Upload
mia-hussain
View
214
Download
0
Embed Size (px)
Citation preview
8/2/2019 Ass 05 Tension in Circular Roods
1/11
1 | P a g e
Miaaza Hussain (10/CE/61) Department of civil engineering
NATIONAL INSTITUTE OF TECHNOLOGY, DURGAPURDEPARTMENT OF CIVIL ENGINEERING
MATERIAL TESTING LABORATORY: GROUP C
EXPERIMENT 05:TENSION IN CIRCULAR ROD
NAME: MIAAZA HUSSAIN
ROLL NO.: 10/CE/61
8/2/2019 Ass 05 Tension in Circular Roods
2/11
2 | P a g e
Miaaza Hussain (10/CE/61) Department of civil engineering
Experiment No: 05
UNIVERSAL TESTING MACHINE
OBJECTIVE: To observe the behaviour of a specimen while being tested and to determine:
1. Upper and lower yield points2. Ultimate strength3. Breaking strength4. Percentage elongation of length5. Percentage reduction of cross- section
APPARATUS REQUIRED:
Universal Testing Machine ZD-20, Capacity 20
ton Micrometer, Dividers, Steel Rule, Centre
Punch, etc.
PROCEDURE:
1.Make sure the diameter of the specimenwith the micrometer. Mark the 10 cm gauge
length with the centre punch in the central zone
of specimen.
2. Mount the approximate jaws in themachine.
3.Placed the fixed yoke in an appropriateposition by moving he frame guide spindles.
Start the pump to keep the movable yoke in a floating condition.
4. Bring the dial pointer to zero operating the zero adjuster.5. Bring the movable yoke in a suitable position and stop the pump.6. Fix the specimen between the jaws taking care that the grip is perfect and full. And now put
the scale to zero position.
7. Start the pump.8. Take the readings up to destruction.9. Stop the pump and take out the two pieces of broken specimen.
PRECAUTIONS
1. After fixing the accessories check the zero position of the indicator.2. During the test the rate of loading must be kept constant.
8/2/2019 Ass 05 Tension in Circular Roods
3/11
3 | P a g e
Miaaza Hussain (10/CE/61) Department of civil engineering
THEORY
Universal Testing Machine otherwise known as a materials testing machine/ test frame is used to
test the tensile and compressive properties of materials. The Universal Testing machine is named
so because it can perform all the tests like compression, bending ,tension etc to examine the
material in all mechanical properties Such machines generally have two columns but single column
types are also available. Load cell and extensometer measure the key parameters of force and
deformation as the sample is tested.
A typical testing system consists of a materials testing machine/test frame, control and analysis
software, and critically, the test fixtures, accessories, parts and devices used to hold and support
the test specimen.
A tension test is a destructive test in the sense that the specimen is finally broken or fractured into
two pieces. To perform the tensile test, the universal testing machine should be capable ofapplying that load which is required to break or fracture the material. The test piece or specimen
of the material is generally a straight piece, uniform in the cross-section over the test length and
often with enlarged ends which can be held in the machine holders. However, the machine can
hold the specimen without enlarged ends also. Two fine marks are often made near the end of
uniform test section of the specimen and the distance between these points is termed "gauge
length". The gauge length is that length which is under study or observation when the experiment
on the specimen is performed. The gauge length of a specimen bears a constant standardized ratio
to the cross-sectional dimension for certain reasons. The specimen is placed in the machine
between the holders and any measuring device to record the change in length is fitted on to thespecimen between the gauge points. If such a device, generally extensometer, is not fitted, the
machine itself can record the displacement between its cross heads on which the specimen is
held. Once the machine is started it begins to apply a slowly increasing load on specimen. At
preset interval, the reading of the load and elongation of specimen are recorded. Finally, the
specimen breaks in the form of cup and cone shape at the fracture point(for ductile
metals).Before breaking, the area of cross section becomes very small, so a large stress is being
produced. The maximum stress which the specimen can bear is the "ultimate stress". We can also
find the modulus of elasticity for the specimen.
Salient Features:
Loading accuracy as high + 1%. Speeds: Straining at variable speeds to suit wide range of materials. Facilities for tests: Motor-driven threaded columns for quick and convenient adjustment of lower
cross head to facilitate rapid fixing of tear specimen.
Autographic recorder: Simultaneous roll autographic recorder supplied as standard to enablestudy of the behaviors of materials.
8/2/2019 Ass 05 Tension in Circular Roods
4/11
4 | P a g e
Miaaza Hussain (10/CE/61) Department of civil engineering
Ideal Dial: High reading accuracy due to large size ideal design of dial. Large columns: Large effective clearance between columns enables testing of standard specimen
as well as structures.
Easy Changeability: Easy change from plain to threaded and screwed specimens. Simple and Safe: Simple to operate. Robust construction. Chrome plated metal components
Fig.: a labeled diagram of a universal testing machine
8/2/2019 Ass 05 Tension in Circular Roods
5/11
5 | P a g e
Miaaza Hussain (10/CE/61) Department of civil engineering
Tensile Test
In tensile testing, material to be tested is machined to standard dimensions. Generally 12.5 mm
round test specimen as shown below is used for the test.
Where,
G Gauge length = 5 cm
D Diameter = 12.35
R Radius of fillet
A = Length of reduced section
The specimen is gauge marked with a center punch, scribe marks or drawn with ink. The purpose
of these gage marks is to determine the elongation. The elongation is measured by an
arrangement consisting of dial gauge and clamps called the extensometer. The testing machine
(Universal Testing Machine) is equipped with a loading system of mechanical (screw power) or
hydraulic type.. The unit stress (intensity of stress) is the load per unit area of the cross section of
the specimen and is plotted as the ordinate in stress strain diagram. The unit strain (unit
deformation) at any stress is the extension of the gauge length undergone by the specimen per
unit length (measured elongation divided by gauge length) under that stress. Unit strain is plottedas the abscissa in stress strain diagram. The relation between unit stress and unit strain found
experimentally is represented by the stress strain diagram. These changes have a negligible
effect except during the final stages of the test. The stress strain diagrams for a ductile and a
brittle material are shown below.
Why Perform a Tensile Test or Tension Test?
You can learn a lot about a substance from tensile testing. As you continue to pull on the material
until it breaks, you will obtain a good, complete tensile profile. A curve will result showing how it
reacted to the forces being applied. The point of failure is of much interest and is typically called
itsUltimate Strengthor UTS on the chart.
http://www.instron.us/wa/resourcecenter/glossaryterm.aspx?ID=178http://www.instron.us/wa/resourcecenter/glossaryterm.aspx?ID=178http://www.instron.us/wa/resourcecenter/glossaryterm.aspx?ID=178http://www.instron.us/wa/resourcecenter/glossaryterm.aspx?ID=1788/2/2019 Ass 05 Tension in Circular Roods
6/11
6 | P a g e
Miaaza Hussain (10/CE/61) Department of civil engineering
8/2/2019 Ass 05 Tension in Circular Roods
7/11
7 | P a g e
Miaaza Hussain (10/CE/61) Department of civil engineering
Tensile Properties
The properties which may be determined by a tensile test (with reference to stress strain
diagrams for a ductile and a brittle material shown above) are as under.
Proportional Limit and Modulus of Elasticity
It is found that the initial portion of the stress strain diagram is a straight line OP for most
materials used in engineering structures/components. In this range, the stress () and strain ()
are proportional to each other. Therefore we can write, =E x . This relationship is known as
Hookes Law.
E, the slope of the straight line portion of the stress strain diagram is called the Modulus of
ElasticityorYoungs Modulus.
Proportional limit is the maximum stress under which a material will maintain a perfectly uniform
rate of strain to stress. Thus the stress at the limit of proportionality point P is known as the
proportional limit.
Elastic Limit
If the load is increased after proportionality point P, then released after each increment and the
extensometer checked, a point will be reached at which the extensometer needle will not return
to zero. This indicates that the material now has permanent deformation. The elastic limit may
therefore be defined as the minimum stress at which permanent deformation first occurs.
For most materials the elastic limit has nearly the same numerical value as the proportional limit.
Yield Point
As the load in the specimen is increased beyond the elastic limit, a stress is reached at which the
material continues to deform without an increase of load. The stress at point Y in stress strain
diagram for a ductile material is known as Yield Point. This phenomenon occurs only in certain
ductile materials.
Since yield point is relatively easy to determine and the permanent deformation is small up to
yield point, it is very important value in design of machine members.
Yield Strength
Yield strength is the stress at which a material exhibits a specified limiting deviation from the
proportionality of stress to strain. This value is usually determined by the offset method. As shown
in stress strain diagram for brittle a material, the specified offset OX is laid off along the strain
axis. Then XZ is drawn parallel to OP, and thus Y, the intersection of XZ with the stress strain
8/2/2019 Ass 05 Tension in Circular Roods
8/11
8 | P a g e
Miaaza Hussain (10/CE/61) Department of civil engineering
diagram, is located. The value of the stress at point Y gives the yield strength. The value of offset is
generally 0.20 percent of the gauge length.
Ultimate Strength
The ultimate strength or the tensile strength is therefore the maximum stress developed by thematerial based on the original cross sectional area. On loading further, a ductile material will
continue to stretch and will fracture at point B. In case of a brittle material, it breaks when
stressed to the ultimate strength at point B as shown in stress-strain diagram for a brittle material.
Ultimate tensile strength is the value most frequently used from tensile test results. It is used for
specification and quality control. However, in engineering design, safety factor shall be applied.
Ultimate strength = (kgm-1
sec-2)
Breaking Strength
The breaking strength (point B in stress strain diagram for a ductile material), which is
determined by dividing the breaking load by the original cross sectional area, is always less than
the ultimate strength. For brittle material, the ultimate strength and breaking strength coincide.
Breaking strength = (kgm-1
sec-2)
Ductility
The ductility of a material is indicated by the
amount of deformation that is possible until
fracture. This is determined in a tension test by
two measurements.
Maximum load x g
Final cross-sectional area
Breaking load x g
Final cross-sectional area
8/2/2019 Ass 05 Tension in Circular Roods
9/11
9 | P a g e
Miaaza Hussain (10/CE/61) Department of civil engineering
Figure: Stress Strain Curve for
Brittle material
Percent Elongation
This is determined by fitting together, after fracture, the parts of the specimen and measuring the
distance between the original gauge marks.
Where,
Lf= final gauge length and
Lo = original gauge length, usually 2 inch.
Reduction in Cross-Sectional Area
Reduction of area, like elongation at break, is a measure of ductility and is expressed in percent.
This is also determined from the broken halves of the tensile specimen by measuring the
minimum cross sectional area and using the following formula.
Where,
Ao = original cross sectional area and
Af= final cross sectional area
Brittle materials
Brittlematerials such asconcrete andcarbon fiberdo not have
a yield point, and do not strain-harden which means that the
ultimate strength and breaking strength are the same.
One of the characteristics of a brittle failure is that the two
broken parts can be reassembled to produce the same shape
as the original component as there will not be a neck
formation like in the case of ductile materials.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Brittlehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Brittlehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Concretehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Concretehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Carbon_fiberhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Carbon_fiberhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Carbon_fiberhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Stress_v_strain_brittle_2.pnghttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Stress_v_strain_brittle_2.pnghttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Stress_v_strain_brittle_2.pnghttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Carbon_fiberhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Concretehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Brittle8/2/2019 Ass 05 Tension in Circular Roods
10/11
10 | P a g e
Miaaza Hussain (10/CE/61) Department of civil engineering
Figure: Necking in a tensile specimen.
True Stress Strain Diagram
In case of brittle materials, the specimen uniformly
increases in strength and at the same time decreases
uniformly in cross section until ultimate strength
(point B) is reached and fracture takes place.
The true stress is determined by the load divided by
the cross sectional area at that moment of loading.
The true strain is determined by the change in length
divided by the immediately preceding length.
Necking in a tensile material
Until the neck forms, the deformation is essentially
uniform throughout the specimen, but after necking all
subsequent deformation takes place in the neck. The neck
becomes smaller and smaller, local true stress increasing
all the time, until the specimen fails. The specimen often
fails finally with a cup and cone geometry as seen in Fig.,
in which the outer regions fail in shear and the interior in
tension. When the specimen fractures, the engineering strain at break (denoted f) will include
the deformation in the necked region and the un-necked region together. Since the true strain inthe neck is larger than that in the un-necked material, the value offwill depend on the fraction of
the gage length that has necked. Therefore, fis a function of the specimen geometry as well as the
material, and thus is only a crude measure of material ductility.
Figure: Cup-and-cone fracture in a ductile metal
8/2/2019 Ass 05 Tension in Circular Roods
11/11
11 | P a g e
Miaaza Hussain (10/CE/61) Department of civil engineering
OBSERVATION CHART AND RESULTS
1. Gauge length: 5 cm2. Length between gauge marks after failure: 6.7 cm3. Mean Initial diameter of the specimen: 12.35mm4. Mean Final diameter of the specimen: 8.24 mm5. Final cross sectional area: 5.33 x 10-5 m2Loads (Tonnes) Strength (( kgm
-1sec
-2) Ductility ( %)
Upper yield load= 4.2Ultimate strength = 1.06 x 10
9% elongation = 34
Lower yield load= 4
Maximum load = 5.75Breaking strength = 8.74 x 10
8% reduction of cross-section = 33.33 %
Breaking load = 4.75