Assessing and Addressing Student Science Ideas - NSTA Learning

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Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication DataPerspectives : research and tips to support science education, K-6 / edited by Deborah Hanuscin and Meredith Park Rogers. pages cm Includes bibliographical references and index. ISBN 978-1-936959-42-6 1. Science—Study and teaching (Elementary) 2. Science teachers—In-service training. I. Hanuscin, Deborah L., editor of compilation. II. Rogers, Meredith Park, 1974- editor of compilation. LB1585.P46 2012 507.1—dc23 2012047043eISBN 978-1-938946-94-3


Contents

General Teaching Goals

1 Helping Students Understand

the Nature of ScienceDeborah L. Hanuscin and Eun J. Lee

Page 3

2Learning to Observe and Infer

Deborah L. Hanuscin and Meredith Park Rogers

Page 7

3

Explaining ScienceMark J. Gagnon and Sandra K. Abell

Page 11

4 Defending Inquiry

Chris Ohana

Page 15

Strategies to Facilitate Learning in Science

5 Examining the Learning CyclePatrick L. Brown and Sandra K. Abell

Page 21

6 Using Analogies in Elementary Science

S. Rená Smith and Sandra K. Abell

Page 25

7 Making Time for Science TalkMark J. Gagnon and Sandra K. Abell

Page 29

8 Project-Based Science

Patrick L. Brown and Sandra K. Abell

Page 33

Dedication

Page ix

Foreword

Page xi


Teaching Science and Other Disciplines Together

9Connecting With Other

DisciplinesMeredith Park Rogers and Sandra K. Abell

Page 39

10Science and Mathematics: A

Natural ConnectionMeredith Park Rogers,

Mark J. Volkmann, and Sandra K. Abell

Page 43

11Reading and Science

Sandra K. Abell

Page 47

12 The Synergy of Science and

Reading Tracy L. Coskie

Page 51

13 Children’s Literature and the

Science ClassroomSandra K. Abell

Page 55

14 On Writing in Science

Sandra K. Abell

Page 59

Student Thinking and Misconceptions

15 Assessing and Addressing

Student Science IdeasS. Rená Smith and Sandra K. Abell

Page 65

16 Assessing for Science Learning

Michele H. Lee and Sandra K. Abell

Page 69

17 Thinking About

Thinking in Science Class Sandra K. Abell

Page 73

18 The Myth of Catering to

Learning StylesJoanne K. Olson

Page 77

Contents


19 A (Mis)Understanding of Astronomical Proportions?

Michele H. Lee and Deborah L. Hanuscin

Page 81

Society and Science Learning

20 Cultural Diversity in the Science Classroom


Page 87

21 ELLs and the Language of

School ScienceMark J. Gagnon and Sandra K. Abell

Page 91

22 Finding a Place for

Girls in Science Binaben H. Vanmali and

Sandra K. Abell

Page 95

23 Societal Issues in Science


Page 99

Developing as a Teacher

24 Making the Most of

Professional DevelopmentSandra K. Abell and Michele H. Lee

Page 105

25 The Art (and Science) of

Asking QuestionsMeredith Park Rogers

and Sandra K. Abell

Page 109

26 Action Research: Inquiring Into Science Teaching and Learning

Sandra K. Abell

Page 113

27Mentoring New Teachers

Deborah L. Hanuscin and Michele H. Lee

Page 117

Index

Page 121

Contents



ix

Sandra “Sandi” K. Abell, edi-tor of the column “Perspec-tives” in the National Science Teachers Association (NSTA)

journal Science and Children from 2006 to 2009, was a Curator’s Professor of Science Education at University of Missouri where she directed the MU Science Education Center. She was also a fellow of The American Asso-ciation for the Advancement of Sci-ence (AAAS), an NSTA Distinguished Fellow, a recipient of the Outstanding Mentor Award from the Association for Science Teacher Education, and co-editor of the most recent edition of the Handbook of Research on Science Teaching. Even more, she was a trusted

colleague, loyal friend, and advocate. We lost Sandi to cancer in 2010,

but we still feel her influence today through the “Perspectives” column. We created Perspectives: Research and Tips to Support Science Education, K–6 not only to recognize Sandi’s many contributions to the field of science education as a whole but also to honor her first teaching love: elementary science. She was a men-tor, a true colleague, and a friend. Sandi’s work has helped change the landscape of how science is taught in the elementary classroom, and with this collection, we hope to continue her legacy of improving elementary science education.

Dedication



xi

At times, teaching can feel isolating—just one teach-er alone with a classroom of students. However,

many teachers can also pinpoint a time in their careers when their view of teaching was influenced by observ-ing, talking, or reading about others’ teaching. Successful educators draw on their own experiences, their col-leagues’ expertise, and research find-ings to inform their practices. NSTA journals, Science and Children (S&C) in particular, provide teachers oppor-tunities for self-directed professional development as they read and con-sider articles in each month’s issue.

The S&C column “Perspectives: Research and Tips to Support Science Education” grew from the under-standing that the literature published in research journals is not always in an easy-to-read and accessible format for teachers, but that research often has significant implications for teach-

ers’ day-to-day work with students. Under the editorship of Chris Ohana, researcher and former elementary teacher Sandra “Sandi” K. Abell took the helm in identifying key classroom issues that elementary teachers face in teaching science and those that research might help shed light on.

Sandi viewed herself first and foremost as an elementary teacher. She taught in the classroom for many years and understood the particular challenges a generalist teacher faces, such as trying to find time to teach science when other subjects receive greater focus, or teaching science as inquiry when that approach contra-dicts the teacher’s own experience of learning science. However, as a researcher, Sandi also understood the need for inquiry in science education and the ways in which this method promotes the kind of critical-thinking and problem-solving skills students need to learn while also providing

Foreword


xii

them with a rigorous understand-ing of the science content. She had an appreciation for the difficulty in implementing high-quality science instruction and for the importance of classroom talk; formative assessment; and attention to the diverse needs, interests, and abilities of students.

With this dual perspective of teacher and researcher, Sandi approached the “Perspectives” col-umn with the mindset of empowering teachers with approaches and meth-ods that would not only support the teaching of science as inquiry but also the development of scientific literacy for all learners. The “Perspectives” column became a forum for bridging the research-practice gap by targeting primary concerns of classroom teach-ers with critical and seminal research.

Perspectives: Research and Tips to Sup-port Science Education, K–6 contains 27 chapters, and each chapter presents an article from the “Perspectives” column. Under Sandi’s guidance, authors of the “Perspectives” columns were prompted to always approach their chosen topic from the perspective of the classroom teacher. Considering this viewpoint, each chapter in this book begins with a classroom vignette—something that a classroom teacher can perhaps relate to—that helps to set the stage for the remainder of the chapter. Next

is a synthesis of key research findings, organized around a series of questions. Each chapter concludes with specific recommendations for teachers that bring new perspectives to elementary teachers who are looking for ways to better support their students’ learning in science.

In addition, this compendium is organized into several broad categories, including issues related to student think-ing, integration of science with other disciplines, and facilitating instruction. Although the sections are organized around themes, they do not need to be read in a particular sequence. This book serves many functions. It can be used with beginning teachers in the context of a preservice elementary science meth-ods course, with practicing teachers in a professional development context, such as a book study, or even by an individual teacher looking for support as he or she tries to implement innovative practices. Prospective teachers will find that the chapters are accessible means for developing awareness of the research base and understanding the underlying rationales for specific strategies and practices. Practicing teachers will find that the chapters are useful tools for enhancing their own perspectives on teaching and learning, and a way to further improve their practices. For both groups, however, the power of these

Foreword


xiii

articles lies in challenging the notion that there is a gap between research and teaching that cannot be bridged. As Sandi so clearly understood, the two must go hand-in-hand.

Suggested UsesBelow, we share two examples of how we have used chapters from Perspec-tives: Research and Tips to Support Science Education, K–6 in our own work with preservice and practicing teachers. The possibilities for how to use this compendium to support elementary teachers’ thinking, reflection, and views toward teaching inquiry-based science are not limited to these. We encourage you, whether alone or work-ing with colleagues, to explore how the research synthesized in these chapters has relevance and potential application to your teaching. Our hope is that by bringing all of these columns together, Sandi’s passion for science and the teaching of science will provide read-ers with the inspiration and support to improve their science teaching for the benefit of their students.

Example Use: Professional DevelopmentIn workshops with teachers, we use Chapter 5 “Examining the Learning Cycle.” Many of the teachers we work with already use hands-on activities,

as suggested in the classroom vignette at the beginning of the chapter, but they still aren’t satisfied with their students’ learning. Reading and discussing this chapter opens up opportunities for teachers to consider why some approaches to using hands-on activities may not be effective and introduces them to the research base in support of the learning cycle approach. Thus, teachers are provided a rationale for exploring the impact of this approach with their own students. As suggested by Brown and Abell, teachers peruse examples of learning cycle lessons related to their units of science instruction (see Chapter 5 References on page 23). After trying these with their students, teachers report their experiences within their professional learning communities (PLCs) and compare this approach to how they might have traditionally approached the lesson in past years. By working together, teachers support one another in taking risks to try new things and in critically evaluating the impact of changes in their instruction. The chapter is a springboard for this type of professional development, but we have also found that the chapter itself becomes a tool for teachers to communicate with others (e.g., prin-cipals, colleagues, and parents) about what they are trying and why.

Foreword


xiv

Example Use: Preservice Teacher EducationFor many beginning teachers, the skill of asking productive science questions that generate classroom talk, promote student-centered learning, and inform teachers of students’ scientific thinking, can be a difficult skill to learn. Many do not realize that there is an art to asking good questions until they read Chapter 25 “The Art (and Science) of Asking Questions.” The vignette that begins this chapter demonstrates the difficulties that classroom teachers can sometimes face when they want to ask questions that will spark rich conversa-tions about science concepts, but instead the questions result in limited or no dis-cussion at all. This chapter provides the foundation for why developing good questioning skills is important to science teaching and learning, and sets the stage for what it can look like in a classroom. The research highlights the types of questions that work and don’t work to promote students’ scientific thinking. Building from the suggestions at the end of the chapter on how to become a better questioner, we use the methods class then to work through a series of activities in which the preservice teach-ers practice forming questions that serve various purposes and explore different scientific phenomena. They also learn to critique their own questioning skills

and those of their peers through a mock interview workshop. As they move to teaching science in their early field experience, the preservice teachers are once again reminded at the end of the chapter of the tips for becoming a bet-ter questioner. They are challenged to select two or three skills that they want to work on over the five weeks during which they are teaching science to children in schools. After teaching, they reflect on how they perceive the use of those skills has helped them to build their knowledge and practice of becom-ing a better questioner and, thus, a better science teacher.

ConclusionWhat we have shared are just two ways, albeit within different contexts, of how the chapters from this com-pendium can be used with teachers to support and further develop their understanding of how to teach science. Even though the chapters are grouped into topical themes, each has the potential to stand on its own and can provide teachers with a new perspec-tive for thinking about their science teaching. We encourage all educators to think about how these articles can not only be used as an introduction to a topic but also as an anchor for dis-cussions on effective, research-based elementary science practices.

Foreword

General Teaching

Goals


65

15Assessing and Addressing

Student Science IdeasBy S. Rená Smith and Sandra K. Abell

“A colleague and I were talking about our recent science units. He mentioned that several of his students still had some ‘wacky’ ideas about certain concepts. I noticed from my pre- and posttests that a few of my students still had misconcep-tions too. What can we do to assess and address students’ science ideas?”

Where do students’ “wacky” science ideas come from?Our students are not blank slates. They come to school with a wide range of experiences that have shaped their sci-ence understandings—reading books, watching TV, playing video games. Sometimes these sources get the sci-ence wrong (for example, the popular Pokemon game uses the term evolution instead of metamorphosis when referring to creatures going through life stages). In a study of 79 children’s books, Trundle and Troland (2005) found that many books reinforced misconceptions about Moon phases and contained

incorrect pictorial representations. Everyday language also contributes to scientific misunderstandings. Phrases such as “shut the door or you’ll let the heat out” can cause students to think that heat is a substance, not a form of energy. Interactions with phenomena can lead to inaccurate scientific under-standings. For example, although any two objects will fall at the same speed in a vacuum, in everyday life a feather falls more slowly than a coin because of air resistance. Finally, students can construct inaccurate meanings from science instruction itself. Students can ignore teacher talk, use “noises that sound scientific” to represent incomplete understanding, or be confused by mismatches between their language and the teacher’s (Osborne and Freyberg 1985). From many years of research about student science ideas, we know that student science miscon-ceptions are prevalent, strongly held, and highly resistant to change.


66

How do I find out what misconceptions my students hold? Researchers have used a number of strategies to assess student science ideas. The most common strategy is the individual interview (Osborne and Freyburg 1985). Interviewers ask students to explain phenomena and probe for more information. Or they provide words and pictures for students to sort based on their understanding of concepts like ani-mal, living, matter, and electricity. However, the individual interview strategy may not be practical for the classroom. Other useful tools for assessing student science ideas include the two-tiered test (in which a multiple-choice item is followed by the opportunity to explain one’s reasoning), open-ended questions that lead to children writing and drawing about their ideas, and concept maps. Page Keeley and her colleagues (2005, 2007) designed a set of formative assessment probes to uncover student ideas. However, the simplest way to assess student ideas might be to listen to the stu-dents during class discussions and pay attention to what they write and draw in their science notebooks.

What misconceptions can I expect? Teachers do not have to interview or test every student to find out their ideas—many science misconcep-tions are quite common and can be predicted. The internet is a valuable resource for delineating possible student misconceptions before the start of a unit. For example, some university science teacher educators have websites that list student sci-ence ideas (Hanuscin 2001). Some researchers have compiled the findings from numerous studies of children’s ideas in various science topic areas (see Driver et al. 1994). Other books describe in-depth stud-ies of student learning in one area, like Shapiro’s (1994) study of fifth graders learning about light. Some science curriculum materials also list common student misconceptions. For example, in a unit about force and motion, it is common for many stu-dents to think that a force is needed to keep an object that is moving in motion; students also have trouble understanding how a wall or a table can exert a force on their hands. When teachers are aware of these areas of potential difficulties, they can begin to plan instruction that will address student misconceptions.

Assessing and Addressing Student Science Ideas15


67

What strategies can I use to address students’ misconceptions?There is widespread agreement among science education researchers that the first step in students changing their conceptual understanding is becoming dissatisfied with their current ideas. Activities that challenge students’ ideas, such as discrepant events, create disequilibrium that students want to resolve. Furthermore, students need to be presented with new concepts that are reasonable and meaningful to them (Shapiro 1994). Many researchers have found that a learning cycle approach (Brown and Abell 2007), with opportu-nities for exploration and science talk, can lead to conceptual change. For example, Gang (1995) found that using a learning cycle with middle school students to help them understand Archimedes’ principle was more effec-tive than traditional presentation and demonstration. Hardy and colleagues (2006) investigated third-grade student learning about floating and sinking. They found that students who received high instructional support in the form of discussion, reflection, and connecting concepts developed more coherent understandings of floating and sinking than students with less instructional support. Maria (1997) followed one boy from kindergarten

through third grade, tracking his understanding of the causes of day and night and the seasons. Develop-mentally appropriate instructional scaffolds (e.g., exploring models, engaging in hands-on activities, and discussing what he read) helped him restructure his ideas. Good science instruction can lead to conceptual change—that’s what Trundle and her colleagues found (2007) when study-ing fourth graders learning about phases of the Moon. What we learn from all of these researchers is that when students actively participate in science by doing and thinking and communicating, conceptual change is possible.

ReferencesBrown, P. L., and S. K. Abell. 2007.

Examining the learning cycle.

Science and Children 44 (5): 58–59.

Driver, R., A. Squires, P. Rushworth, and

V. Wood-Robinson. 1994. Making

sense of secondary science. London:

Routledge.

Gang, S. 1995. Removing Preconceptions

with a “Learning Cycle.” The Physics

Teacher 33: 346–354.

Hanuscin, D. 2001. Misconceptions in

science E328: Elementary methods.

Available online at www.indiana.

edu/~w505a/studwork/deborah/

index.html.

15Assessing and Addressing Student Science Ideas


68

Hardy, I., E. Stern, A. Jonen, and K.

Moller. 2006. Effects of instructional

support within constructivist learning

environments for elementary school

students’ understanding of “floating

and sinking.” Journal of Educational

Psychology 98 (2): 307–326.

Keeley, P., F. Eberle, and L. Farrin.

2005. Uncovering student ideas

in science, volume 1: 25 formative

assessment probes. Arlington, VA:

NSTA Press.

Keeley, P., F. Eberle, and J. Tugel.

2007. Uncovering student ideas in

science, volume 2: 25 more formative

assessment probes. Arlington, VA:

NSTA Press.

Maria, K. 1997. A case study of

conceptual change in a young child.

The Elementary School Journal 98

(1): 67–88.

Osborne, R., and P. Freyberg. 1985.

Learning in science: The implications

of children’s science. Portsmouth,

NH: Heinemann.

Shapiro, B. 1994. What children bring to

light: A constructivist perspective on

children’s learning in science. New

York: Teachers College Press.

Trundle, K. C., R. K. Atwood, and J. E.

Christopher. 2007. Fourth-grade

elementary students’ conceptions

of standards-based lunar concepts.

International Journal of Science

Education 29 (5): 595–616.

Trundle, K. C., and T. H. Troland. 2005.

The Moon in children’s literature.

Science and Children 43 (2): 40–43.

Assessing and Addressing Student Science Ideas15


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AAbd-El-Khalick, F., 3, 4Abell, Sandra K., xi–xiii, 11–13, 21–35,

39–49, 55–57, 65–75, 87–101, 105–115

Abraham, M. R., 22, 23Action research, 113–115

definition of, 113–114 getting started with, 115 potential benefits and pitfalls of, 114–115 reasons for interest in, 113

Akcay, H., 100Akerson, V. L., 3, 4, 8, 40, 82Allen, N. J., 87Analogies, 25–28

Focus, Action, and Reflection model, 27 how to use, 26–27 initiating use of, 27–28 rationale for use of, 25–26 spontaneous vs. formal, 26 structural vs. functional, 26 student generation of, 26 Teaching-With-Analogies model, 26, 27 types of, 26 use in science textbooks, 26

Anderson, C. W., 88Anderson, G., 13Andre, T., 95Applebee, Arthur, 59Appleton, K., 117Assessment

formative, xii, 5, 35, 69–71, 114 of project-based science, 35 of student misconceptions, 66 summative, 35, 69

Astronomy misconceptions, 56, 65, 67, 81–84 reasons for, 81–82 teacher preparation for addressing of, 83–84

types of, 81 uncovering of, 82–83

Atwood, R. K., 67

BBaker, L., 52–53Ballenger, C., 29, 92Banilower, E., 96Barber, J., 52Barbosa, P., 47Barker, D., 106Beeth, M. E., 23Bell, B., 70Benchmarks for Science Literacy, 81Benton, G. M., 100Bergan, J. R., 70Berger, C. F., 35Big ideas, 39Bilingual students. See English language

learnersBirnie, H. H., 23Blank, L. M., 74, 75Boscolo, P., 59Brader-Araje, L., 96Bravo, M. A., 52Briscoe, C., 106Brotman, J. S., 96Brown, Patrick L., xiii, 21–23, 33–35,

87–89, 99–101Bruner, Jerome, 21BSCS 5E Instructional Model, 22Budd Rowe, M., 71

CCarboni, L. W., 96Carey, S., 12Carlsen, W. S., 30Carter, G., 96Cavallo, A. M. L., 23Cavicchio, M., 13Cervetti, G. N., 52Chambers, S., 95Cheak, M. J., 99, 100

Index


122

Chezem, J., 13Children’s Book Council, 57Children’s literature in the science

classroom, 55–57 effective use of, 57 misinformation in, 56, 65 problems with use of, 55–56 rationale for use of, 55 selecting books for, 56, 57 what science children learn from, 56–57

Chiu, M. H., 25Christenson, M. A., 100Christopher, J. E., 67Citizenship education, 100Classroom discussions. See Science talkCognitive science, 22, 29, 39, 70, 73Collaborative learning, 15, 75, 97

for professional development, 106–107 for project-based science, 33–35

Communication skills, 15, 39, 67, 93, 97, 111

Concept cartoons, 75Concept mapping, 48, 61, 66, 70, 74Conceptual change, 22, 67, 73–74Conley, A. M., 4Coskie, Tracy L., 51–53Crawley, F. E., 87Creativity, 3, 4, 89Crippen, K. J., 75Critical-thinking skills, xi, 5, 57, 99–100Cuevas, P., 16, 35Cultural diversity, 87–89

cultural perspectives affecting science learning, 3, 87–88 inquiry-based instruction and, 88 teacher support for, 88–89

Czerniak, C. M., 35

DD’Amato, M., 13de Mestral, George, 27Deaktor, R., 16, 35DeFranco, T. C., 45

Dingman, S., 106Discovery learning, 21Doherty, M., 12Donohue, M. H., 101Dove, J., 83Driver, R., 4, 21Duke, N. K., 48

EEberle, F., 66Elstgeest, J., 110Enders, C., 16, 35English language learners (ELLs), 91–93

challenges in learning science, 91 development of scientific understanding through science talk, 92 inquiry-based instruction for, 16, 88, 92 sheltered instruction for, 92–93 strategies to help with development of the language of school science, 92–93

Evidence, 7, 11, 39 explanations and, 4, 11, 12–13

FFarmer, J., 100Farrin L., 66Fawson, P. C., 49Feiman-Nemser, S., 119Fellows, N. J., 595E Instructional Model, 22Flick, L. B., 82Focus, Action, and Reflection (FAR)

model, 27Folsom, J., 13Formative assessment, xii, 5, 35, 69–71,

114 definition of, 69 effective strategies for, 70–71 how students benefit from, 70 implementation of, 71 purpose of, 69 questioning skills for, 70–71, 109

Index


123

vs. summative assessment, 69Formative assessment probes, 5, 66Fradd, S. H., 88Frazer, Pete, 119

GGack, J., 101Gagnon, Mark J., 11–13, 29–31, 91–93Gallagher, S. A., 34Gallard, A. J., 111Gallas, Karen, 13, 30, 110, 115Gamas, W. S., 48Gang, S., 67Gee, J. P., 30Gender equity, 95–97Gerber, B. L., 23Geroghiades, P., 74Gibbons, P., 93Girls in science, 95–97

classroom experiences and, 96 how girls view themselves, 95 teacher promotion of gender equity, 96–97

Glass, G. V., 48Glynn, S. M., 25, 26Goldston, M. J., 45Greene, L. C., 44Greenfield, T. A., 96Guthrie, J. T., 47, 51Guzzetti, B. J., 48

HHall, L. A., 48Hammer, D., 26Hampton, E., 92Hands-on activities, xiii. See also Inquiry-

based science gender and participation in, 96 learning cycle and, 21, 22 reading and, 47, 48, 52, 53

Hanuscin, Deborah L., 3–5, 7–10, 81–84, 117–120

Hardy, I., 67Harrison, A. G., 26Harrison, D., 4

Hart, J., 16, 35Hartley, K., 75Hedges, L. V., 15–16Hendrickson, A., 95Hennessey, M. G., 73–74Herrenkohl, L. R., 12Hewson, P., 23, 107Heywood, D., 82Holland, D. J., 88How People Learn, 52Howe, A., 95, 96Hsieh, C-E., 12Hudicourt-Barnes, J., 29, 92Humenick, N. M., 47Hunt, C., 13

IInference, 3, 4, 7–10, 39, 52

developing skills of, 9–10 difficulties in student understanding of, 8–9 importance in classroom, 7–8 scientists’ use of, 7

Ingersoll, R. M., 117Inquiry-based science, xi, xiii, 4, 15–17,

41, 51 for all students, 16, 88 concrete representations preceding abstractions in, 78 definition of, 15 effect on achievement in other areas, 16–17 effect on learning, 15–16 for English language learners, 16, 88, 92 problems in teaching, 16 teacher support, skills, and abilities for teaching, 16

Interdisciplinary instruction, 39–41 cautions about, 40–41 definition of, 39 how children learn all subjects better through, 39 how children learn in settings for, 39–40 mathematics–science integration, 39–41, 43–45

Index


124

reading in science, 39–41, 47–49, 51–53 social studies and science, 40 using children’s literature in the science classroom, 55–57 using science as basis for, 41 writing in science, 39–41, 59–61

Interviewing students, 66, 114Iwasyk, M., 110, 114

JJakobson, B., 27Jarvela, S., 34, 35Jonen, A., 67Jones, B., 81Jones, M. G., 95, 96Jovanovic, J., 95, 96

KKarplus, R., 21, 22Kawagley, A. O., 87Kawasaki, K., 12Keeley, Page, 66Kekulé, August, 25Kenney, J. L., 101Keogh, B., 75Khishfe, R., 4Kindt, I., 117King, C. M., 56Klein, C., 81Knapp, D., 100Koch, S. C., 34Kragler, S., 49Krajcik, J. S., 33, 34, 35Kumpf, D., 34Kurose, A., 110

LLambert, J., 100Lamme, L. L., 56Langer, Judith, 59Lannin, J., 106Leach, J., 4Learning

by concrete representations

preceding abstractions, 78–80 cultural diversity and, 87–89 effect of inquiry on, 15–16 by filtering new information through prior knowledge, 79, 80 how teachers account for students’ successess and difficulties in, 78–80 interdisciplinary instruction and, 39–40 related to level of effort, 77–78 related to teaching tailored to learning styles, 77–78 self-regulation of, 73, 75

Learning cycle, 21–23, 41 BSCS 5E Instructional Model, 22 changing to instruction based on, 23 conceptual change through, 67 concrete representations preceding abstractions in, 78 definition and phases of, 21–22 effect on students, 23 hands-on activities and, 21, 22 metacognitive, 75 rationale for, 22 reading opportunities throughout, 48, 57 sequence of, 22 variations of, 22

Learning styles, 77–79Lederman, N. G., 82Lee, Eun J., 3–5Lee, Michele H., 69–71, 81–84, 105–107,

117–120Lee, O., 16, 35, 88, 92, 100Lehrer, R., 45Lemke, J., 30LeRoy, K., 92Lesson study approach, 107Lester, B. T., 100Lewis, C. C., 106Lin, J. W., 25Linfield, R. S., 60Literacy instruction

reading in science, 39–41, 47–49, 51–53

Index


125

writing in science, 39–41, 59–61Lonning, R. A., 45Loucks-Horsley, S., 107Love, N., 107Luft, J. A., 106Lynch, P., 81

MMa, L., 100Maerten-Rivera, J., 92Magnusson, S. J., 21Marek, E. A., 23Maria, K., 67Marriott, S., 55Martin, L. A., 49Mason, L., 59Mathematics–science integration, 39–41,

43–45 continuum of, 45 expected outcomes of, 44–45 how student learning is supported by, 43–44 how to begin, 45 ationale for, 43

May, D. B., 26Mayer, D. A., 56Mentoring, 117–120

effective relationships for, 118–119 how experienced teachers benefit from, 118 how new teachers benefit from, 117–118 how to be an effective mentor, 119–120 NSTA position statement on induction programs for beginning teachers, 119–120 research support for, 117 roles of mentors, 118

Metacognition, 9, 52–53, 70, 73–75 benefits of, 74–75 definition of, 73 importance of, 73 strategies for promotion of, 75 to support conceptual change, 73–74

Metz, K. E., 9Mid-California Science Improvement

Program (MCSIP), 44–45Militana, H. P., 101Millar, R., 4Misconceptions, 3, 65–67, 81–84

about astronomy, 56, 65, 67, 81–84 in children’s literature, 56, 65 expectations for, 66 sources of, 65 strategies for addressing of, 67, 83–84 uncovering of, 66, 82–83, 114

Moller, K., 67Moore, F. M., 96Moyer, P. S., 44Mundry, S., 107Musikul, K., 106

NNational Assessment of Educational

Progress (NAEP), 45National Research Council, 75National Science Education Standards

(NSES), 3, 11, 15, 39, 41, 109, 111National Science Foundation, 52National Science Teachers Association

(NSTA), ix, xi, 23, 57 Learning Center, 83 position statement on induction programs for beginning teachers, 119–120 position statement on professional development, 105

Nature of science, 3–5 definition of, 3 diagnosing students’ incoming ideas about, 5 helping students learn about, 5 students’ ideas about, 3–4 teaching, 4–5

Naylor, S., 75Newton, L. D., 26, 110Nixon, D., 40No Child Left Behind Act, 113

Index


126

Norris, S. P., 47Norris-Tull, D., 87Norris-Tull, R. A., 87Nuthall, G., 22, 40

OObservation, 3, 4, 7–10, 39

developing skills of, 9–10 difficulties in student understanding of, 8–9 importance in classroom, 7–8 scientists’ use of, 7

Odell, S. J., 118Ogonowski, M., 29, 92Ohana, Chris, xi, 15–17Olson, D. R., 12Olson, Joanne K., 77–79Osborne, R., 70Owens, C. V., 60

PPalinscar, A. S., 21, 88Park Rogers, Meredith, 7–10, 39–41,

43–45, 106, 109–111Parker, J., 82Pattern recognition, 9, 11Patterson, E. W., 60Pearson, P. D., 52Pedretti, E., 99Penfield, R. D., 92Perencevich, K. C., 47Perner, J., 12Peters, J., 106Phillips, L. M., 47Piaget, J., 78Pintrich, R. R., 4Pizzini, E. L., 106Prain, V., 44Preservice teacher education, xii, xivPringle, R. M., 56Problem-Solving Demonstration

Classroom, 106Problem-solving skills, xi, 15, 39, 106Process skills, 3, 39, 41, 45, 48, 55Professional development (PD), xi, xii, xiii,

16, 43, 105–107 action research for, 113–115 characteristics of effective programs for, 105–106 lesson study approach to, 107 meaning of, 105 mentoring new teachers for, 117–120 NSTA position statement on, 105 questioning skills and, 109–111 students as beneficiaries of, 105 types of opportunities for, 106–107 where to begin with, 107

Professional learning communities (PLCs), xiii

Project-based science, 33–35 artifacts created in, 33, 35 assessment of, 35 benefits of, 34–35 challenges of, 35 driving question for, 33–35 key features of, 33

Purcell-Gates, V., 48Puttick, G. M., 107

QQuestioning skills, xiv, 109–111

driving question for project-based science, 33–35 for formative assessment, 70–71, 109 increasing proficiency in, 111 kinds of productive questions, 110–111 practicing silence and, 110, 111 to promote student thinking, 110 why teachers ask questions, 109

RRay, R., 101Reading in science, 39–41, 47–49, 51–53

authentic, 47–48, 49 children’s literature in the science classroom, 55–57 effect on student achievement, 53 hands-on activities and, 47, 48, 52, 53

Index


127

how reading supports science learning, 48, 52 how science supports reading development, 47–48, 51–52 methods to make the most of, 49 proper place for, 47 Seeds of Science/Roots of Reading curriculum, 52 selecting books for, 49, 56, 57 in stages of learning cycle, 48, 57 student motivation for, 47 synergy of, 52–53 teaching strategies for, 49

Reardon, Jean, 30Reesink, C., 81Renner, J. W., 22, 23Reutzel, D. R., 49Rice, D. C., 56, 57Rivet, A. E., 34Rodriguez, R., 92Romance, N. R., 48Rosebery, A., 29, 92, 107Roth, K., 21, 22, 40, 114, 115Roth, M., 12Rousseau, J., 78Roy, P., 26Rua, M. J., 95, 96Ruffman, T., 12

SSadker, D., 96Sadker, M., 96Sage, S. M., 35Saljo, R., 83Salomon, G., 77Samarapungavan, A., 12Saxton, K. M., 88Schauble, L., 45Schoenemann, A., 13Schoultz, J., 83Schraw, G., 75Schwarz, R. D., 70Science & Children, 45

“Outstanding Trade Books for Children” list in, 57

“Perspectives” column in, ix, xi, xiiScience circle, 29, 30, 92Science Curriculum Improvement Study

(SCIS), 21–22Science for All Americans, 5Science notebooks, 59, 66, 70, 111Science talk, xii, xiv, 13, 29–31, 107

about observation and inference, 9 about the nature of science, 4, 5 to address misconceptions, 67 assigning topics for, 31 authoritative approach to, 29–30 description of, 29–30 dialogic, 30 for English language learners, 91–92 how students benefit from, 29 kinds of questions for, 110 for sense-making, 30–31 teacher facilitation of, 30–31 Triadic Dialogue structure of, 30

Science textbooks, 4, 16, 23 providing reading opportunities beyond, 49, 55–57 use of analogies in, 26

Scientific explanations, 3, 7, 11–13, 39 alternative, 12 classrooms focused on, 12–13 definition of, 11 evidence and, 4, 11, 12 importance of, 11 student generation and evaluation of, 11–12

Scientific ideas of girls, 95–97 learning about, 69, 73, 74, 75, 79, 110 making sense of, 23, 28 misconceptions about, 65–67, 81–84 nature of science and, 3–5 personal experience and, 83 teaching to English-language learners, 91–93

Scientific thinking, xiv, 16, 52, 110Scientists meetings, 30, 70Scott, P., 4Secada, W. G., 92

Index


128

Seeds of Science/Roots of Reading curriculum, 52

Self-regulation of learning, 73, 75Shapiro, B., 66Sheltered instruction for English language

learners, 92–93Sher, B. J., 34Shymansky, J. A., 15–16Siegel, M. A., 93Simpson, D., 110Sladeczek, I. E., 70Smith, A. N., 70Smith, J. A., 49Smith, S. Rená, 25–28, 65–67Smith, T. M., 117Snyder, T. E., 48Social studies and science, 40Societal issues, 99–101

cultural diversity, 87–89 English language learners, 91–93 to foster citizenship education, 100 girls in science, 95–97 how students benefit by studying, 99–100 as organizers for science units, 99 teacher support for student exploration of, 101

Sodian, B., 12Solorazano. H., 101Sorsby, B., 29Steinbach King, S., 95, 96Stephenson, P., 60Stepien, W. J., 34Stern, E., 67Stiles, K., 107Still Failing at Fairness: How Gender Bias

Cheats Girls and Boys in School and What We Can Do About It, 96

Stovall, Ginger, 114Strategies to facilitate learning

analogies, 25–28 learning cycle, 21–23 project-based science, 33–35 science talk, 29–31

Student beliefs about science, 3–4

Student thinking, xi, xiv, 12 assessing for science learning, 69–71 learning styles and, 77–80 metacognitive, 9, 52–53, 70, 73–75 misconceptions in, 3, 65–67, 81–84

Sudol, P., 56Suh, J., 44Summative assessment, 35, 69Sutman, F. X., 88

TTaboada, A., 47Tasker, R., 70Tauer, S. M., 118Teacher research. See Action researchTeaching goals

defending inquiry, 15–17 explaining science, 11–13 helping students understand the nature of science, 3–5 learning to observe and infer, 7–10

Teaching-With-Analogies (TWA) model, 26, 27

Thier, H. D., 21, 22Thinking about thinking, 73–75. See also

MetacognitionTippins, J., 111Tobin, K. D., 111Toma, C., 30Tower, C., 48Treagust, D. F., 26Triadic Dialogue, 30Troland, T. H., 56, 57, 65Trundle, K. C., 56, 57, 65, 67Tuel, J., 66

Vvan Zee, E. H., 110Vanmali, Binaben H., 95–97Vaughan, C., 101Veermans, M., 34, 35Vekiri, I., 4Venville, G. J., 26Vitale, M. R., 48

Index


129

Volk, T. L., 99, 100Volkmann, Mark J., 23, 43–45Volrich, M., 4–5, 8

WWaldrip, B., 44Walker, C. A., 49Wang, C., 106Warren, B., 29, 92Warwick, P., 60Webster, J., 60Wertsch, J. V., 30Whigham, M., 95Whitin, Phyllis, 114Wickman, P. O., 27Wigfield, A., 47, 51Wild, J., 110Willingham, D. T., 79Woodworth, G., 15–16Workman, D., 34

Index

Writing in science, 39–41, 59–61 for all students, 61 effect on student understanding, 59 helping students to learn science through, 61 rationale for, 59 supports students need for, 60 teacher feedback on, 60–61

Wu, H-K., 12Wyndhamm, J., 83

YYager, R. E., 100Yeary, S. A., 12

ZZaitchik, D., 12Zittleman, K. R., 96Zumbach, J., 34



PB334XISBN: 978-1-936959-42-6

Grades K–6

Here’s a time-saving way to learn what research tells you about teaching elemen-tary science and applying the findings both inside and outside your classroom. It’s a collection of 27 “Perspectives” columns from Science and Children, NSTA’s award-winning elementary-level journal. The book is organized in six science-specific sections, including general teaching goals, strategies to facilitate learning, student thinking and misconceptions, and your own professional development. The columns are written to make it easy to grasp the material and then use what research tells you about issues of specific interest to K–6 science instruction. Each column

• startswithaclassroomvignettehigh-lighting a particular challenge—from using analogies to blending science and reading instruction to effective ways to ask questions;

• providesasynthesisofkeyresearchfind-ings, organized as a series of questions; and

• concludeswithspecificadviceyoucanuse right away.

This useful compendium is ideal for K–6 teachers as well as science supervisors and preservice elementary science methods professors who want more students to benefit from what research tells us.

“This book provides research-based

justification for the types of inquiry-

based science practices we want K–6

teachers to be doing. It answers the

questions ‘Why does science need

to be an elementary classroom?’

and ‘What are the most effective

approaches to teaching science in an

elementary classroom?’ ”

—Editors Deborah Hanuscin and Meredith Park Rogers


Documents

Assessing and Addressing Student Science Ideas - NSTA Learning