp increase in the number of individuals that have been seized from illegal trade

since 2010 (APWG unpubl. data, Tikki Hywood Foundation unpubl. data). Although the final market for

these individuals is unknown, the majority were confiscated in rural areas suggesting local use, although

some were confiscated in ports and high-end suburbs suggesting that at least some individuals are likely

destined for international markets or for local consumption, potentially by foreigners. This is further

supported by large shipments of scales being exported from East Africa to Asia (Xu et al. 2016).

A number of seizures of African pangolins or their body parts in Asia (or en route to Asia) provide


5

evidence of an intercontinental trade in African pangolins to Asian markets (Challender and Hywood

2012, Xu et al. 2016, Cheng et al. 2017, Heinrich et al. 2017). The demand for, and price of, pangolin

products in Asia appears to be increasing, and traffickers are turning their attention to the African

species. As syndicates smuggling pangolins (and rhino horn and ivory) from Africa to Asia become ever

more sophisticated and as the Asian pangolin numbers dwindle, so African pangolin species have

become more important as source populations for the Asian markets.

Across its range Temminck’s Pangolin is increasingly threatened by shifting agriculture, small-holder

farming and agro-industry farming. These farming practices are directly impacting pangolins through

habitat loss and alteration, while the increased human presence in these previously undisturbed areas is

resulting in increased levels of poaching. Nomadic grazing is also having a negative impact on

Temminck’s Pangolins across their range as a result of increased levels of poaching. In Zimbabwe, and

likely in other parts of this species’ range, artisanal mining is negatively impacting pangolins and other

wildlife species. Artisanal mining results in the creation of deep mining pits which are invariably

abandoned once the mineral reserves are depleted. These pits are left uncovered and form lethal pitfall

traps into which various animals fall and cannot escape. Artisanal mining also affects pangolins through

increased rates of poaching and habitat destruction, while a lot of these mining activities (especially in

Zimbabwe) occur within the borders of National Parks and other protected areas.

Temminck's Pangolins are regularly electrocuted on the lower strands of electrified fences in South

Africa in particular (Beck 2008, Pietersen et al. 2014), but also throughout their range where electrified

fences are prevalent. The mortality rate for South Africa is estimated at 2–13% of the total population

per annum (Pietersen et al. 2016). Fencing is becoming more prevalent across this species’ range, and

although not all of these fences are electrified, these fences are likely to become more prevalent and

more widespread. Road mortalities are also having a negative impact on the species (Coulson 1989,

Pietersen et al. 2014). In South Africa and Namibia accidental bycatch of Temminck’s Pangolins in gin

traps that have been set for other species is also a threat, while in Zimbabwe substantial habitat

alteration and loss of protected areas due to changes in the land use systems since independence has

further impacted populations (L. Hywood, unpubl. data). Elsewhere in Africa local and international

trade and habitat loss are the main threats, although reports of accidental electrocutions are

increasingly reported from across the species’ range (L. Hywood, E. Connelly and D.W. Pietersen, unpubl.

data).

Conservation Actions (see Appendix for additional information)

Although locally extirpated in some areas (e.g., parts of South Africa - see Pietersen et al. 2016),

Temminck's Pangolins occur in many national parks and other protected areas (e.g. Kruger National

Park, South Africa). While it is listed on Appendix I of the Convention on International Trade in

Endangered Species of Wild Fauna and Flora (CITES) and is afforded at least some legislative protection

in all range states, there is a need to improve protective legislation and facilitate capacity development

to enforce this legislation over much of its range. Projects are needed to determine current population

densities and rates of population decline through anthropogenic influences. These should be coupled

with research into the scale of both local and intercontinental trade in this species. Mitigation measures

are also required to reduce the number of pangolins that are electrocuted on electrified fences.

Credits

Assessor(s): Pietersen, D., Jansen, R. & Connelly, E.


6

Reviewer(s): Hoffmann, M.

Contributor(s): Hoffmann, M., Hywood, L., Waterman, C., Challender, D., Rankin, P., O'Neill, H.,Wells, K. & Soewu, D.


7

BibliographyBaiyewu, A.O., Boakye, M.K., Kotzé, A., Dalton, D.L. and Jansen, R. 2018. Ethnozoological survey oftraditional uses of Temminck’s Ground Pangolin (Smutsia temminckii) in South Africa. Society andAnimals 26(3): 306-325.

Beck, A. 2008. Electric fence induced mortality in South Africa. University of the Witwatersrand.

Bräutigam, A., Howes, J., Humphreys, T. and Hutton, J. 1994. Recent information on the status andutilization of African pangolins. TRAFFIC Bulletin 15: 15–22.

Challender, D.W.S. and Hywood, L. 2012. African pangolins under increased pressure from poaching andintercontinental trade. TRAFFIC Bulletin 24(2): 53-55.

Challender, D.W.S., Shepherd, C.R., Heinrich, S. and Katsis, L. 2019. International trade and trafficking inpangolins, 1900-2018. In: Challender, DWS., Nash, HC., Waterman, C. (ed.), Pangolins: Science, Societyand Conservation, Academic Press.

Challender, D.W.S., Waterman, C. and Baillie, J.E.M. 2014. Scaling up pangolin conservation. IUCN SSCPangolin Specialist Group Conservation Action Plan. Zoological Society of London, London, UK.

Cheng, W., Xing, S. and Bonebrake, T.C. 2017. Recent pangolin seizures in China reveal priority areas forintervention. Conservation Letters 10(6): 757-764.

Coulson, I.M. 1985. Is the pangolin really so rare? Zimbabwe Wildlife 42: 29-30.

Coulson, I.M. 1989. The pangolin (Manis temminckii Smuts, 1832) in Zimbabwe. African Journal ofEcology 27: 149-155.

Cunningham, A.B. and Zondi, A.S. 1991. Use of animal parts for the commercial trade in traditionalmedicines. Institute of Natural Resources, University of Natal, Pietermaritzburg, South Africa.

Gaudin, T.J., Emry, R.J. and Wible, J.R. 2009. The phylogeny of living and extinct pangolins (Mammalia,Pholidota) and associated taxa: A morphology based analysis. Journal of Mammalian Evolution 16:235–305.

Grubb, P., Jones, T.S., Davies, A.G., Edberg, E., Starin, E.D. and Hill, J.E. 1998. Mammals of Ghana, SierraLeone and The Gambia. Trendrine Press, Zennor, St Ives, Cornwall, UK.

Heath, M.E. and Coulson, I.M. 1997. Home range size and distribution in a wild population of Capepangolins, Manis temminckii, in north-west Zimbabwe. African Journal of Ecology 35: 94-109.

Heinrich, S., Wittmann, T.A., Ross, J.V., Shepherd, C.R., Challender, D.W.S. and Cassey, P. 2017. The GlobalTrafficking of Pangolins: A comprehensive summary of seizures and trafficking routes from 2010–2015.TRAFFIC, Southeast Asia Regional Office, Petaling Jaya, Selangor, Malaysia.

Hoyt, R. 1987. Pangolins: Past, present and future. Proceedings of the AAZPA National Conference: 107-134.

Hua, L., Gong, S., Wang, F., Li, W., Ge, Y., Li, X. and Hou, F. 2015. Captive breeding of pangolins: Currentstatus, problems and future prospects. ZooKeys 507: 99-114.

IUCN. 2019. The IUCN Red List of Threatened Species. Version 2019-3. Available at: www.iucnredlist.org.(Accessed: 10 December 2019).

Kingdon, J.S. 1971. East African Mammals. An Atlas of Evolution in Africa. Academic Press, London, UK.


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Kyle, R. 2000. Some notes on the occurrence and conservation status of Manis temminckii, the pangolin,in Maputaland, Kwazulu/Natal. Koedoe 43: 97-98.

Manwa, L. and Ndamba, G.T. 2011. The language of dress among the subcultural group of theDzimbabwe people in Masvingo, Zimbabwe. Journal of Emerging Trends in Educational Research andPolicy Studies 2(6): 436-442.

Pietersen, D., Jansen, R., Swart, J. and Kotze, A. 2016. A conservation assessment of Smutsia temminckii.In: M.F. Child, L. Roxburgh, E. Do Linh San, D. Raimondo and H.T. Davies-Mostert (eds), The Red List ofMammals of South Africa, Swaziland and Lesotho, South African National Biodiversity Institute andEndangered Wildlife Trust, South Africa.

Pietersen, D.W. 2013. Behavioural ecology and conservation biology of ground pangolins Smutsiatemminckii in the Kalahari Desert. Department of Zoology and Entomology, University of Pretoria.

Pietersen, D.W., McKechnie, A.E. and Jansen, R. 2014a. A review of the anthropogenic threats faced byTemminck’s ground pangolin, Smutsia temminckii, in southern Africa. South African Journal of WildlifeResearch 44: 167-178.

Setlalekgomo, M.R. 2014. Ethnozoological survey of the indigenous knowledge on the use of pangolins(Manis Sps) in traditional medicine in Lentsweletau extended area in Botswana. Journal of AnimalScience Advances 4(6): 883-890.

Stuart, C.T. 1980. The distribution and status of Manis temminckii Pholidota Manidae.Säugetierkundliche Mitteilungen 28: 123-129.

Swart, J.M. 2013. Smutsia temminckii. In: J. S. Kingdon and M. Hoffmann (eds), The Mammals of Africa.Volume 5: Carnivores, Pangolins, Equids, Rhinoceroses, Bloomsbury Publishing, London.

van Ee, C.A. 1966. A note on breeding the Cape Pangolin Manis temminckii at Bloemfontein Zoo.International Zoo Yearbook 6: 163-164.

Weigl, R. 2005. Longevity of Mammals in Captivity: From the Living Collections of the World. KleineSenckenberg-Reihe, Stuttgart.

Whiting, M.J., Williams, V.L. and Hibbitts, T.J. 2011. Animals traded for traditional medicine at theFaraday market in South Africa: species diversity and conservation implications. Journal of Zoology 284:84-96.

Wright, A.C.A. 1954. The magical importance of pangolins among the Basukuma. Tanganyika Notes andRecords 36: 64.

Xu, L., Guan, J., Lau, W. and Xiao, Y. 2016. An overview of pangolin trade in China. TRAFFIC BRIEFINGPAPER.

CitationPietersen, D., Jansen, R. & Connelly, E. 2019. Smutsia temminckii. The IUCN Red List of ThreatenedSpecies 2019: e.T12765A123585768. http://dx.doi.org/10.2305/IUCN.UK.2019-3.RLTS.T12765A123585768.en

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Appendix

Habitats(http://www.iucnredlist.org/technical-documents/classification-schemes)

Habitat Season SuitabilityMajorImportance?

1. Forest -> 1.5. Forest - Subtropical/Tropical Dry Resident Suitable Yes

2. Savanna -> 2.1. Savanna - Dry Resident Suitable Yes

2. Savanna -> 2.2. Savanna - Moist Resident Suitable Yes

4. Grassland -> 4.5. Grassland - Subtropical/Tropical Dry Resident Suitable Yes

4. Grassland -> 4.6. Grassland - Subtropical/Tropical SeasonallyWet/Flooded

Resident Suitable Yes

Threats(http://www.iucnredlist.org/technical-documents/classification-schemes)

Threat Timing Scope Severity Impact Score

11. Climate change & severe weather -> 11.1. Habitatshifting & alteration

Ongoing Majority (50-90%)

Unknown Unknown

Stresses: 1. Ecosystem stresses -> 1.3. Indirect ecosystem effects

2. Agriculture & aquaculture -> 2.1. Annual &perennial non-timber crops -> 2.1.1. Shiftingagriculture

Ongoing Minority (50%) Slow, significantdeclines

Low impact: 5

2. Agriculture & aquaculture -> 2.1. Annual &perennial non-timber crops -> 2.1.2. Small-holderfarming


Low impact: 5

2. Agriculture & aquaculture -> 2.1. Annual &perennial non-timber crops -> 2.1.3. Agro-industryfarming


Low impact: 5

2. Agriculture & aquaculture -> 2.3. Livestock farming& ranching -> 2.3.1. Nomadic grazing


Low impact: 5

3. Energy production & mining -> 3.2. Mining &quarrying

Ongoing Minority (50%) Negligible declines Low impact: 4

4. Transportation & service corridors -> 4.1. Roads &railroads


Stresses: 1. Ecosystem stresses -> 1.2. Ecosystem degradation

2. Species Stresses -> 2.1. Species mortality

5. Biological resource use -> 5.1. Hunting & trappingterrestrial animals -> 5.1.1. Intentional use (species isthe target)

Ongoing Majority (50-90%)

Slow, significantdeclines

Mediumimpact: 6

Stresses: 2. Species Stresses -> 2.1. Species mortality


11

http://www.iucnredlist.org/technical-documents/classification-schemes


5. Biological resource use -> 5.1. Hunting & trappingterrestrial animals -> 5.1.2. Unintentional effects(species is not the target)


Stresses: 2. Species Stresses -> 2.1. Species mortality

Conservation Actions in Place(http://www.iucnredlist.org/technical-documents/classification-schemes)

Conservation Actions in Place

In-Place Research, Monitoring and Planning

Action Recovery plan: Yes

Systematic monitoring scheme: No

In-Place Land/Water Protection and Management

Conservation sites identified: Yes, over part of range

Occur in at least one PA: Yes

Area based regional management plan: No

In-Place Species Management

Harvest management plan: No

Successfully reintroduced or introduced beningly: Yes

Subject to ex-situ conservation: No

In-Place Education

Subject to recent education and awareness programmes: Yes

Included in international legislation: Yes

Subject to any international management/trade controls: Yes

Conservation Actions Needed(http://www.iucnredlist.org/technical-documents/classification-schemes)

Conservation Actions Needed

2. Land/water management -> 2.1. Site/area management

3. Species management -> 3.1. Species management -> 3.1.1. Harvest management

3. Species management -> 3.1. Species management -> 3.1.2. Trade management

4. Education & awareness -> 4.2. Training

4. Education & awareness -> 4.3. Awareness & communications

5. Law & policy -> 5.4. Compliance and enforcement -> 5.4.1. International level


12



Conservation Actions Needed

5. Law & policy -> 5.4. Compliance and enforcement -> 5.4.2. National level

5. Law & policy -> 5.4. Compliance and enforcement -> 5.4.3. Sub-national level

Research Needed(http://www.iucnredlist.org/technical-documents/classification-schemes)

Research Needed

1. Research -> 1.2. Population size, distribution & trends

1. Research -> 1.5. Threats

3. Monitoring -> 3.1. Population trends

3. Monitoring -> 3.2. Harvest level trends

3. Monitoring -> 3.3. Trade trends

Additional Data Fields

Distribution

Continuing decline in area of occupancy (AOO): Yes

Extreme fluctuations in area of occupancy (AOO): No

Upper elevation limit (m): 1700

Population

Continuing decline of mature individuals: Yes

Extreme fluctuations: No

Population severely fragmented: No

Extreme fluctuations in subpopulations: No

Habitats and Ecology

Generation Length (years): 15


13


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Assessment by: Pietersen, D., Jansen, R. & Connelly, E....Animalia Chordata Mammalia Pholidota Manidae Taxon Name: Smutsia temminckii (Smuts, 1832) Synonym(s): • Manis temminckii